®

1. Continuous and discontinuous functions and limits

Look at the graph shown in Figure 18a. The curve can be traced out from left to right without
moving the pen from the paper. The function represented by this curve is said to be continuous at
every point. If we try to trace out the curve in Figure 18b, the presence of a jump in the graph (at
x = x1 ) means that the pen must be lifted from the paper and moved in order to trace the graph.
Such a function is said to be discontinuous at the point where the jump occurs. The jumps are
known as discontinuities.

x1
(a) (b)
Figure 18: (a) A continuous function (b) A discontinuous function

Tas k
Sketch a graph of a function which has two discontinuities.

Your solution

(Get your tutor to check it.)

When defining a discontinuous function algebraically it is often necessary to give di↵erent function
rules for di↵erent values of x. Consider, for example, the function defined as:
⇢
3 x<0
f (x) =
x2 x 0
Notice that there is one rule for when x is less than 0 and another rule for when x is greater than or
equal to 0.
A graph of this function is shown in Figure 19.

HELM (2015): 27
Section 2.4: Characterising Functions
 f(x)

x
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

Figure 19: An example of a discontinuous function

Suppose we ask ‘to what value does y approach as x approaches 0?’. From the graph we see that
as x gets nearer and nearer to 0, the value of y gets nearer to 0, if we approach from the right-hand
side. We write this formally as
lim f (x) = 0
x!0+

and say ‘the limit of f (x) as x tends to 0 from above is 0.’

On the other hand if x gets closer to zero, from the left-hand side, the value of y remains at 3. In
this case we write
lim f (x) = 3
x!0

and say ‘the limit of f (x) as x tends to 0 from below is 3.’

In this example the right-hand limit and the left-hand limit are not equal, and this is indicative of
the fact that the function is discontinuous.
In general a function is continuous at a point x = a if the left-hand and right-hand limits are the
same there and are finite, and if both of these are equal to the value of the function at that point.
That is

Key Point 2
A function f (x) is continuous at x = a if and only if:

lim f (x) = lim f (x) = f (a)

x!a+ x!a

If the right-hand and left-hand limits are the same, we can simply describe this common limit as
lim f (x). If the limits are not the same we say the limit of the function does not exist at x = a.
x!a

28 HELM (2015):
Workbook 2: Basic Functions
 ®

Exercises
1. Explain the distinction between a continuous and a discontinous function. Draw a graph
showing an example of each type of function.

2. Study graphs of the functions y = x2 and y = x2 . Are these continuous functions?

3. Study graphs of y = 3x 2 and y = 7x + 1. Are these continuous functions?

4. Draw a graph of the function

8
< 2x + 1 x < 3
f (x) = 5 x=3
:
6 x>3

Find

(a) lim+ f (x), (b) lim f (x), (c) lim f (x), (d) lim+ f (x), (e) lim f (x),
x!0 x!0 x!0 x!3 x!3

(f) lim f (x),

x!3

Answers 2. Yes. 3. Yes. 4. (a) 1, (b) 1, (c) 1, (d) 6, (e) 7, (f) limit does not exist.

2. Periodic functions
Any function that has a definite pattern repeated at regular intervals is said to be periodic. The
interval over which the repetition takes place is called the period of the function, and is usually given
the symbol T . The period of a periodic function is usually obvious from its graph.
Figure 20 figure shows a graph of a periodic function with period T = 3. This function has discon-
tinuities at values of x which are divisible by 3.

f(x)

−6 −3 0 3  x
T

Figure 20

HELM (2015): 29
Section 2.4: Characterising Functions
Figure 21 shows a graph of a periodic function with period T = 6. This function has no discontinu-
ities.

f(x)

−6 −3 0 3  x
T

Figure 21
If a function is a periodic function with period T then, for any value of the independent variable x,
the value of f (x + T ) is the same as the value of f (x).

