Ml Sultan Technikon, Nata!

THE DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF AN

ON..lINE SUGAR PURITY METER FOR USE IN A
lOW GRADE CONTINUOUS CENTRIFUGAL

Lynettra Govender
THE DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION
OF AN ON-LINE SUGAR PURITY METER
FOR USE IN A LOW GRADE
CONTINUOUS CENTRIFUGAL

Lynettra Govender

NHD Chemical Engineering (Wits)

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the academic

requirements for the degree of
Masters Degree in Technology
in the Department of Chemical Engineering
ML Sultan Technikon, Natal

May 2001
 ii

Abstract

There are two process operations in the sugar factory that directly affect the
recovery of sugar from evaporated syrup, namely crystallisation (boiling) and
centrifugal operation. Successful automation of the vacuum pans (boiling) has
been implemented using brix (total dissolved solids) control, but to date on-line
measurement of continuous centrifugal performance has not been
successfully accomplished in South Africa. The purpose of this investigation
was to continue the preliminary work performed by Tongaat Hulett Sugar in
developing a purity meter for the measurement of sugar purity (sucrose
content) in a continuous centrifugal. This instrument would provide the
centrifugal operator with a reliable tool to perform on-line measurement of
sugar purity and would also facilitate the automation of the centrifugal.

This investigation was approached by initially developing a laboratory purity

meter and then using this experience to develop a meter for the factory
continuous centrifugal. The laboratory purity meter was developed utilising the
measurement reflected light intensity for the prediction of sugar purity. The
technique involved the focusing of a light source onto the surface of sugar
crystals and then measuring the reflected light intensity with a light detector.
The higher the reflected light intensity measured, the higher the sugar purity.

Preliminary laboratory trials involved the selection of the light source and
sensor. The selection criteria for the light source and sensor were:
a) the achievement of a reliable and repeatable relationship between sugar
purity and measured reflected light intensity, and
b) a light source and sensor that can withstand the environmental conditions
of the sugar mill.

Four light sources were tested viz. incandescent lamp (12W and 35 W), red
LED (12 candela), and a strobe light (35W strobe at 4 Hz). As part of the
continuation of earlier trials by Tongaat Hulett Sugar, the light detector used
for the light selection trials was the photodiode. Two lamps were selected. The
 iii

12- candela red LED and the 35W incandescent lamps both provided a
repeatable, highly linear relationship between laboratory analysed sugar purity
and measured reflected light intensity.

The light detector selection trials involved the testing of the light dependent
resistor (LDR) and the photodiode sensors to check if better results could be
produced for the selected light sources. Results showed both the LDR and the
photodiode sensors were able to successfully predict sugar purity. The
relationship between sugar purity and measured reflected light intensity was
linear and repeatable. The light sensor selection trials were performed at
ambient temperatures.

Attempts were made to replicate the environmental conditions of the continuous

centrifugal. As a result high temperatures (60 to 70°C), the spinning motion of
the sugar samples, steam and vibration effects on the light reflectance
measurement were tested. The following results apply to both the red LED and
the 35W incandescent lamps.
};> For the temperature tolerance testing the two light detectors were tested
viz. the photodiode and the LDR (light dependent resistor). The LDR
was selected for its ability to provide a steady output at the specified

temperature range of 60 to 70oe. The photodiode output was unstable

in this temperature range.
};> Sugar crystal movement (spinning) had no significant effect on the
reflected light intensity measurement.
};> There was no significant effect of steam on the reflected light intensity
measurement.
};> The effect of vibration could not be tested, however this factor was
taken into consideration when building the purity meter prototype.

The success of the laboratory trials led to the construction of the factory purity
meter prototype. Both the red LED and the 35W incandescent lamps were tried
in the factory. The following results were obtained for the factory trials:

For the red LED trials, the relationship between sugar purity and reflected light
intensity measurement remained linear in the continuous centrifugal.
 iv

Calibration of the purity meter had to be performed with the purity meter
installed in the continuous centrifugal as the laboratory calibration did not apply.
It was discovered that the range in which the purity meter operated in the
centrifugal and the laboratory rig varied. This was attributed to different
environmental conditions that the laboratory meter was unable to
accommodate. Correlation coefficient values in the region of 0.97 were
achieved for the red LED factory trials.

The effect of varying massecuite quality was tested and it was found that
although the relationship between sugar purity and measured light intensity
remained linear, the gradient of the curves changed with changing massecuite

quality. It was concluded that the calibration of the purity meter had to be
conducted daily. Modifications made to improve the purity meter prototype
performance included the shortening of the light source and detector tubes to
reduce molasses fouling of the tubes. A cleaning period of once per week was
achieved. The electronics were remotely panel mounted after short- circuiting
occurred due to water ingress when the electronics were initially mounted on
top of the centrifugal monitor casing.

The following are results obtained from the incandescent lamp trials:
The experiences from the red LED trials led to a more informed approach to the
incandescent light trials. The purity meter electronics were modified to operate
in a range of 70 to 99%. This allowed operators to have a direct correlation of
sugar purity in the continuous centrifugal. The results obtained from the
incandescent lamp trials were similar to those experienced with the red LED
trials. The relationship between sugar purity and measured reflected light
intensity was linear, the purity meter had to be calibrated while installed in the
continuous centrifugal and had to be calibrated daily due to the changing
quality of the massecuite. Correlation coefficient values in the region of 0.94
were achieved.

The objective of this investigation, to provide the centrifugal operator with a

reliable measure of sugar purity, was adequately achieved with both light
sources. The results from the red LED trials were however better than those
achieved from the incandescent lamp trials. Correlation coefficient values
 v

achieved with the incandescent lamp in the laboratory (r=0.99) deteriorated

when tested in the factory (r2 = 0.94). Lamp deterioration was the reason for
this phenomenon. The red LED maintained the good linear relationship of
approximately r= 0.97 in both the laboratory and the factory trials. In light of
these findings it was believed that the red LED would be the better choice for
the light source for use in the detection of sugar purity in a continuous
centrifugal.

The purity meter although capable of providing a reliable measure of sugar purity
cannot totally replace daily laboratory analyses. This is proven by the fact that
the meter requires daily calibration. The meter will however assist in significantly
reducing the number of laboratory analyses performed and in reducing the loss of
sucrose to molasses.
 vi

Preface

I hereby declare that this entire dissertation is my own work, unless

stated otherwise in the text, and that it has not been submitted, in whole
or in part, for a degree to any other University or Institution.

Lynettra Govender

May 2001
 vii

Acknowledgements

I wish to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to the following

persons and organizations that contributed towards this investigation:

• Tongaat Hulett Sugar for sponsoring the project.

• My project team for their guidance and assistance: Dr. VL Pillay, Mr.
GB Dalgleish, Mr. GM Hubbard, Mr. S Proome, Mr. 0 Walthew, Mr.
M Swan and Mr. M Cox.

• Dr Peter Rein for his encouragement to pursue postgraduate studies.

• Mr. Simon Proome for his assistance, guidance and friendship.

• Maidstone Sugar Mill and TMD Laboratory Staff, especially Jayce

Moodley and Ravi Govender for their kind assistance.

• Mrs. Jody Ann Smit for assistance with the typing and
drawings.

• My family and friends for always being there whenever I needed their
support.

• My husband, Indrin Naidoo for his constant encouragement and

assistance in proofreading the thesis.
 viii

Table of Contents

Page

List of tables xii

List of figures xiii
Glossary xviii

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 1-1

1.1 Background to sugar production 1-1

1.2 Objectives of the investigation. 1-10
1.3 Approaches to investigation. 1-11

Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2-1

2.1 The structure and colour characteristics of raw sugar 2-1
2.1.1 The structure of raw sugar 2-1
2.1.2 Colour characteristics of raw sugar 2-4
2.1.2.1 Sugar cane plant derived colour 2-6
2.1.2.2 Factory produced colour 2-7
2.1.2.3 Measurement of colour 2-8
2.2 Present methods of determining purity 2-10
2.2.1 Pol 2-11
2.2.2 Brix 2-13
2.3 Other methods used to determine sugar purity. 2-16
2.3.1 The measurement of light wavelength or frequency 2-17
2.3.2 The measurement of reflected light intensity off the surface of
sugar crystals 2-21
2.3.3 Wavelength versus intensity measurement. 2-25
 ix

Chapter 3: CONTINUOUS CENTRIFUGAL OPERATION 3-1

3.1 Continuous centrifugals in the sugar industry 3-1

3.2 Present continuous centrifugal control 3-5
3.3 C-Sugar purity control 3-6
3.4 Proposed method of continuous centrifugal control 3-7

Chapter 4: DEVELOPMENT OF THE LABORATORY PURITY

METER 4-1

4.1 Geometric design 4-2

4.2 Selection of the light source 4-4
4.2.1 Aim of the experiment 4-4
4.2.2 Experimental method and equipment 4-4
4.2.2.1 Light sources 4-4
4.2.2.2 Light detector 4-9
4.2.2.3 Sugar sampling and analyses 4-11
4.2.2.4 Sample preparation 4-12
4.2.2.5 Data collation and analyses 4-12
4.2.3 Experimental results and discussion 4-13
4.2.3.1 Strobe light 4-13
4.2.3.2 Incandescent light (12 W) 4-18
4.2.3.3 Incandescent light (35 W) 4-20
4.2.3.4 Red light emitting diode (LED) 4-21
4.2.4 Conclusions 4-22
4.3 Selection of the light detector/sensor 4-24
4.3.1 Aim of the experiment 4-24
4.3.2 Experimental method and equipment 4-24
4.3.3 Experimental results and discussion 4-26
4.3.4 Conclusions 4-28
 x

