BIO-CHIPS

A seminar report submitted in partial fulfilment of

The requirements for the award of the degree
of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
COMPUTER SCIENCE ENGINEERING
By: -
NAME: - MAHADEV BHUMIJ
REG. NO. – 2001320058
B. Tech 4th year, 7th Sem

Under the supervision of

Asst. Prof. Mohammad Shahil Khan
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

November 2023

ARYAN INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

ARYA VIHAR COLONY, BHUBANESWAR, BARAKUDA, ODISHA
PIN – 752050

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 CERTIFICATE

This is certified that the seminar on BIO-CHIPS is a Bonafede word carried on by MAHADEV
BHUMIJ is partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Degree of Bachelor of
Technology in Computer Science Engineering in Computer Science Engineering from the
Aryan Institute of Engineering and Technology Arya Vihar, Bhubaneswar during the academic
year 2023-24. It is certified that the seminar report satisfies the academic requirement in respect of
seminar work described for the Bachelor of Engineering degree.

Seminar Guide Seminar Co-Ordinator Head of department

(Asst. Prof. Shahil Khan) (Asst. Prof. Prakash Kumar Dehury) (Prof. Aparna Rajesh)

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My sincere thanks to Prof. Aparna Rajesh, Head of Department Computer Science Engineering for
her whole hearted support in complementation of the seminar.
I am highly indebted to my seminar coordinator and my seminar guide Asst. Prof. Mohammad
Shahil Khan for guiding and giving timely advices and suggestion in the successful completion of
the seminar.
Last but not least, I would like to thanks The teaching and Non-teaching Staff of Computer
Science Engineering Department, I would like to thank one and all who have helped me during the
course of this seminar.

NAME: Mahadev Bhumij

REG. NO.: 2001320058

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 ABSTRACT

This report explores the dynamic landscape of biochips and their transformative impact on
healthcare. It delves into the principles behind technology, highlighting its applications in
diagnostics, personalized medicine and drug development. Therefore also examines recent
breakthroughs, challenges and the future potential of biochips in revolutionizing medical
interventions. As biochips continue to integrate seamlessly into the fabric of biotechnology, their role
in advancing precision medicine and enhancing patient outcomes becomes increasingly evident.

This comprehensive report navigates the intricate landscape of biochips, elucidating their pivotal role
in reshaping contemporary healthcare. Emphasizing the underlying technological principles, the
document elucidates how biochips contribute to rapid and precise diagnostics, enabling
breakthroughs in personalized medicine and efficient drug development. Exploring recent
advancements, it also addresses challenges associated with widespread adoption and offers insights
into potential solutions. With a forward-looking perspective, this report underscores the
transformative potential of biochips, heralding a new era in the convergence of technology and
healthcare.

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Sl. TITLE Page
No. no.
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BIOCHIP DEFINITION
3. STRUCTURE AND WORKING OF AN ALREADY IMPLANTED SYSTEM
THE TRANSPONDER
4. COMPUTER MICROCHIP ANTENNA COIL TUNING CAPACITOR
GLASS CAPSULE
5. THE READER : HOW IT WORKS
6. BIOCHIPS CURRENTLY UNDER DEVELOPMENT CHIPS THAT
FOLLOW FOOTSTEPS GLUCOSE LEVEL DETECTORS
7. NEED OF BIOCHIPS

8. APPLICATIONS OF BIOCHIPS

9. FUTURE OF BIOCHIP
10. CONCLUSION
11. REFERENCE
CONTENTS

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 INTRODUCTION

Most of us won’t like the idea of implanting a biochip in our body that identifies us uniquely and can
be used to track our location. That would be a major loss of privacy. But there is a flip side to this!
Such biochips could help agencies to locate lost children, downed soldiers and wandering
Alzheimer’s patients.

The human body is the next big target of chipmakers. It won’t be long before biochip implants will
come to the rescue of sick, or those who are handicapped in some way. Large amount of money and
research has already gone into this area of technology.

Anyway, such implants have already experimented with. A few US companies are selling both chips
and their detectors. The chips are of size of an uncooked grain of rice, small enough to be injected
under the skin using a syringe needle. They respond to a signal from the detector, held just a few feet
away, by transmitting an identification number. This number is then compared with the database
listings of register pets.