Key Point 3
A function f (x) is periodic if we can find a number T such that
f (x + T ) = f (x) for all values of x

Often a periodic function will be defined by simply specifying the period of the function and by
stating the rule for the function within one period. This information alone is sufficient to draw the
graph for all values of the independent variable.
Figure 22 shows a graph of the periodic function defined by
f (x) = x, ⇡ < x < ⇡, period T = 2⇡

f(x)

Figure 22

30 HELM (2015):
Workbook 2: Basic Functions
 ®

Exercises
1. Explain what is meant by a periodic function.
2. Sketch a graph of a periodic function which has no discontinuities.
3. Sketch a graph of a periodic function which has discontinuities.
4. A periodic function has period 0.01 seconds. How many times will the pattern in the graph repeat
over an interval of 10 seconds ?

Answer 4. 1000.

3. Odd and even functions

Example 7
Figure 23 shows graphs of several functions. They share a common property.
Study the graphs and comment on any symmetry.

Figure 23

Solution
The graphs are all symmetrical about the y axis.

Any function which is symmetrical about the y axis, i.e. where the graph of the right-hand part is the
mirror image of that on the left, is said to be an even function. Even functions have the following
property:

Key Point 4
Even Function

An even function is such that f ( x) = f (x) for all values of x.

HELM (2015): 31
Section 2.4: Characterising Functions
Key Point 4 is saying that the function value at a negative value of x is the same as the function
value at the corresponding positive value of x.

Example 8
Show algebraically that f (x) = x4 + 5 is an even function.

Solution
We must show that f ( x) = f (x).

f ( x) = ( x)4 + 5 = x4 + 5
Hence f ( x) = f (x) and so the function is even. Check for yourself that f ( 3) = f (3).

Tas k
Extend the graph in the solution box in order to produce a graph of an even
function.

Your solution

Answer

32 HELM (2015):
Workbook 2: Basic Functions
 ®

Tas k
The following diagrams shows graphs of several functions. They share a common
property. Study the graphs and comment on any symmetry.

Your solution

Answer
There is rotational symmetry about the origin. That is, each curve, when rotated through 180 ,
transforms into itself.

Any function which possesses such symmetry that is the graph of the right can be obtained by
rotating the curve on the left through 180 about the origin is said to be an odd function. Odd
functions have the following property:

Key Point 5
Odd Function

An odd function is such that f ( x) = f (x) for all values of x.

Key Point 5 is saying that the function value at a negative value of x is minus the function value at
the corresponding positive value of x.

HELM (2015): 33
Section 2.4: Characterising Functions
 Example 9
Show that the function f (x) = x3 + 4x is odd.

Solution
We must show that f ( x) = f (x).

f ( x) = ( x)3 + 4( x)
= x3 4x
= (x3 + 4x)
= f (x)

and so this function is odd. Check for yourself that f ( 2) = f (2).

Tas k
Extend the graph in the solution box in order to produce a graph of an odd function.

Your solution

Answer

Note that some functions are neither odd nor even; for example f (x) = x3 + x2 is neither even
nor odd.
The reader should confirm (with simple examples) that, ‘odd’ and ‘even’ functions have the following
properties:
odd + odd = odd even + even = even odd + even = neither
odd ⇥ odd = even even ⇥ even = even odd ⇥ even = odd

34 HELM (2015):
Workbook 2: Basic Functions
 ®

Exercises
1. Classify the following functions as odd, even or neither. If necessary sketch a graph to help you
decide. (a) f (x) = 6, (b) f (x) = x2 , (c) f (x) = 2x + 1, (d) f (x) = x, (e) f (x) = 2x

2. The diagram below represents a heavy cable hanging under gravity from two points at the
same height. Such a curve (shown as a dashed line), known as a catenary, is described by a
mathematical function known as a hyperbolic cosine, f (x) = cosh x, discussed in 6.

y
y = cosh x

0 x

A catenary

(a) Comment upon any symmetry.

(b) Is this function one-to-one or many-to-one?

(c) Is this a continuous or discontinuous function?

(d) State lim cosh x.

x!0

Answers
1(a) even, (b) even, (c) neither, (d) odd, (e) odd
2(a) function is even, symmetric about the y-axis, (b) many-to-one, (c) continuous, (d) 1

HELM (2015): 35
Section 2.4: Characterising Functions