4.4 Testing of centrifugal environmental conditions 4-29

4.4.1 Temperature tolerance testing of the light sensor/detector
4-29
4.4.1.1 Aim of the experiment 4-29
4.4.1.2 Experimental method and equipment 4-29
4.4.1.3 Experimental results and discussion 4-30
4.4.1.4 Conclusions 4-31

4.4.2 Effect of sugar crystal movement on the light reflectance

intensity measurement 4-32
4.4.2.1 Aim of experiment 4-32
4.4.2.2 Experimental method and equipment 4-32
4.4.2.3 Experimental results and discussion 4-33
4.4.2.4 Conclusions 4-36
4.4.3 The Effect of steam addition on the measurement of
reflected light 4-37
4.4.3.1 Aim of the experiment 4-37
4.4.3.2 Experimental method and equipment 4-37
4.4.3.3 Experimental results and discussion 4-38
4.4.3.4 Conclusions 4-39
4.4.4 Efforts to accommodate the effect of vibration. 4-41
4.5 Conclusions of the laboratory trials 4-42

Chapter 5: DEVELOPMENT OF THE FACTORY PURITY

METER. 5-1

5.1 Red LED factory trials 5-2

5.1.1 Aim of the experiment 5-2
5.1.2 Experimental method and equipment 5-2
5.1.3 Experimental results and discussion 5-7
5.1.3.1 Purity meter operations 5-7
5.1.3.2 A comparison between laboratory and factory trials. 5-10
 xi

5.1.3.3 The relationship between the measured light reflectance and

sugar purity in the continuous centrifugal. 5-12
5.1.4 Conclusions 5-15
5.2 Incandescent light - Factory trials 5-17
5.2.1 Aim of the experiment 5-17
5.2.2 Experimental method and equipment 5-17
5.2.3 Experimental results and discussion 5-17
5.2.3.1 Purity meter operations 5-17
5.2.3.2 The relationship between measured light reflectance and sugar
purity in the continuous centrifugal. 5-20
5.2.4 Conclusions 5-23
5.3 CONCLUSIONS FOR THE FACTORY TRIALS 5-24

Chapter 6: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6-1

REfERENCES R-1

APPENDICIES
APPENDIX A :Experimental Procedure A-i
A 1.1 Procedure for purity determination of magma (C-Sugar).

APPENDIX B: Strobe light trials B-1

APPENDIX C: Incandescent light(12W) C-1

APPENDIX D: Incandescent light (35W) D-1

APPENDIX E: Red LED light data E-1

 xii

List of Tables

Table
Table Description Page
Number
Typical massecuite, sugar and
Table 1.1 1-8
molasses purities.
Table 4.1 Overall strobe light test results 4-17
Overall incandescent light (12w) test
Table 4.2 4-19
results
Regression analyses and correlation
Table 5.1 coefficients generated on separate 5-15
days (red LED).

Regression analysis and correlation

Table 5.2 coefficients generated on separate 5-22

days (incandescent lamp)

Table 0.1 Raw data for the incandescent lamp 0-2

and LOR trials.

Table 0.2 Incandescent motion trials raw data 0-2

Table 0.3 Incandescent steam simulation trials -

0-3
raw data

Table E.1 Raw data for the motion trials E-2

Table E.2 Raw data for the steam simulation

E-2
trials
 xiii

List of Figures

Figure
Figure Description Page
Number
Simplified flow diagram of the sugar production process from
Figure 1.1 1-4
sugar cane to raw sugar.

Figure 1.2 The three boiling system. 1-5

Figure 2.1 The molecular structure of sucrose [(Moeller et al (1984)] 2-2
Figure 2.2 The molecular structure of glucose [Moeller et al (1984)] 2-3
Figure 2.3 The molecular structure of fructose [Moeller et al (1984)] 2-3
Figure 2.4 Refraction of light. 2-14
Figure 2.5 Measuring refractive index by refractometer trough 2-15
Figure 2.6 Diagram of a light wave 2-18
Figure 2.7 Diffraction grating 2-20
Figure 3.1 Diagram of a typical continuous centrifugal 3-3
Figure 3.2 Movement of massecuite on the centrifugal screen. 3-4
Figure 4.1 Laboratory purity meter rig 4-3
Figure 4.2 Incandescent light - Electrical set-up 4-6
Figure 4.3 Strobe light - Electrical set-up. 4-7
Figure 4.4 Red light emitting diode- Electrical set-up 4-9
Figure 4.5 Light detector- photodiode 4-10
Strobe light: the relationship between sugar purity and reflected
Figure 4.6 4-15
light intensity, using a blue filter.
Strobe light: the relationship between sugar purity and reflected
Figure 4.7 4-16
light intensity, using a blue and brown filter.
Incandescent light(12W): the relationship between sugar purity
Figure 4.8 4-20
and reflected light intensity, using an orange filter.
4-21
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light,
Figure 4.9
using incandescent light of 35 W.
 xiv

4-22
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light, using a
Figure 4.10
red LED at 12 candela.

Figure 4.11 Light detector (LOR) 4-25

Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light, using
Figure 4.12 4-27
incandescent lamp and a LOR
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light, using a
Figure 4.13 4-27
red led and a LOR
Relationship between the photodiode output and increasing
Figure 4.14 4-30
temperature.
Relationship between the LOR output and increasing
Figure 4.15 4-30
temperature.
Figure 4.16 Laboratory set-up for the motion trials. 4-33

Figure 4.17 Motion trials: Incandescent light source and the LOR 4-34
Figure 4.18 Motion trials: Red LED and a LOR 4-35

Steam trials: Simulation of the steam effect on the reflectance

Figure 4.19 4-38
measurement, using a 35W incandescent lamp and a LOR.
Steam trials: Simulation of the steam effect on the reflectance
Figure 4.20 4-39
measurement, using a red LED and a LOR
Figure 5.1 Purity meter prototype 5-3

Figure 5.2 Purity meter set-up on the centrifugal 5-4

Figure 5.3 Light and light detector processing. 5-5

Red LED light source and detector tube distance to

Figure 5.4 5-9
continuous centrifugal basket.
Relationship between the laboratory calibration and the
Figure 5.5 5-10
centrifugal reflectance measurements.
Figure 5.6 Typical calibration curve for the continuous centrifugal 5-13
Figure 5.7 Calibration curves generated on separate days (red Led trials). 5-14

Incandescent lamp and detector tube distance to the 5-18

Figure 5.8
continuous centrifugal basket.

Figure 5.9 Relationship between purity meter measurements and 5-21

laboratory purity analysis.
 xv

The effect of changing massecuite quality on the purity

Figure 5.10 5-22
meter measurement.
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light at a
Figure B.1 B-1
18 cm sample distance
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light at a
Figure B.2 B-1
12 cm sample distance
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light at a
Figure B.3 B-2
7 cm sample distance
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light,
Figure B.4 B-2
using a blue filter
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light,
Figure B.5 B-3
using a brown filter
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light,
Figure B.6 B-3
using a green filter
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light,
Figure B.7 B-4
using an orange filter
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light,
Figure B.8 B-4
using a yellow filter
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light,
Figure B.9 B-5
using a blue and brown filter

Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light,

Figure B.10 B-5
using a blue and yellow filter

Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light,

Figure B.11 B-6
using blue and green filters
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light,
Figure B.12
using a green and yellow filters B-6

Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light,

Figure B.13 B-7
using green and orange filters
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light,
Figure B.14 B-7
using an orange brown filter
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light,
Figure B.15 B-8
using green and brown filters
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light,
Figure 8.16
using orange and brown filters B-8
 xvi

Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light,

Figure 8.17 8-9
using orange and yellow filter
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light,
Figure 8.18 8-9
using yellow and brown filters
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light at a
Figure C.1 C-1
18 cm sample distance
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light at a
Figure C.2 C-1
12 cm sample distance
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light at a
Figure C.3 C-2
7 cm sample distance
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light,
Figure C.4 C-2
using a blue filter
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light,
Figure C.5 C-3
using a brown filter
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light,
Figure C.6 C-3
using a green filter
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light,
Figure C.7 C-4
using an orange filter
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light,
Figure C.8 C-4
using a yellow filter
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light, C-5
Figure C.9
using a blue and brown filter
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light,
Figure C.10 C-5
using a blue and yellow filter
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light,
Figure C.11 C-6
using blue and green filters
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light,
Figure C.12 C-6
using a green and yellow filters
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light,
Figure C.13 C-7
using green and orange filters
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light,
Figure C.14 C-7
using green and brown filters
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light,
Figure C.15 C-8
using an orange brown filter
 xvii

Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light I

Figure C.16 C-8

using orange and brown filters

Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light I C-9

Figure C.17
using orange and yellow filter

Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light I

Figure C.18 C-9

using yellow and brown filters
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light I

Figure 0.1 0-1

using incandescent light of 35 W, Trial 2
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light I

Figure E.1 E-1

using a Red LED at 12 candela
Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light I

Figure E.2 E-1

using a Red LED and LOR
 xviii

Glossary

WORD DESCRIPTION

Bagasse The shredded cane fibre residue following juice extraction.

Boiling The process of sugar crystallization in vacuum pans.

Brix up To increase concentration of a sugar solution by sugar

addition or evaporation.

