Signals: ˆ Parseval’s relation:

( ( R∞ R∞
1 sin(πt)
1, |t| < 2, t ̸= 0,
πt , −∞
x(t)y ∗ (t)dt = −∞ X(f )Y ∗ (f )df .
Π(t) = 1
sinc(t) = R∞ R∞
0, |t| ≥ 2. 1, t = 0. ˆ Rayleigh’s theorem: −∞ |x(t)|2 dt = −∞ |X(f )|2 df .
ˆ Hermitian symmetry: x(t) real ⇔ X(−f ) = X ∗ (f ).
 
1 + t, t ∈ (−1, 0),
 1,
 t > 0,
Λ(t) = 1 − t, t ∈ [0, 1) sign(t) = 0, t = 0, Trigonometric identities
 
0, otherwise −1, t < 0.
 
R T /2 2 cos(a) cos(b) = cos(a − b) + cos(a + b)
ˆ Energy: E = limT →∞ −T /2 |x(t)|2 dt.
R T /2 2 sin(a) sin(b) = cos(a − b) − cos(a + b)
ˆ Power: P = limT →∞ T1 −T /2 |x(t)|2 dt. For a peri-
R T /2 2 sin(a) cos(b) = sin(a − b) + sin(a + b)
odic signal with period T : P = T1 −T /2 |x(t)|2 dt. sin(a ± b) = sin(a) cos(b) ± cos(a) sin(b)
ˆ Even and odd part: x(t) = xe (t) + xo (t), where cos(a ± b) = cos(a) cos(b) ∓ sin(a) sin(b)
xe (t) = x(t)+x(−t)
2 , and xo (t) = x(t)−x(−t)
2 .
1 + cos(2a) 1 − cos(2a)
Systems cos2 (a) = , sin2 (a) =
R∞ 2 2
Convolution: x(t) ⊛ y(t) = −∞ x(τ )y(t − τ )dτ . cos(a) = sin(a + π/2), sin(a) = cos(a − π/2)
Fourier Series
P∞ ejθ = cos(θ) + j sin(θ)
ˆ x(t) = k=−∞ xk ej2πkf0 t
RT ejθ + e−jθ ejθ − e−jθ
ˆ xk = T10 0 0 x(t)e−j2πkf0 t dt, where T0 is the period. cos(θ) = , sin(θ) =
2 2j
ˆ Real-valued x(t) ⇔ x−k = x∗k (Hermitian symmetry)
ˆ LTI system; impulseR response h(t); transfer cos(θ) ≈ 1 and sin(θ) ≈ θ, for |θ| ≪ 1.
∞
function H(f ) = h(t)e−j2πf t dt: Input
P∞ −∞ Amplitude modulation (AM)
j2πkf0 t
x(t) = k=−∞ x k e ⇒ output y(t) =
ˆ DSB-SC: x(t) = Ac m(t) cos(2πfc t); power Px =
P∞ j2πkf0 t
k=−∞ k x H(kf 0 )e .
P∞ 2 A2
ˆ Parseval’s relation: T10 T0 |x(t)|2 dt = k=−∞ |xk | . Pm 2c .
R

FourierRTransform
∞ R∞ ˆ Conventional: x(t) = Ac (1+amn (t)) cos(2πfc t), with
X(f ) = −∞ x(t)e−j2πf t dt; x(t) = −∞ X(f )ej2πf t df . mn (t) = maxm(t) 2 2
|m(t)| , and Px = (1 + a Pmn )Ac /2.
Time domain x(t) Frequency domain X(f )
δ(t) 1 Angle modulation
1 δ(f ) ˆ x(t) = Ac cos(2πfc t+ϕ(t)); inst. phase θ(t) = 2πfc t+
1 1
cos(2πf0 t) 2 δ(f − f0 ) + 2 δ(f + f0 )
1 dθ(t)
ϕ(t), inst. frequency 2π dt .
1 1
sin(2πf0 t) 2j δ(f − f0 ) − 2j δ(f + f0 ) Rt
Π(t) = rect(t) sinc(f ) = sin(πf ) ˆ FM: ϕ(t) = 2πkf −∞ m(τ )dτ ; max. freq. deviation
πf ∆f,max
sinc(t) Π(f ) ∆f,max = kf max |m(t)|; mod. index βf = fm .
Λ(t) sinc2 (f ) ˆ Carson’s bandwidth: B = 2(βf + 1)fm .
sinc2 (t) Λ(f ) P∞
u(t) (unit step) 1 1 ˆ x(t) = Ac n=−∞ Jn (βf ) cos(2π(fc + nfm )t).
2 δ(f ) + j2πf
e−αt u(t), α > 0 1
α+j2πf ˆ Properties: J−n (β) = Jn (β)Pfor n even, and
∞
te−αt u(t), α > 0 1
(α+j2πf )2 J−n (β) = −Jn (β) for n odd; 2
n=−∞ Jn (β) = 1;
n
e−α|t| 2α
α2 +(2πf )2 Jn (β) ≈ 2βn n! .
2
−πf 2
e−πt e ˆ PM: ϕ(t) = kp m(t), with max. phase deviation
1
sign(t) jπf ∆p,max = kp max |m(t)|.
1
t −jπsign(f )
P ∞ 1
P∞ n Bessel function Jn (β) table:
n=−∞ δ(t − nT0 ) T0 n=−∞ δ(f − T0 )

Time domain x(t) Frequency domain X(f )

αx1 (t) + βx2 (t) αX1 (f ) + βX2 (f )
X(t) x(−f )
1
x(at) |a| X(f /a)
−j2πf t0
x(t − t0 ) e X(f )
j2πf0 t
e x(t) X(f − f0 )
x(t) ⊛ y(t) X(f )Y (f )
x(t)y(t) X(f ) ⊛ Y (f )
d
dt x(t) j2πf X(f )
dn
dtn x(t) (j2πf )n X(f )
d
tx(t) (j/2π) df X(f )
n
d
tn x(t) (j/2π)n df n X(f )
Rt X(f )
−∞
x(τ )dτ j2πf + 21 X(0)δ(f )