Daniel Man, a plastic surgeon in private practice in Florida, holds the patent on a more powerful
device: a chip that would enable lost humans to be tracked by satellite.

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 BIOCHIP DEFINITION

A biochip is a collection of miniaturized test sites (micro arrays) arranged on a solid substrate that
permits many tests to be performed at the same time in order to get higher throughput and speed.
Typically, a biochip’s surface area is no longer than a fingernail. Like a computer chip that can
perform millions of mathematical operations in one second, a biochip can perform thousands of
biological operations, such as decoding genes, in a few seconds.

A genetic biochip is designed to “freeze” into place the structures of many short strands of DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid), the basic chemical instruction that determines the characteristics of an
organism. Effectively, it is used as a kind of “test tube” for real chemical samples.

A specifically designed microscope can determine where the sample hybridized with DNA strands in
the biochip. Biochips helped to dramatically increase the speed of the identification of the estimated
80,000 genes in human DNA, in the worldwide research collaboration known as the Human
Genome Project. The microchip is described as a sort of “word search” function that can quickly
sequence DNA.

In addition to genetic applications, the biochip is being used in toxicological, protein, and
biochemical research. Biochips can also be used to rapidly detect chemical agents used in biological
warfare so that defensive measures can be taken.

Motorola, Hitachi, IBM, Texas Instruments have entered into the biochip business.

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 STRUCTURE AND WORKING OF AN ALREADY IMPLANTED SYSTEM

The biochip implants system consists of two components: a transponder and a reader or
scanner. The transponder is the actual biochip implant. The biochip system is radio frequency
identification (RFID) system, using low-frequency radio signals to communicate between the
biochip and reader. The reading range or activation range, between reader and biochip is small,
normally between 2 and 12 inches.

The transponder

The transponder is the actual biochip implant. It is a passive transponder, meaning it contains no
battery or energy of its own. In comparison, an active transponder would provide its own energy
source, normally a small battery. Because the passive contains no battery, or nothing to wear out, it
has a very long life up to 99 years, and no maintenance. Being passive, it is inactive until the reader
activates it by sending it a low-power electrical charge. The reader reads or scans the implanted
biochip and receives back data (in this case an identification number) from the biochips. The
communication between biochip and reader is via low-frequency radio waves.
Since the communication is via very low frequency radio waves it is not at all harmful to the human
body.

The biochip-transponder consists of four parts; computer microchip, antenna coil, capacitor and
the glass capsule.

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Computer microchips

The microchip stores a unique identification number from 10 to 15 digits long. The storage capacity
of the current microchips is limited, capable of storing only a single ID number. AVID (American
Veterinary Identification Devices), claims their chips, using a nnn-nnn-nnn format, has the capability
of over 70 trillion unique numbers. The unique ID number is “etched” or encoded via a laser onto the
surface of the microchip before assembly. Once the number is encoded it is impossible to alter. The
microchip also contains the electronic circuitry necessary to transmit the ID number to the “reader”.

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 BIOCHIP & SYRINGE

Antenna Coil

This is normally a simple, coil of copper wire around a ferrite or iron core. This tiny, primitive, radio
antenna receives and sends signals from the reader or scanner.

Tuning Capacitor

The capacitor stores the small electrical charge (less than 1/1000 of a watt) sent by the reader or
scanner, which activates the transponder. This “activation” allows the transponder to send back the
ID number encoded in the computer chip. Because “radio waves” are utilized to communicate
between the transponder and reader, the capacitor is tuned to the same frequency as the reader.

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Glass Capsule

The glass capsule “houses” the microchip, antenna coil and capacitor. It is a small capsule, the
smallest measuring 11 mm in length and 2 mm in diameter, about the size of an uncooked grain of
rice. The capsule is made of biocompatible material such as soda lime glass.

After assembly, the capsule is hermetically (air-tight) sealed, so no bodily fluids can touch the
electronics inside. Because the glass is very smooth and susceptible to movement, a material such as
a polypropylene polymer sheath is attached to one end of the capsule. This sheath provides a
compatible surface which the boldly tissue fibers bond or interconnect, resulting in a permanent
placement of the biochip.

The biochip is inserted into the subject with a hypodermic syringe. Injection is safe and simple,
comparable to common vaccines. Anesthesia is not required nor recommended. In dogs and cats, the
biochip is usually injected behind the neck between the shoulder blades.