Brix Brix is the sum of the dissolved solid matter in a sugar solution
expressed as a percentage by mass or as an actual mass.

Brixing Changing the concentration of total dissolved solids in a sugar

solution by evaporation, addition of water or addition of sugar.

Clear Juice The liquor following sugar mill clarification.

Colour precursors
Those molecules which are not actually coloured, but react
during the refining process to produce colour.

Crystallisation Pan
A vessel in which sugar crystallisation takes place (usually under
vacuum).

Grade Grade is a measure of the quality of a sugar solution and is

defined as the ratio of brix to ICUMSA colour.
 xix

Grain The term describing the introduction of crystal nuclei to initiate

crystal growth in a saturated liquor.

Magma A mixture of saturated sugar liquor and sugar crystals.

Massecuite A molasses/sugar mixture.

Melter The equipment in which sugar crystals are dissolved in hot

water.

Milk of lime Calcium hydroxide slurry.

Milling The unit operation used to extract juice from sugar cane by
applied pressure.

Molasses Molasses in the sugar industry is the highly coloured, diluted

(with water/steam) mother liquor. The mother liquor is the
undiluted and unchanged liquid of the massecuite. It is known
as Nutsch molasses. Molasses/diluted mother liquor is used to
boil a massecuite.

Mud Thickened tri-calcium phosphate or calcium hydroxide

precipitate recovered from the mill and refinery clarification
processes.

Pol Pol is the apparent sucrose in a substance, given as a

percentage by mass or as an actual mass. Pol is determined by
a polarimeter. Actual sucrose is determined by gas
chromatography.

Purity Purity is defined as the ratio of sucrose (pol) to total dissolved

solids (brix) expressed as a percentage.

Reducing Sugar
 xx

These are the chemically reducing sugars found in sugar

solutions, the main ones being glucose and fructose.
Refractometer
An optical instrument used to determine brix concentration. The
instrument measures the amount that a ray of light, passing from
air, is refracted (bent) at the surface of a particular solution. This
is then related to total dissolved solids in the solution.

Seeding Seeding is the term describing the addition of crystal nuclei to

saturated syrup to induce crystal growth.

Strike The process of recovering a massecuite from a crystallisation

pan.

Sugar colour
Sugar colour is a complex collection of molecules, which
increases the light absorbance of a sugar solution at a particular
wavelength.

Syrup Concentrated clear juice following evaporation in the mill.

 1-1

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Huletts Sugar is produced at the Tongaat-Hulett Sugar mills on the north

coast of Natal. Here, the sugar, which is essentially sucrose, is
produced from sugarcane. This chapter provides a background to the
production of sugar at the Tongaat Hulett Sugar mills. The objectives
and approach into the development and evaluation of a meter,
measuring sugar purity in a continuous centrifugal, are also stated.

The sugar industry has its own particular characteristic terminology.

These terms are defined in the glossary.

1.1 Background to sugar production

Sugarcane

Sugarcane is a giant grass of the genus Saccharum. The sugar mills,

producers of unrefined (brown) sugar, receive cane stalks from the
growers. The roots, tops and leaves of the sugarcane are removed
since they have little or no sugar value. The cane stalk consists typically
of 15% dissolved matter, 15% fibre (insoluble) and 70% water. Included
in the 15% dissolved matter (referred to as brix) is 13% sucrose. The
remaining 2% are other sugars, being mainly glucose and fructose. The
growers are paid according to the sucrose content of the cane they
produce. The stalks are prepared for sucrose extraction by being cut and
shredded.
 1-2

The recovery of sugar from the sugarcane plant Involves a series of

mechanical and physical processes, which involve the crushing of the
sugarcane, extraction of juice, concentration of juice and crystallisation
of the sugar. These processes are further discussed.

Juice extraction

Sugar is extracted from the sugarcane by using either the diffusion

process or by the more traditional milling process. Since sugarcane fibre
retains its own weight in water, both juice extraction processes require
copious amounts of water or dilute sugar solution to displace the juice.
With diffusion, the cane stalks are finely shredded before passing
through counter current washing. This consists of an enclosed carrier
through which a bed of shredded cane is conveyed, while large volumes
of water are sprayed over the cane to efficiently flush out the sucrose-
bearing juice from the fibre. Milling involves a process of sequential
squeezing and washing of shredded cane stalks. The cane fibres are
crushed/squeezed between a series of rollers while they are co-currently
sprayed with jets of water and dilute juice. The fibrous residue
(bagasse) remaining after the extraction of the juice is used mainly as
fuel for the boilers to produce steam.

Juice purification

Once the juice is extracted (mixed juice) it is purified (the term

clarification is more generally used in the sugar industry). The purpose
of clarification is to produce a clear juice that is of neutral pH, light in
colour and free of suspended matter. The juice is firstly screened
(usually for factories which extract the juice through milling) to remove
any large fibrous material. The juice is further clarified in large
clarification reactors. The process involves the addition of milk of lime
(calcium hydroxide slurry), which reacts with the naturally occurring
 1-3

phosphates in the juice to produce a calcium phosphate precipitate.

Flocculants are added to assist the separation of impurities and
suspended particles from the juice. The settled precipitate (mud) is
filtered to recover the sucrose containing juice retained by the mud
mixture. The filtrate is returned to the clarifier for further clarification and
the filter cake is discarded (used as fertiliser by farmers).

Juice concentration and sugar crystallisation

The clarified product is called clear juice. The clear juice is then
concentrated (brixed up) from approximately 11% to 65% brix in multiple
effect evaporator vessels. These vessels boil off water under vacuum.
The concentrated juice (syrup) is then sent to the vacuum pans for
crystallisation (boiling). Vacuum pans are evaporative crystallisers. The
syrup is concentrated in the vacuum pans to a level of supersaturation
just below that at which spontaneous nucleation of crystals would take
place. Seed crystals are added at this point. The purpose of the pan is
to grow the seed sugar crystals by controlled evaporation of water and
crystallisation of sucrose, in as many steps as may be required to
maximise the amount of sucrose recovered. This is typically achieved in
three successive boiling steps (three boiling system); each step
produces sugar-crystals and molasses in a mixture called massecuite.
The three boiling system produces three massecuites of successfully
lower purities. Purity is defined as the ratio of sucrose (pol) to total
dissolved solids (brix) expressed as a percentage. (The terms pol and
brix have been properly defined in the glossary. More detailed
information on the determination of pol and brix are presented in chapter
2.)

Figure 1.1 overleaf presents a simplified flow diagram of the sugar

production process from sugar cane to raw sugar. The three boiling
system employed by the Tongaat Hulett Sugar Mills is presented in
Figure 1.2.
 1-4

Cane stalks prepared Juice extraction by milling and

for extraction by diffusion
cutting and shredding

Cane stalks arrive at the () ( ) Bagasse

sugar mill from the ._ _ . () ()
*
growers '-"-----~

Milk-of-lime Water Clarification

Vapour reactor

Evaporator

Crystalliser

(Pans and

Cooling Filters
Crystalliser)

Syrup

Calcium phosphate mud

Molasses

VHP
sugar
Dryers

VHP sugar transported

to the refinery or to the
sugar terminals

Figure 1.1: Simplified flow diagram of the sugar production process from
sugar cane to raw sugar.
 1-5

A
Syrup from Pan A-Seed
the
evaporators

A-Massecuite

A- Crystalliser

B
Pan
A- Centrifugals
A- molasses

B- Massecuite
Driers A-Sugar

B- Crystalliser
Scale

8 C
Pan
B-molasses
B- Centrifugals

VHP
1 C-Massecuite
B-Sugar

Sugar
out
C- Crystalliser
Scale

C-Centrifugal

C-Sugar

Final molasses
out

Figure 1.2: The three boiling system.

 1-6

The three boiling system

As mentioned previously the three boiling system produces three

massecuites of successfully lower purities (A, Band C massecuites).
Syrup received from the evaporators is used to produce the A-
massecuite. This massecuite is of the highest purity and produces the
A-sugar product. As seen in Figure 1.2, the sugar crystal and molasses
mixture (massecuite) is discharged from the pans into crystallisers (for
further crystal growth) and then centrifuged to separate the sugar
crystals from the molasses. The sugar crystals are then dried in driers.
The dried product constitutes VHP (very high pol) sugar. This sugar has
an average apparent sucrose content (pol) of 99.3% by mass and
moisture content of 0.1 %.

VHP sugar (brown sugar) is sent directly to the sugar refinery where
white sugar is produced. VHP sugar is also sent to the South African
Sugar Association (SASA) sugar terminal on Maydon Wharf, Durban
Harbour, for export purposes.

The molasses separated from the A-massecuite is used to boil a second

massecuite (B-massecuite). A slurry made up of finely ground A-sugar
crystals is used for seeding the Band C pans. The B-massecuite is
discharged into the B-crystallisers for further crystal growth. The B-
massecuite is then centrifuged and the sugar crystals are separated
from the molasses. This molasses, that is B-molasses, is used to boil
the third massecuite, C-massecuite. The B-sugar crystals are used in
the A-pans as seed crystals. Any excess crystals will be melted and
returned to the syrup tank (after the evaporators) that is used to boil the
A-massecuite. Melting here refers to the dissolution of sugar crystals in
hot water.

C-massecuite is discharged into the C-crystallisers and then centrifuged.

The sugar crystals are melted and returned to the syrup tank. The C-
 1-7

molasses, also called final molasses is weighed and sold by weight to

outside companies. Sugar produced from the first boiling (A sugar) and
molasses from the third boiling (final molasses) are the final products.

There are two process operations in the sugar factory that directly affect
the recovery of sugar from evaporated syrup. These are the processes
of crystallisation (boiling) and centrifugal operation. Successful
automation of the vacuum pans (boiling) has been implemented using
brix control. To date however on-line control of continuous centrifugals
has not been successfully implemented.

Process efficiency

At various stages of the 3 boiling system, purity analyses are performed.

As mentioned previously purity is defined as the percentage ratio of
sucrose (pol) to the total soluble solids (brix) in a sugar product. Purity
analysis can be performed for all the process streams i.e. juice,
massecuite (combination of sugar-crystals and molasses) and separated
sugar-crystals and molasses. These analyses are an integral part of the
efficient running of any sugar factory. It provides an indication of the
efficiency of the processes involved in the recovery of sucrose. Losses
of sucrose can be immediately located where purity analyses are
performed. Decisions to improve factory performance are based on
these analyses.

Table 1.1 presents typical massecuite, sugar and molasses purities

observed in the three boiling system employed by Tongaat-Hulett Sugar
Mills. The massecuite is sampled before the centrifugals and analysed
as sugar crystals and molasses combination for purity, while the sugar
crystals and molasses purities are of samples obtained after centrifugal
where the massecuite has been separated into its components.
 1-7

molasses, also called final molasses is weighed and sold by weight to

outside companies. Sugar produced from the first boiling (A sugar) and
molasses from the third boiling (final molasses) are the final products.

There are two process operations in the sugar factory that directly affect
the recovery of sugar from evaporated syrup. These are the processes
of crystallisation (boiling) and centrifugal operation. Successful
automation of the vacuum pans (boiling) has been implemented using
brix control. To date however on-line control of continuous centrifugals
has not been successfully implemented.

Process efficiency

At various stages of the 3 boiling system, purity analyses are performed.

As mentioned previously purity is defined as the percentage ratio of
sucrose (pol) to the total soluble solids (brix) in a sugar product. Purity
analysis can be performed for all the process streams i.e. juice,
massecuite (combination of sugar-crystals and molasses) and separated
sugar-crystals and molasses. These analyses are an integral part of the
efficient running of any sugar factory. It provides an indication of the
efficiency of the processes involved in the recovery of sucrose. Losses
of sucrose can be immediately located where purity analyses are
performed. Decisions to improve factory performance are based on
these analyses.

Table 1.1 presents typical massecuite, sugar and molasses purities

observed in the three boiling system employed by Tongaat-Hulett Sugar
Mills. The massecuite is sampled before the centrifugals and analysed
as sugar crystals and molasses combination for purity, while the sugar
crystals and molasses purities are of samples obtained after centrifugal
where the massecuite has been separated into its components.
 1-8

• Table 1.1: Typical massecuite, sugar and molasses purities.

Purity Massecuite Sugar Molasses

[pol/brix x 100] [pol/brix x 100] [pol/brix x 100]

• First Boiling (A) 87 % 99.3 % 67 %

Second Boiling (B) 67 % 89% 43%

Third Boiling (C) 55 % 83 % 35%

Centrifugal operation

• The sugar crystals are separated from the massecuite in a continuous or

batch centrifuge. The separation process involves the addition of water
to remove the film of molasses adhering to the sugar crystal. Wash
water quantity has a direct impact on the colour and purity of the crystals
produced. Too little water added to the massecuite will result in
insufficient molasses being washed off the crystals, hence resulting in
lower purities and higher colour of the sugar. This incurs a cost penalty

• when A-sugar is sent to the refinery. Alternatively too much water

added will result in the total dissolution of smaller crystals and larger
crystals will be reduced in size. This results in a molasses of higher
purity, and in the case of final molasses where no further processing is
performed; sucrose is lost which indicates monetary losses. The
addition of wash water thus has a major effect on the efficiency of the
centrifuging process.

•
 1-9

• Wash water to the continuous centrifugal is presently controlled

manually adjusting wash water addition in delayed response to sugar
purity analysis received from the laboratory. This form of control is
by

highly subjective, and varies from one individual to another. Colour

bodies that are included in the crystal (a function of poor cane quality
and or poor process control) cannot be removed in the centrifugal,
however excessive molasses adhering to the surface of the sugar crystal

• is due to poor centrifugal operation. The manual control of wash water

addition is therefore not a highly reliable method of controlling sugar
purity in the centrifugal. A more sophisticated method of sugar purity
control is required to minimise sucrose losses.

Sugar purity analysis/detection

The current method of laboratory sugar analysis used at all Tongaat

• Hulett Sugar Mills follows a procedure set by the South African Sugar
Association (SASA). This method involves dissolving a sugar sample
(50g) in 500ml of water. Two analyses are performed with this solution.
Pol (apparent sucrose) is determined using the polarimeter and the brix
is determined using the refractometer. Sugar purity is then calculated as
the percentage ratio of the pol and brix analyses. The exact method is
presented in appendix A.

•
The sugar purity analysis takes approximately one hour to perform. This
method of sugar analysis is therefore not suitable for on-line factory
control of centrifugal performance. High sucrose losses can be incurred
due to the lag time between sampling and the receipt of the purity
analysis. This procedure is covered in more detail in Chapter 2.

•
 1-10

• A meter for sugar purity detection

Dr P W Rein (Technical Director - Tongaat-Hulett Sugar Ltd) initiated in

the early 1980's the development of an on-line sugar purity meter, for
continuous centrifugal operation. The objective was to provide the
centrifugal operator with a reliable on-line measurement of sugar purity
and thereby facilitate the automation of the centrifugal. A meter

• measuring reflected light intensity off sugar samples was developed and
this meter proved capable of predicting C-sugar purities.
obtained from the development of a purity meter [Proome
The results
1982],
supported earlier findings of Miller and Wright [1978]. A definite
relationship existed between sugar purity and measured reflected light
intensity. Successful operation of the continuous centrifugal using the
purity meter was not achieved. Investigations by Tongaat-Hulett Sugar
[Proome 1982] were abandoned and have only been recently revisited.

• Although the use of optical measurement techniques to predict sugar

purity on-line can be traced as far as 1943, [Hovert and Gillett (1943)],
an inexpensive commercial instrument for sugar purity detection in a
continuous centrifugal is not locally available. This provided the
motivation to develop a local meter for sugar purity detection. It was
proposed that the research started by Tongaat Huletts Sugar using the
measurement of reflected light intensity off sugar samples to predict
sugar purity, be re-initiated.

• 1.2 Objectives of the investigation

This investigation is a continuation from the preliminary work performed

by Tongaat Hulett Sugar. The objectives were:

•
 1-11

• • To develop and evaluate an inexpensive

purity measurement
intensity.
using the measurement
instrument for sugar
of reflected light

• To provide the centrifugal operator with a reliable on-line

measurement of sugar purity.

• 1.3 Approach to the investigation.

The approach to this investigation is:

• Survey literature on all present technologies for sugar purity
analysis.
GD Survey the principles of light reflectance and instruments that are
used to measure reflected light intensity.

• I\) laboratory

o
scale trials

Build a prototype to measure reflected l.ight intensity.

o Determine the light source and light detector for the purity
meter prototype that ideally yields a reliable and repeatable
relationship between sugar purity and measured reflected
light intensity.
o Determine the relationship between sugar purity and the

•
measured reflected light intensity.

• Factory scale trials

o Build a field/ factory sugar purity meter and conduct factory

trials.
o Compare the laboratory sugar purity meter with the factory
purity meter.

•
 1-12

• This investigation has been divided into the following chapters:

o Chapter 2 presents the literature survey of all present

technologies of sugar purity analysis.
o Chapter 3 provides a brief history and operation of continuous
centrifugals.
o Chapter 4 describes the laboratory scale trials. The results

• leading to the selection of the ideal light source and detector are
presented
simulation
in this chapter.
of factory conditions
Chapter 4 also
in the laboratory
describes
in order to
the

anticipate any shortcomings of the laboratory scale apparatus.

o Chapter 5 describes the factory trials and compares the factory
trial results with those of the laboratory scale trials.
o Chapter 6 presents the conclusions drawn from this investigation,
together with some recommendations for further avenues of
research and development.

•
 2-1

• Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

• This chapter provides a review of the literature relating to the various

aspects of sugar chemistry, sugar colourants and equipment using light
measurement to measure the purity of sugar crystals. The literature
review has been divided into three parts. The first part investigates the
chemistry of raw sugar (brown sugar) and its associated colour. This
includes the various types of colourants found in sugar and their
influence on sugar purity. The second and third parts of the review
highlight the current and alternative methods used to measure sugar

•
purity.

2.1 The structure and! colour characteristics of raw

sugar.

In South Africa sucrose is obtained from sugar cane. Some countries

obtain sugar from sugar beet. Sugar cane is defined as a tall grass of
the genus Saccharum and is produced from sugar cane hybrids, which

• are the progeny of a number of Saccharum species. This section

provides an introduction to the structure of the sugar crystal and the
causes of colour in and around the sugar crystal.