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The reader

The reader consists of an “exciter coil” which creates an electromagnetic field that, via radio signals,
provides the necessary energy (less than 1/1000 of a watt) to “excite” or “activate” the implanted
biochip. The reader also carries a receiving coil that receives the transmitted code or ID number sent
back from the “activated” implanted biochip. This all takes place very fast, in milliseconds. The
reader also contains the software and components to decode the received code and display the result
in an LCD display. The reader can include a RS-232 port to attach a computer.
How it works

The reader generates a low-power, electromagnetic field, in this case via radio signals, which
“activates” the implanted biochip. This “activation” enables the biochip to send the ID code back to
the reader via radio signals. The reader amplifies the received code, converts it to digital format,
decodes and displays the ID number on the reader’s LCD display. The reader must normally be
between 2 and 12 inches near the biochip to communicate. The reader and biochip can communicate
through most materials, except metal.

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 BIOCHIPS CURRENTLY UNDER DEVELOPMENT

1. Chips that follow footsteps

2. Glucose level detectors

1. Chips that follow footsteps

The civil liberties debate over biochips has obscured their more ethically benign and medically
useful applications. Medical researchers have been working to integrate chips and people for many
years, often plucking devices from well-known electronic appliances. Jeffry Hausdorff of the Beth
Israel Deaconess Medical Center in Boston has used the type of pressure sensitive resistors found in
the buttons of a microwave oven as stride timers. He places one sensor in the heel of a shoe, and one
in the toe, adds a computer to the ankle to calculate the duration of each stride.

“Young, healthy subjects can regulate the duration of each step very accurately,” he says. But elderly
patients prone to frequent falls have extremely variable stride times, a flag that could indicate the
need for more strengthening exercises or a change in medication. Hausdorff is also using the system
to determine the success of a treatment for congestive heart failure. By
monitoring the number of strides that a person takes, can directly measure the patient’s activity level,
bypassing the often-flowed estimate made by the patient.

2. Glucose level detectors

Diabetics currently use a skin prick and a handheld blood test, and then medicate themselves with the
required amount of insulin. The system is simple and works well, but the need

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to draw blood means that most diabetics do not test themselves as often as they should. The new
S4MS chip will simply sit under the skin, sense the glucose level, and send the result back out by
radio frequency communication.

A light emitting diode starts off the detection process. The light that it produces hits a fluorescent
chemical: one that absorbs the incoming light and re-emits it at a longer wavelength. The longer
wavelength of light is detected, and the result is send to a control panel outside the body. Glucose is
detected because the sugar reduces the amount of light that a fluorescent chemical re-emits. The
more glucose is there the less light that is detected.

S4MS is still developing the perfect fluorescent chemical, but the key design innovation of the S4MS
chip has been fully worked out. The idea is simple: the LED is sitting in a sea of fluorescent
molecules. In most detectors the light source is far away from the fluorescent molecules, and the
inefficiencies that come with that mean more power and larger devices. The prototype S4MS chip
uses a 22 microwatt LED, almost forty times less powerful than a tiny power-on buttons on a
computer keyboard. The low power requirements mean that energy can be supplied from outside, by
a process called induction. The fluorescent detection itself does not consume any chemicals or
proteins, so the device is self-sustaining.

LED FLUORESCENT
MOLECULES

OPTICAL
FILTER

PHOTODIODE DETECTOR

THE S4MS CHIP SENSING OXYGEN OR GLOUCOSE

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 Typical Problem Of BIOCHIPS

 A chip implant would contain a person’s financial world, medical history health care — it would
contain his electronic life.
 If cash no longer existed and if the world’s economy was totally chip oriented; — there would be a
huge "black-market" for chips! Since there is no cash criminals would cut off hands and heads,
stealing "rich-folks" chips.
 It is very dangerous because once kidnappers get to know about these chips, they will skin people to
find them,"

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 ADVANTAGES OF BIOCHIPS

1. To rescue the sick

2. To find lost people.

3. To locate downed children and wandering Alzheimer’s Patients.

4. To identify person uniquely.

5. They can perform thousands of biological reactions operations in few seconds.

6. In monitoring health condition of individuals in which they are specifically employed.

7. They can perform thousands of biochemical reactions.

8. Bio-chips, with their innovative integration of biological and electronic components, offer a myriad
of advantages that have revolutionized various fields. One of the primary benefits lies in the realm of
medical diagnostics. Bio-chips enable rapid and precise analysis of biological samples, such as blood
or DNA, facilitating early detection of diseases. This not only expedites the diagnostic process but
also enhances the chances of successful treatment, ultimately saving lives. The efficiency and
accuracy of bio-chip diagnostics have transformed the landscape of healthcare, providing a powerful
tool for personalized and targeted medicine.