2.1.1 The structure of raw sugar.

Sucrose is a disaccharide falling under the broader definition of

carbohydrates. The chemical formula for sucrose is C12H22011. The

•
 2-2

• pure disaccharide
commonly known as "sugar".
X-D-glucopyranosyl-~-D-fructofuramoside is

Sucrose is formed from its two building blocks: glucose and fructose by
photosynthesis. If sucrose is exposed to high temperatures and low pH
it readily breaks down into a 50/50 glucose and fructose mixture.
Glucose and fructose are defined as invert sugars and the breakdown

• process of sucrose is therefore known as inversion [Pillay (1994)].

Figures 2.1 presents the structure of sucrose.

o OH H
H

• OH H
o OH

H OH
OH H

•
Figure 2.1: The molecular structure of sucrose. [(Moeller et al (1984)]

Sucrose is a disaccharide consisting of the two monosaccharides D-

glucose and D-fructose held together by a glycosidic link in the CJ. and ~
configurations respectively.

•
 2-3

• Figures 2.2 and 2.3 present the structures of glucose and fructose
respectively.

H-C-OH

CH20H

• H

H
OH
H-C-OH

HO-C-H
OH
OH
H H-C-OH
H OH
H-C

• Figure 2.2: The molecular structure of glucose. [Moeller et al (1984)]

0 HO-C-H
CH20H H

• OH
H-C-OH
0

H-C
OH H

CH20H

• Figure 2.3: The molecular structure of fructose. [Moeller et al (1984)]

 2-4

• The investigation into the chemistry of raw sugar also revealed that there
are colour bodies that affect the appearance and purity of the sugar-
crystal. The next section investigates the colour characteristics of raw
sugar.

2.1.2 Colour characteristics of raw sugar

• Sugar colour is defined as that complex collection of molecules, which

contribute to the increased light absorbance of sugar solutions at a
particular wavelength. Although the word "colour" would refer to visual
appearance, it is interpreted by the 'sugar world' as a measure of
impurities due to most of the non-sugars being coloured. The word
"colourant" refers to the material causing the colour.

Researchers who have studied sugar colourants have identified

• colourants as coming from two basic sources: the sugar cane plant and
the factory
classification
process. Kennedy and Smith [1976]
as follows: " Sugar colourants can be classed into two
describe this

groups - generally monomeric, pH sensitive cane pigments, and

generally larger molecular weight, pH insensitive colourants of factory
origin". The classification of the colourants into these two groups may
give rise to some confusion, since the presence of colour in any sugar
product must arise from compounds originally present in the sugarcane

•
plant [Getaz (1988)]. Some compounds enter the sugar factory in the
cane already coloured and contribute to a product colour in a more or
less unchanged state, while other compounds entering the factory will
not be coloured but form coloured compounds by means of reactions
taking place during processing.

An additional way in which colourants are often distinguished is by the

characteristics of molecular weight and pH sensitivity [Kennedy et al.

• (1976)].
 2-5

• a)

Generally
Molecular weight

polymeric colourants have the highest molecular weight (>

25000 daltons), followed by intermediate substances such as
degradation products (molecular weight from 10000 to 25000 daltons)
and flavanoids (molecular weight <10 000 daltons). A further class of
sugar colorant is high molecular weight (HMW) colorant with a molecular

• weight greater than 100 000 daltons. HMW colourants are generally
associated with polysaccharide material. [Hubbard (1993)].

b) pH sensitivity

At pH 4 most sugarcane colourants are not ionised and are relatively

lightly coloured. At pH 9, ionisation, is almost complete and the
colourants are in an ionic form and are more highly coloured.

• Plant derived pigments have the greatest sensitivity to changes in pH

due to the molecular rearrangements that occur under alkaline
conditions, to give a series of conjugated double bonds. Conjugated
double bonds are the structural requirement for visible colour. These
rearrangements also occur in non-coloured phenolics as they react with
ferric or ferrous ions to form coloured complexes.

• Phenolic acid and flavonoids compounds are mainly responsible for the
change in sugar colour.
colour reproducibly
It is virtually impossible to measure the sugar
without maintaining a constant pH. The pH
sensitivity of a colorant is expressed as an indicator value (IV). This is
the ratio of the 420nm colour (wavelength at which the light absorption is
measured) at pH 9 to that at pH 4. Therefore the relative quantity of
phenolics and flavonoids is determined by comparing the IV of the
different sugars and sugar solutions. Factory colourants generally have

• a relatively low IV of 1 to 3, while plant pigments can range from 3 to 40

 2-6

• for different monomers as flavanoids [Getaz (1988)].

The origin and effects of the various sugar colorant types are discussed
in detail below.

2.1.2.1 Sugar cane plant derived colour

• Plant derived pigments are phenolic or polymeric in nature and exist as

glycosides attached to sugar residues in the cane plant. Some of the
plant pigments such as chlorophylls and carotenes are insoluble and are
therefore eliminated early in the factory process. Others, such as
flavonaids are pH sensitive and these low molecular mass substances
are oxidised by enzymes to form enzyme-browning colourants of high
molecular mass that are pH insensitive.

• Anthocyanins are water-soluble and are highly coloured. They react

during the clarification process to form colourless phenols, which react
with iron as a precursor, to form highly coloured compounds.

Caffeic, phenolic and other organic acids are colourless or pale yellow
while in the cane, but on contact with alkali form yellow to orange
colourants, which persist throughout the refining process.

• Other alkaline degradation products are formed by the isomerisation of

reducing sugars such as glucose and fructose and the decomposition
reactions of hexoses [SMRI Sugar Engineering Course, (1996)].

•
 2-7

• 2.1.2.2 Factory produced colour

The following are colourants produced in the factory.

Melanoidins

Melanoidins in sugars are dark polymers. They are produced when the

• Maillard reaction products of reducing sugars with amines, amino acids

and proteins rearrange to form a complex mixture of dark polymers.
Browning takes place in this reaction. Melanoidins form only if the
mixture is heated for example low heat over long periods (storage
conditions) can cause this type of colour formation. This reaction is
influenced, by the nature and concentration of the sugars and the amino
acid groups as well as temperature, pH, time and the presence of iron
and phosphate.

• Melanin colour

These are black enzymatic oxidation products of phenolics such as

tyrosine (a monophenol) and dihydroxphenylalanine (a polyphenol).
Colour formation depends on enzyme, polyphenoloxidase and oxygen.
Melanins can be removed during processing but are otherwise
preferentially included in the crystal during crystallisation.

• Caramels

These colourants are produced when sugars are subjected to heat

and/or low pH. They are degradation products of polyhydroxy-carbonyl
compounds. Caramels are polymers and both acids and bases can
catalyse their formation. Organic acids formed by the degradation of
reducing sugars can also catalyse caramelisation.

•
 2-8

• The measurement of these colourants is needed to determine

quantity of impurities that are inherent to the respective product stream
i.e. the sugar, molasses or juice. The present method used to determine
the

colour is defined overleaf.

2.1.2.3 Measurement of colour

• The ICUMSA (International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar

Analysis) method of colour measurement is generally used in the sugar
industry [SASTA (1985)]. The measurement is based on five main
criteria [SMRI Sugar Engineering Course (1986)]:

a) The wavelength at which the light absorption is

measured.

• There is little absorption in the red and yellow part of the spectrum but
the absorption increases rapidly in the violet and blue region.
found that the optical centre of gravity of the luminosity curve for the
It was

colourants in sugar solutions was 560 nm and this lead to ICUMSA

recommending that this wavelength be used. Inspection of the spectrum
of a typical raw sugar, however, reveals that readings in the blue to violet
range would provide greater values with accompanying better sensitivity
for instrument measurements. Instruments such as colorimeters and

• spectrophotometers
specifies measurement
spectrophotometer
are widely
at 420
used nowadays
nm. It is
and ICUMSA
essential
gives correct wavelength and transmission
that
now
the
readings
and that consideration be given to the wavelength band width and the
quality of the reference solution. There can be differences of up to 20%
between different makes of instrument and up to 15% between
instruments from the same manufacturer.

•
 2-9

• bj pH of the solution.

Sugar colourants are sensitive to pH with absorption increasing as pH

increases. The pH sensitivity varies significantly with the nature of the
colourants but there is a rapid increase in absorption in the neutral
region and a levelling off above pH = 9. ICUMSA recommends that the
solution be adjusted to pH = 7. Care should be taken in adjusting the pH

• as the reaction is not reversible, i.e., if too much acid or alkali is added
and over shooting occurs, the colour will
readjustment as when the pH is brought to the target gradually.
not be the same on
It has
been shown that an error of 0.1 pH unit results in an error of 5% or more
and it is recommended that the pH be adjusted to 7 exactly or at most,
7,00 ± 0,05.

cj Clarity of the solution.

• The presence of solid and colloidal material affects the path of the light
through the sugar solution. The solution, therefore, must be as clear as
possible and ICUMSA recommends filtration through a 0.45 urn
membrane.

dj The concentration of the solution.

• This is straightforward. For example consider two cups of tea, one

strong and the other weak. The tea is the same but the colours appear
to be different. The concentration of the solution, therefore, must be
known.

•
 2-10

• e) The length
spectrophotometer) .
of the sample cell (for the

As well as concentration, absorption also varies directly with the length

of the sample cell. Beer-Lambert's law adequately represents these
variations. The distance the light travels through the sample must
therefore be specified.

• The colour calculation formula is as follows:

ICUMSA Colour= Absorbance@ 420nmx10000

Cell Length(mm)x Concentration of Total Solids in solution (glcm3)

The colour measurement provides an indication of the impurities or the

level of non-sugars of a sugar solution due to the fact that most non-

• sugars are coloured.

the following section.
The method of analysis for purity is presented in

2.2 Present Method of Determining Purity

Purity is defined as the percentage ratio of sucrose (pol) to the total

• soluble solids (brix) in a sugar product. Purity analysis can be performed

for all the process streams i.e. juice, massecuite (combination of sugar
crystal and molasses) and separated sugar and molasses. The
following formula are used:

•
 2-11

• . pol 100
1. Apparent Punty -.
bnx
x-
1

2 . G raviity Purit
un y = sucrose x--
100
brix 1

3. True Purity = sucrose Itotal dry solids

• Pol, brix, sucrose and total dry solids can be expressed as a percentage by
mass or as an actual mass. Total dry solids refers to the determination of the
solids concentration of an aqueous solution determined by drying.

These formulas are used according to the accuracy of the analysis required.
Apparent purity is most commonly used. In order to clearly understand the
definition of purity, it is necessary to define the terminology presented. A view
of the methods of analysis is also presented to provide a better understanding
of the above methods of measuring sugar purity.

• 2.2.1 Pol

The polarimeter provides a quantitative estimation of sucrose by

measuring the rotation of the plane of polarised light. Ordinary light
travels in waves that vibrate in an infinite number of planes. These
waves when passed through a special optical device (polariser) can be

• made to vibrate in one place only. When this phenomenon occurs the
light is said to be polarised.

When polarised light is passed through a solution containing sucrose,

the sucrose is able to rotate the plane of polarisation by an amount
proportional to the concentration of the sucrose. Sucrose is therefore
said to be optically active. It is this principle that is used in a polarimeter
and the reading obtained is converted to a pol concentration, generally

•
 2-12

• °Z pol (International Sugar Degrees).

from the word "polarisation".
Pol as can be seen is determined

Pol is not the exact sucrose content. It is identical to sucrose if the

solution contains pure sucrose only. Exact sucrose content can be
measured accurately using gas chromatography (GC). In a sugar
solution, sucrose is not the only optically active substance. The two

• simple sugars glucose and fructose are also optically active. Sucrose
rotates the plane of polarisation to the right, glucose also to the right,
and fructose very strongly to the left. Hence the pol of a sugar solution
is known as an "apparent" sucrose content, as the concentration of
fructose and glucose will affect the pol either positively or negatively.
Furthermore the degree of rotation can change with time. Pol is
therefore an approximate measure of sucrose.

Due to the expertise required for operating the GC equipment and the

• high expense
saccharimeters)
of the equipment itself, polarimeters (also
are used to determine the apparent sucrose content of
called

a solution. A 1DO-point scale is defined for the measurement of pol. The

scale is divided linearly between OOZ(pure water) and 1000Z (normal
sugar solution). Normal sugar solution is defined as 26 g of pure
sucrose (weighed in air, with brass weights under normal atmospheric
conditions) dissolved into a volume of 100 ern" at 20°C .. Polarised light

•
of wavelength 546 nm is used and a tube length of 200mm [(Brown and
Zerban (1941 )].

•
 2-13

• 2.2.2 Brix

8rix is defined as total dissolved solids, including the pol (apparent

sucrose). A refractometer is used to determine the total solids of a sugar
solution by measuring the refractive index of an aqueous solution. The
refractive index of the solution is proportional to the amount of dissolved
material and can therefore serve as a measure of solids content. This

• principle is valid only for pure solutions as non-sugars present in sugar

products influence the refractive index in a way similar to sucrose.

The refractive index is defined as follows: When a beam of light from one
medium, e.g. air, falling at an inclined angle upon a surface of a second
medium, e.g. water, it is found that the beam on entering the second
medium is bent or deflected from its original course. This phenomenon
is known as the refraction of light. A good example is the bent

• appearance of an oar of a boat when seen obliquely under water.

ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction is always a constant value for the same temperature.
The

Figure
2.4 presents refraction graphically.

•
 2-14

•
p m

• F

r
S

• Figure 2.4: Refraction of light

In Figure 2.4:
mand m 1 are the 2 media.
pp1 is drawn perpendicular to the dividing surface FF1.
LO is the beam of light passing through medium m. It is refracted in the
direction OS. The reflected beam is OL 1.

The ratio of Sini

= n is called the index of refraction.

• The ratio of Sini

Sinr

is also defined by the velocity of light in the 2 media

Sirrr

n = Sini V
Sirrr - V1
Where V is the light velocity in mand V1 is the velocity in m 1,

The ratio of n = Sini is used to determine the brix of the solution.

• Sirrr
 2-15

• The measurement
using a refractometer
of refractometer brix can be simply demonstrated
trough [Brown and Zerban (1941)]. Figure 2.5
presents a diagram of a refractometer trough.

•
Figure 2.5 Measuring refractive index by refractometer trough.

Light shines through the small glass slit in the trough that has been
calibrated (like a protractor). The angle of incidence and refracted
angles can be seen from above and below the sugar solution and hence

• the refractive index can be determined.

Another method used to measure brix is the measurement of the critical

angle. This method is considered more accurate. Total internal
reflection refers to the critical angle of incidence where the light ray is
totally reflected, i.e. no refraction occurs at this angle.

Sini
Therefore where previously = n,
Sirrr

•
 2-16

• Here r=90o and Sine 90 = 1, so Sini

This critical angle is used to determine

=n.

the solution concentration.

Refractometers are fitted with linear scales to be looked up in tables or
are calibrated directly in brix.

Refractometers and polarimeters are a common sight in all sugar mill

• laboratories. The purity of the respective sample is calculated once the

pol and the brix readings have been obtained.
method) is explained in detail in Appendix A.
This procedure (SASTA

2.3 Other methods used to determine sugar purity.

The methods for determining sugar purity and colour discussed above
apply to sucrose solutions and not to solid crystalline sugar. Techniques

• to determine the sugar purity and colour of solid sugar crystals were
therefore
wavelength
explored.
or frequency
The principle of colour measurement
is fairly common and is presented
using
in most
Physics textbooks. An alternative optical technique of measuring
reflected light intensity to predict the colour and purity of brown sugar
crystals was documented and presented by Miller and Taylor [1974]. In
this study the two methods of measuring light (frequency/wavelength
and light intensity) to predict the purity of low-grade C-sugar is

• investigated.
below .
The details of the two methods investigated are presented

•
 2-17

• 2.3.1 The measurement of light wavelength or frequency

Relevant theory

The physical theory of light regarding the measurement of wavelength

provided a greater understanding into the operation of optical

•
instruments used to measure reflected light wavelength. Light is
luminous energy that causes the sensation of vision. Examples of light
sources are the sun and the stars, which are self-luminous while electric
lamps are artificial sources of light. When light falls on an object it is
reflected, refracted or transmitted (absorbed). The different colours are
produced by light and are electromagnetic vibrations recurring at
discrete wavelengths. Light consists of localised packets of
electromagnetic energy called photons, which move, through space at a
speed (C) of 3 x 108 mIs. Photons have wave-like properties

• (wavelength and frequency) [Nelkon (1981 )). A photon is a localised

wave packet of time varying, oscillating self-sustaining
magnetic fields - hence the use of the term electromagnetic waves.
electric and

According to Huygens principle [Nelkon (1981 )), light consists of

vibrations or wave motions. Waves of light, contrary to those of sound,
vibrate transversally instead of longitudinally. Figure 2.6 presents the
wave properties of a light wave .

•
 2-18

• 8

a.
E
<.(

• Figure 2.6: Diagram of a light wave

08 is known the amplitude, that is the distance from the

middle to the extremity of the oscillation.
A to E is know as the wavelength. Wavelength is
measured in nano-metres.

• Frequency is the number of waves per second. The unit of frequency

measurement is Hertz (Hz).
Therefore: C =A f
Where: C is the speed of light (rns").
A is the wave length (m)
and f the frequency (Hz or S-1 ) .

• The colour depends on the length of the wave.

may therefore be expressed mathematically
The colour of the light
in terms of frequency or of
its wavelength. The human eye can perceive light of wavelengths
between 373 and 820nm. White surfaces reflect light while black
surfaces absorb light. Coloured surfaces reflect some frequencies of
light and absorb others .

•
 2-19

• The spectral colours are as follows:

Colour (nm) Longest wavelength

Red 683
Orange 615
Yellow 559
Green 512

• Blue
Indigo
Violet
473
439
410
Shortest wavelength

If a certain wavelength is absorbed by the medium, the remaining

mixture of wavelengths reflected back to the observer is perceived as a
colour other than white.
One of the main components in a spectrometer, measuring wavelength

• is a diffraction
spreading
grating. A diffraction
light into its spectral components.
grating acts like a prism, by
As mentioned above a
white light source is composed of a spectrum of colours i.e. it is a
polychromatic light source. Each colour corresponds to a different
frequency of light. The diffraction grating sorts light by frequency with
violet (highest frequency) at one end and red (the lowest frequency) at
the other .

• Gratings rely on the interference

microscopically
between wave fronts
ruled diffraction lines on a mirrored surface.
caused
Figure 2.7
by

presents the diagram showing the operation of the diffraction grating.

The wavelength of the reflected light varies with angle as defined by the
grating equation where m is the order of the spectrum (m = 1,2,3 ....).
m = d (sin a ± sinê). As depicted in figure 2.7, d is the distance from
the incident wavefront to the defracted wavefront in nm .