9. In addition to healthcare, bio-chips play a pivotal role in advancing research and development in the
fields of genomics and proteomics. These chips facilitate high-throughput analysis of genetic
material and proteins, allowing scientists to unravel intricate biological pathways and mechanisms.
This not only accelerates the pace of scientific discovery but also contributes to a deeper
understanding of diseases at the molecular level. The versatility of bio-chips extends beyond the
laboratory, finding applications in environmental monitoring and agriculture. By enabling rapid and
cost-effective analysis of environmental samples and agricultural products, bio-chips contribute to
the sustainable management of ecosystems and food production.

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10. Moreover, the miniaturization and scalability of bio-chip technology offer economic advantages. The
ability to perform multiple tests simultaneously on a single chip reduces the need for extensive
resources, including time and materials. This not only lowers the overall cost of experiments but also
enhances efficiency, making bio-chips an economically viable solution for various industries. The
compact size of bio-chips also translates into portability, facilitating on-site testing in remote or
resource-limited areas. This feature is particularly crucial for point-of-care diagnostics, bringing
advanced medical capabilities to regions with limited access to healthcare infrastructure.

11. Furthermore, bio-chips contribute to the development of personalized medicine. By analyzing an

individual's genetic makeup and molecular profile, bio-chips enable the tailoring of medical
treatments to specific patients. This personalized approach enhances treatment efficacy while
minimizing side effects, marking a paradigm shift in the conventional one-size-fits-all medical
practices. The potential for targeted therapies, guided by bio-chip analyses, holds promise for more
effective and patient-friendly healthcare solutions in the future.

12. In conclusion, the advantages of bio-chips span across diverse domains, from healthcare and research
to environmental monitoring and agriculture. Their ability to expedite diagnostics, advance scientific
understanding, and contribute to personalized medicine underscores their transformative impact on
various industries. As technology continues to evolve, bio-chips are poised to play an increasingly
pivotal role in shaping the future of medicine and scientific exploration.

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 DISADVANTAGES OF BIOCHIPS

1. They raise critical issues of personal privacy.

2. They mark the end of human freedom and dignity.

3. They may not be supported by large % of people.

4. There is a danger of turning every man, women, and Child into a controlled slave.

5. Through cybernetic biochip implants people will think and act as exactly pre-programmed.

6. They can be implanted into one’s body without their knowledge.

7. While bio-chips offer numerous advantages, it's crucial to acknowledge and address the potential
disadvantages associated with their use. One significant drawback is the complexity of bio-chip
technology, which may pose challenges in terms of manufacturing and quality control. The intricate
integration of biological and electronic components demands meticulous precision, and any
deviation can affect the reliability and accuracy of the bio-chip. This complexity can also contribute
to higher production costs, limiting accessibility, especially in resource-constrained environments.

8. Another concern is the ethical implications surrounding the use of bio-chips, particularly in the
context of genetic information. As bio-chips become more advanced in analyzing genetic data,
questions arise about privacy, consent, and the potential misuse of sensitive information. Striking a
balance between advancing medical knowledge and protecting individual privacy remains a
significant ethical challenge.

9. Furthermore, bio-chips are susceptible to contamination, which can compromise the accuracy of
results. Contamination can occur during the handling of biological samples or in the manufacturing
process. Maintaining sterile conditions and stringent quality control measures are essential to
mitigate this risk, but it adds an extra layer of complexity to the use of bio-chips.

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10. In terms of environmental impact, the production and disposal of bio-chips may contribute to
electronic waste issues. The manufacturing process often involves the use of materials with
environmental consequences, and improper disposal could lead to the release of harmful substances.
Sustainable practices in bio-chip production and responsible e-waste management are imperative to
minimize these environmental concerns.