•
 ':XX)4 - 2\ 64-
BtlN \ 04-0\ \e:, 2-20

• d sin (l - d sin p = A.

•
'+-
d

Figure 2.7: Diffraction grating

Hence it can be seen that the measurement of frequency/wavelength

• can be used to directly predict the colour and purity of sugar crystals.

Instruments for measuring wavelength of reflected light

off the surface of sugar crystals

Nielson [1996] developed the Neltec colour 0800 colorimeter to

measure sugar colour. This instrument is being used successfully in the

• American sugar industry [Clarke (1997)]. With the colorimeter, reflected

light off a sugar surface is separated into the spectral components and
analysed by an on-line computer. The Neltec colour 0800 is able to
measure colour rapidly on solid crystalline sugar wet or dry with good
correlation to the ICUMSA colour measurement at 420nm. The
instrument has only been applied to measure the colour of sugar on a
moving sugar belt conveyor.

•
LI RAR
 2-21

• Hunterlab
employs
[1999] also produces colour measurement
the principle of measuring the reflected
equipment that
light wavelength.
These colour instruments have been applied in the food industry where
the colour of breads, bread rolls and cookies have been monitored in an
oven. Sugar, cereals and coffee are other products have also been
monitored for colour by the Hunter Lab colour meters. These colour
meters have been used by the TSB Sugar Mill (Transvaal, South Africa)

• in the laboratory [Mood ley (1999)].

correlation between the Hunterlab
Moodley achieved a favourable
sugar purity measurements
laboratory analysis of C-sugar, however the instrument was not tested in
and

the factory. Hunterlab colour meters have proven to be robust enough to

survive factory conditions.

The Hunterlab colour meters presented above were tested either on a

conveyor belt or in the laboratory. The literature review also revealed
colour meters that were able to detect sugar colour inside a continuous

• centrifugal. These particular instruments related reflected light intensity

to sugar colour or purity. The findings are presented in the following
section.

2.3.2 The measurement of reflected light intensity off

the surface of sugar crystals

• Relevant theory

The concepts of reflection, refraction and transmission were introduced

previously. The laws of reflection state that the incident rays, the
reflected rays and the normal lie on the same plane with the angle of
incidence being equal to the angle of reflection. Light falling on an object
is reflected, refracted or transmitted (absorbed). Light has both wave
and particle nature and can there fore be seen to be travelling in straight

• lines. This is called rectilinear propagation of light.

 2-22

• Reflection of light is that fraction of light falling on a surface, which is

reflected. Reflection off smooth surfaces is regular, that is, light is
reflected in one direction due the smoothness of the surface. Lightly
coloured and! or smooth surfaces reflect light more readily. Rough
surfaces result in light being reflected in many directions (scattered or
diffusely reflected). Dark and textured surfaces absorb a lot of light and

• therefore have low reflectance [Sternheim and Kane (1983)]. The theory
on the reflectance of light off coloured bodies revealed that lightly
coloured bodies reflect more light and darkly coloured bodies absorb
more light. The intensity of the reflected light will therefore vary
according to the quantities of light that are absorbed or reflected by the
relevant surface. Hence the intensity of reflected light should correlate
with the colour of a body.

The equipment used to measure reflected light intensity off solid

• crystalline surfaces were investigated and are presented below.

Instruments for measuring reflected light intensity off the

surface of sugar crystals

a) The SRI reflectance meter

• The Sugar Research Institute (SRI) of Australia began investigations into

the development of a reflectance meter for the determination
sugar purity in 1974 [Miller and Taylor].
of raw
Up until this stage a method to
continuously monitor the purity of sugar leaving the centrifugals and
sugar driers was not available. The method used to monitor sugar purity
relied on visual assessment of sugar colour by the operator. As can be
expected this form of assessment is not exact and varied from individual
to individual. Initial attempts at developing a reflectance meter to

• measure sugar purity, were performed on raw sugar leaving the

 2-23

• centrifugals on a conveyor belt. The reflectance meter consisted of a

white light source, which was directed on to the sugar surface.
reflected light was received by a photo-resistor or photoelectric
The
cell (a
photo-sensor) i.e. the photo-sensor measured the intensity of the
reflected light. No pre-treatment of the sample was required apart from
a level sample surface and a constant geometry between light source,
sample surface and receiving sensor.

• The results achieved were favourable with good correlations

sugar purity and cell resistance being achieved.
between
For the factory trials a
Phillips 150W light and an ORP - 12 (cadmium sulphide) light dependant
resistor was used. The reflectance meter developed was considered a
success. However it was acknowledged that the meter needed to
operate in a relatively harsh environment where readings could be
affected by sugar dust settling on the lamp and photocell. Vibration was
also recognised as a contributing factor to unsettled or varying light

• detector output.

The reflected light intensity meter was accepted as a reliable indicator of

sugar purity by chemists and operators.

A similar method to automatically control raw sugar purity in a centrifugal

is described by King [1975]. The attempt to automate low grade C-sugar
purity exiting a continuous centrifugal was presented by Wright [1977].

• Wright describes the experiment with a commercially developed

reflectance meter [Davis (1976)], testing its applicability to C-sugar purity
control in a continuous centrifugal. Two arrangements were tested, one
measuring the purity of mixed diluted sugar exiting the centrifugal and
the second the measurement of the purity of sugar on the top of the
spinning conical screen of the centrifugal. The measurement of the
reflectance off dilute magma was not successful. However trials
measuring the sugar purity on top of the screen of the centrifugal

•
 2-24

• produced favourable
reflectance and sugar purity.
results with a linear relationship between

Miller and Wright [1978] presented a review of the progress on the

development of an automatic method to control C-sugar purity. Working
with the linear correlation of sugar purity and reflectance reading, the
automation of wash water addition was tried. It should be emphasised

• that the meter should be robust enough to withstand

conditions in a centrifugal (high temperature and moisture content).
the harsh

During testing the reflectance meter experienced excessive molasses

fouling of the tubes, thus indicating that the distance of the tubes from
the basket required optimisation. The meter was calibrated using
extremes of high and low sugar purities. Results of work conducted by
Miller and Wright [1978] revealed favourable correlations of C-sugar
purity by the reflectance meter, with an estimated standard error of 0,75

• units of purity.

Testing by Tongaat Hulett Sugar was also conducted in an attempt to

develop a reflectance meter to predict C-sugar purity in a continuous
centrifugal. Their experiences are presented below.

The Tongaat -Huletts reflectance meter .

• Shorn [1982] and Proome [1982] performed the preliminary

Darnall Sugar Mill (North Coast, Natal), where the reflectance meter was
trials at

installed on a K850 BMA "C" - centrifugal. The Huletts team called their
reflectance meter a Purity Meter. Proome [1982] presented the principle
of operation as simple and based on measured reflected light intensity.
A light source was focused onto a centrifugal screen containing the
surface of sugar crystals and a cadmium sulphide photoconductive cell

•
was used to detect the variation in intensity of the reflected light beam .
 2-25

• The unit was calibrated for the purity range of 75 to 85 %.

photoconductive cell's output was electronically conditioned to produce a
4 - 20mA output signal. A graduated meter (0 - 100%) connected to the
The

output signal was used to indicate purity and the operator used this
reading to adjust water addition to the centrifugal. It was concluded from
these trials that there existed a definitive relationship between the Purity
Meter (reflectance meter) readings and the sugar purity. This

• relationship was considered good enough to control C-sugar purity. The

relationship between sugar purities and the purity meter readings were
linear with regression correlation's of up to ~ = 0,99 being obtained for
individual tests. The automation wash water addition however was not
successfully implemented. The purity meter required calibration and
cleaning frequently i.e. every week.

Although trials provided a strong linear relationship between sugar purity

and the purity meter reading and the operator was able to successfully

• control the sugar purity by manually adjusting the wash water valve, no
further investigation was pursued.

2.3.3 Wavelength versus intensity measurement.

The use of measured wavelength is a more scientifically accepted

optical technique for colour detection in that the exact colour could be

• predicted using the measured wavelength. Moodley's

Nielson' [1996] results confirmed this with regard to predicting sugar
purity. The SRI meter and the Huletts meter (measurement
[1999] and

of light
intensity) have also successfully predicted sugar purities. Hence it can
be seen that both the methods can be used to predict sugar
colour/purity.

The cost of Hunterlab equipment used by Moodley [1999] is considered

• too high (at approximately R120000 per unit). When taking into account
 2-26

• that that an average sugar mill possesses 6 - 10 C-centrifugals,

installation of these meters is not a practical option.
the
The use of the
Neltec [Nielson (1996)] colour meter was successfully tested on a sugar
conveyor belt, but no trials were performed inside a continuous
centrifugal. The Hulett meter is a low cost apparatus and its operation is
fairly simple. It was therefore decided on the basis of low cost and
simple operation that the research initiated by Tongaat Hulett in 1982 be

• continued.

•
 3-1

• Chapter 3

CONTINUOUS CENTRIFUGALS

In Chapter 2 it was stated that the purity meter to be developed is

• intended to operate in a continuous centrifugal.

purity meter an understanding
In order to develop the
of the environment in which the purity
meter is to operate is needed. Therefore Chapter 3 provides a basic
knowledge of continuous centrifugals used for the separation of
molasses and sugar-crystals from massecuite (molasses and sugar-
crystals mixture) in the sugar industry.