11. Finally, there is the challenge of standardization and interoperability. With various types and designs
of bio-chips available, achieving a universal standard for compatibility and data exchange becomes a
complex task. This lack of standardization can hinder collaboration and data sharing among
researchers and institutions, limiting the full potential of bio-chip technology.

12. In conclusion, while bio-chips offer revolutionary advancements, their use comes with certain
disadvantages. These include the technical complexity of manufacturing, ethical concerns related to
privacy, susceptibility to contamination, potential environmental impact, and challenges in achieving
standardization. Recognizing and addressing these issues are essential steps in maximizing the
benefits of bio-chips while minimizing their drawbacks.

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 NEED OF BIOCHIPS

1. The pressing need for bio-chips stems from the ever-growing demand for advanced diagnostic and
analytical tools in the field of healthcare. Traditional diagnostic methods often suffer from
limitations in terms of time, accuracy, and resource consumption.

2. Bio-chips offer a transformative solution by providing a platform for rapid and precise analysis of
biological samples, leading to early detection of diseases. In an era where timely intervention is
paramount, bio-chips emerge as a crucial technology, significantly improving the efficiency of
diagnostic processes and ultimately enhancing patient outcomes.

3. Furthermore, the increasing complexity of biological research necessitates sophisticated tools to

unravel the intricacies of genomics and proteomics. Bio-chips serve as invaluable instruments in this
regard, enabling high-throughput analysis and accelerating the pace of scientific discovery.

4. The need to understand diseases at the molecular level and identify potential therapeutic targets has
never been more critical. Bio-chips provide researchers with the capability to conduct comprehensive
analyses, facilitating breakthroughs in our understanding of various diseases and opening avenues for
the development of targeted and personalized treatments.

5. The environmental and agricultural sectors also face substantial challenges that bio-chips can
address. Rapid and cost-effective analysis of environmental samples is crucial for monitoring and
managing ecosystems. Similarly, in agriculture, the need for efficient and precise analysis of soil and
crop samples is essential for sustainable food production.

6. Bio-chips offer a means to achieve these goals by providing quick and accurate results, thereby
contributing to informed decision-making and resource optimization.

7. Moreover, the economic advantages of bio-chips cannot be overstated. The miniaturization and
scalability of bio-chip technology reduce the overall cost of experiments, making them a cost-
effective solution for various industries.
8.

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9. The ability to perform multiple tests simultaneously on a single chip not only saves time but also
conserves valuable resources. In a world where economic efficiency is paramount, the adoption of
bio-chips presents a compelling case for industries seeking advanced analytical solutions that align
with financial considerations.

10. In conclusion, the need for bio-chips is evident across multiple sectors, driven by the imperative for
improved diagnostics, accelerated scientific discovery, and sustainable practices in healthcare,
research, and industry. As technology continues to advance, bio-chips stand at the forefront,
addressing critical challenges and playing a pivotal role in shaping a more efficient, informed, and
sustainable future.

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 APPLICATIONS OF BIOCHIPS

Bio-chips have found diverse and transformative applications across various fields, marking a
paradigm shift in how we approach diagnostics, research, and industrial processes. In the realm of
healthcare, one of the most significant applications lies in medical diagnostics. Bio-chips enable the
rapid and simultaneous analysis of multiple biological markers, such as DNA, RNA, and proteins.
This capability is instrumental in early disease detection, allowing for timely intervention and
personalized treatment strategies. Diagnostic bio-chips have become invaluable tools in clinical
settings, offering enhanced precision and efficiency compared to traditional diagnostic methods.

In the field of genomics, bio-chips play a crucial role in advancing our understanding of genetic
variations and their implications. DNA bio-chips, for instance, facilitate high-throughput genotyping
and sequencing, enabling researchers to analyze large sets of genetic data efficiently. This
application has profound implications for personalized medicine, as it allows for the identification of
genetic factors influencing an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases and their response to
specific treatments.

Beyond healthcare, bio-chips contribute significantly to environmental monitoring. Environmental

bio-chips can detect and quantify pollutants, pathogens, and other contaminants in air, water, and
soil. This real-time monitoring capability aids in the assessment of environmental quality and
supports efforts towards sustainable resource management and conservation.

In agriculture, bio-chips are employed for precision farming. They enable the analysis of soil
composition, nutrient levels, and the presence of pathogens, assisting farmers in making informed
decisions about crop management. This application contributes to increased crop yields, reduced
resource usage, and overall improved agricultural sustainability.

The pharmaceutical industry benefits from bio-chips in drug discovery and development. These
chips can simulate biological systems, allowing for high-throughput screening of potential drug
candidates. This accelerates the drug discovery process, reduces costs, and enhances the efficiency of
bringing new therapeutic agents to market.

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Bio-chips also play a vital role in neuroscience research. Neuronal bio-chips can be used to study the
electrical activity of neurons, offering insights into neural circuits and facilitating the development of
neuropharmacological interventions. This application has implications for understanding and
potentially treating neurological disorders.

In industrial settings, bio-chips contribute to the optimization of bioprocessing and fermentation

processes. They enable real-time monitoring of microbial cultures and the production of bio-based
products, enhancing the efficiency of industrial biotechnology applications.

In conclusion, the applications of bio-chips are vast and continually expanding. From revolutionizing
healthcare diagnostics to advancing environmental monitoring, agriculture, drug discovery,
neuroscience, and industrial processes, bio-chips have become indispensable tools in the pursuit of
scientific and technological progress. Their versatility and impact across diverse fields underscore
their significance in shaping a more efficient, sustainable, and informed future.

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 FUTURE OF BIOCHIPS

1. Medical Diagnostics and Monitoring:

 Biochips were expected to play a significant role in the field of medical diagnostics, allowing
for rapid and sensitive detection of biomarkers associated with various diseases.
 Continuous monitoring of health parameters using biochip technology could enable early
detection of diseases and personalized treatment plans.
2. Implantable Devices:
 Biochips designed for implantation in the human body could be used for real-time monitoring
of physiological conditions, drug delivery and other therapeutic applications.
 Implantable biochips might be used to enhance prosthetics or facilitate direct communication
between the nervous system and external devices.
3. Drug Development and Personalized Medicine:
 Biochips were expected to accelerate drug discovery processes by providing a platform for
high-throughput screening of potential drug candidates.
 The technology could contribute to the development of personalized medicine by allowing for
the testing of drugs on patient-specific cells or tissues.
4. Environmental Monitoring:
 Biochips had the potential to be employed in environmental monitoring, helping to detect and
analyze pollutants, pathogens and other environmental factors.
5. Integration with Other Technologies:
 Biochips could be integrated with other emerging technologies, such as artificial intelligence
(AI) and the Internet of Things (IoT) to enhance their capabilities in data analysis,
connectivity and automation.
6. Advancements in Nanotechnology:
 Nanoscale biochips, leveraging advancements in nanotechnology, were anticipated to offer
increased sensitivity and precision in detecting biological molecules.

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 CONCLUSION

 Infotech will be implanted in our bodies.

 A chip implanted somewhere in human bodies might serve as a combination of credit card, passport,
driver's license, personal diary.

 No longer would it be needed to worry about losing the credit cards while traveling.

 A chip inserted into human bodies might also give us extra mental power.

 The really fascinating idea is under fast track research "but we're close.”

 The day in which we have chips embedded in our skins is not too far from now.

 In conclusion, the report underscores the remarkable strides biochips have mage in revolutionizing
healthcare. From their fundamental role in diagnostics to their profound impact on personalized
medicine and drug development, biochips have emerged as a cornerstone of biotechnological
progress. Despite current challenges, ongoing research and technological innovations hold the
promise of overcoming obstacles and further enhancing the efficiency and accessibility of biochip
applications. As we navigate the future, it is evident that biochips will continue to catalyze
advancements, fostering a paradigm shift towards more precise, personalized and efficient healthcare
solutions. The integration of biochips into mainstream medical practices is not merely a possibility
but a transformative inevitability.

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 REFERENCES

 Albanna MZ, Bouhaddou M, Dunham A. Biochips Review. Crit Rev Biomed Eng. 2017;45(1-
6):511-543. Doi:10.1615/CritRevCiomedEng.2017020071
 Malhotra BD, Ali MA. Chapter 5: Biochips in Biomedical Applications. In: Malhotra BD. Ali
MA, eds. Nano biosensors and Nano bioanalyses, Springer; 2015

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