• 3.1

Continuous
Continuous centrifuqals in the sugar industry.

centrifugals have been in use in the sugar industry since

1950 [Wiehe (1974)]. These continuous machines are generally used
for the separation of Band C massecuites where crystal breakage is not
of paramount importance. High crystal breakage in A-sugar is not
acceptable as this is the final product and must adhere to the required
product specification. Batch centrifugals are therefore used for A-sugar

• separation. The technology/design of continuous centrifugals

however advanced and high-grade centrifugals are on the market (for A
sugar).
have

The operation of the centrifugal is based on the model consisting of a

thin layer of massecuite (approximately 3 mm thick) moving continuously
over the basket screen, while the mother liquor is being purged. As the
massecuite moves up the basket screen, and molasses is drained under

• centrifugal force, the sugar becomes drier. The cured sugar goes over
 3-2

• the top of the basket into a sugar chamber. Massecuite

continuously in the apex of the cone. The cured sugar and molasses are
separated in different streams through chambers at the bottom of the
is fed

centrifugal.

The centrifugal consists of a conical basket and is mounted vertically.

The basket is driven at constant speeds by vee belts from an electric

• motor.
perforated
Baskets are generally made of stainless steel, which can be
or of the solid type with slots for molasses drainage.
backing screen is fitted to the top of the basket to which a sugar screen
A

is fitted. The basket is housed in a monitor casing where provision is

made for sugar and molasses chambers.

Figure 3.1 presents the layout of a typical continuous centrifugal.

•
• • • 3-3 • •
Steam Inlet Massecuite Feed
Steam Inlet
Motor
Basket
Casing

1 IWL~.rt·*~~77Zm'1TrY?WWr~1
I

Molasses Sugar
Sugar
Outlet Discharge
Discharge

Figure 3.1: Diagram of a typical continuous centrifugal.

 3-4

• The throughput of a centrifugal is expressed in terms of volume of

massecuite treated (not in terms of the quantity of sugar produced).
The brix of the massecuite is used as an indicator of viscosity. The
feed of massecuite to a centrifugal when observed with a strobe
scope looks like a series of 'fingers' spreading from the bottom to the
top of the basket. This is presented in Figure 3.2. The 'fingers' are
caused by erratic surges of massecuite from the accelerating bell

• cup. The accelerating cup helps with massecuite distribution on to

the screens.

• {a)
(t»
(cl
(d)
(e)
Acceleration
Web impeding
cup with inflow of masseeuite
flow of massecuite to basket
M3$$e~l.Iite on cho Irulde of the feed eone
Feed cone dewn which m:usecul:te moves to basket
High speed lobes of rnassccuire
(f) Pu r~ed ,sugar
(g) Ba$t.;et rim.

Figure 3.2: Movement of massecuite on the centrifugal screen .

•
 3-5

• 3.2 Present continuous centrifugal control.

The continuous centrifugal can be controlled manually or

automatically by controlling the feed and wash water addition.
Automatic regulation of feed can be achieved by linking the input
current to the drive motor with a feed valve mechanism. There is no
form of automatic control on the B- and C-continuous centrifugals at

• Tongaat Hulett Sugar. The amount of water addition on continuous

centrifugals is dependent on the operator's visual inspection of the
sugar exiting the centrifugal. The appearance (colour) of the sugar is
related to sugar purity analysis received from the laboratory before
making water adjustments.

Water and steam are required for the separation of crystals from the
mother liquor for the following purposes:

• Due to the very strong relationship

temperature and viscosity, and the massecuite feed to
between

the centrifugal being very viscous, the addition of steam

is necessary to reduce the

a) Viscosity of the massecuite. Steam allows for an increase

in temperature with minimal dilution to the molasses.

• Steam and water addition are also necessary

proper distribution of the massecuite over the screen.
to have

and

b) To effectively wash the molasses off the crystals and to

ensure that the required sugar purity is maintained

•
 3-6

• Steam is introduced around the massecuite feed (piping is seen on

top of the monitor casing). Water is added to the massecuite feed
column by means of a perforated pipe or by circumferential sprays.
Figure 3.1 shows the present method of water addition
(circumferential sprays). A flow meter on the water line can be used
to adjust the water addition while steam addition is relatively small
and the flow is therefore not measured.

• 3.3 C-Sugar purity control.

The C-sugar purity (the sugar that was tested for this investigation)
required is in the range of 82 - 85%. As mentioned previously, the
sugar purity is controlled by the operator's visual inspection and
laboratory analysis. This kind of sugar purity control is subject to an
individual's judgement and will naturally vary from one individual to
another.

• Another important factor in controlling wash water addition is

controlling the final molasses purity. A purity rise of 1,5 to 2 units is
acceptable from the original mother-liquor to the molasses exiting the
centrifugal. Purity rise is determined by comparing the purity of the
mother liquor extracted from the massecuite to the molasses purity
exiting the centrifugals. Incorrect water addition not only results in
unacceptable sugar purity but also affects the molasses purities.

• Excessive water addition can dissolve sugar crystals, raising the

exiting molasses purity.

Sucrose losses resulting from over-washing can be curtailed by

massecuite conditioning. Massecuite conditioning involves the
addition of hot water or molasses to reduce the massecuite viscosity
and thereby provide "easier" separation of the crystals and the
molasses. This practice requires high supervision as dissolving of

•
 3-7

• the sugar crystals can easily occur and is therefore generally not
recommended (especially the addition of hot water).

3.4 Proposed method of continuous centrifugal

control.

It can be seen that the present method of sugar purity control

• (manual wash water addition) is inadequate. This investigation aims

to provide the operator with a reliable on-line measurement of sugar
purity by developing a sugar purity meter. The environment in which
the purity meter is to operate was acknowledged as a relatively harsh
one. The factors that would affect the operation of the purity meter
were therefore investigated. These factors were recognised as:

6) The effect of temperature. The temperature experienced

• ft
inside the centrifugal is approximately 65°C. The purity meter
components must be able to withstand this temperature.
Crystal Movement. The sugar crystals move up the centrifugal
basket and also tumble over each other as they move up the
basket.
• Steam. Steam added to the centrifugal for the reduction of the
massecuite viscosity may obscure the 'vision' of the meter.
• Vibration. The meter must be sufficiently robust to withstand

• the effects of vibration experienced on the centrifugal.

It is believed that the development of such a meter would be of

significant benefit to the sugar industry so that proper control of sugar
purity is achieved. The benefits of proper control of sugar purity are
a more uniform product and lower sucrose losses to molasses .

•
 4-1

• Chapter 4

DEVELOPMENT OF THE LABORATORY

PURITY METER

• In the preceding chapters the need for the development

purity meter was stated. Chapter 4 describes
of a sugar
and discusses
preliminary laboratory investigation performed in the development
the
of
an industrial meter for the detection of sugar purity in a continuous
centrifugal. Included in this chapter is the development of the
geometric design of the purity meter, the trials that lead to the selection
of the purity meter components, that is, the selection of the light source
and light detector, and the trials that evaluated the effects of the
centrifugal environmental conditions on the performance of the purity

• meter.

Chapter 4 consists of the following sections:

4.1 Geometric design.

4.2 Selection of light source.
4.3 Selection of light detector/sensor.
4.4 Testing of the centrifugal environmental conditions .

• 4.5 Summary.

Each section describes the aim of the experiment, details of

experimental equipment used, the experimental procedure, and the
results obtained. Results are summarised to complement only the
specific aims of the experiment. The full experimental results and raw
data are presented in Appendices B, C, 0 and E.

•
 4-2

• 4.1 Geometric design.

Initial trials were performed in a cardboard box (650 x 430 cm). The
box was painted black on the inside to simulate the dark environment
found on the inside of a centrifugal. The light source and light detector
were housed in two separate tubes. This rig was later improved to the
more robust wooden box (28 x 26 x 50cm) presented as Figure 4.1.

• The purpose of the tubes was firstly to direct the incident light rays
onto the sugar surface thereby reducing light scatter and secondly to
protect the light source and light detector from physical damage and
molasses fouling.

The light source and detector require protection from molasses due to
the high centrifugal forces in the centrifugal, where molasses has a
natural tendency to be spun off the basket. This molasses may

•
obscure the light source and the light detector resulting in incorrect
readings. It was also envisaged that molasses ingress might damage
the light source and detector. The tubes in the laboratory rig were
adjustable so that the ideal distance from the sugar sample could be
measured.

The tubes inserted from the top of the box were held in place by a
metal clamp. The laboratory rig was equipped with a door that allowed

•
for the adjustment of the tube and sugar sample distance. During trials
the door was shut to prevent ambient light from interfering with the
reflectance measurement. Sugar samples were inserted through a
specially designed sample holder to minimize interference (seen on the
right side on figure 4.1).

Figure 4.1 overleaf presents the physical and the geometric design of
the Laboratory Purity Meter Rig .

•
 4-3

• UGKT SOURCE

LIGHT DETECTOR

UGHT SOURCE AND UGHT

DETECTOR TUBES INSERTED

• \

• SUGAR SAMPLE
SUD£
236x130x25

• ,/
/'
,/,
/'

/'
./ /' DRAWER SPACE

Figure 4.1: Laboratory purity meter rig .

•
 4-4

• 4.2 Selection of light source

The selection criteria for the light source were; the achievement of a reliable
and repeatable relationship between sugar purity and measured reflected
light intensity, and a physically robust light source that can withstand the
environmental conditions of the sugar mill.

• 4.2.1 Aim of the experiment

To identify light sources suitable for the measurement of reflected light

intensity off sugar samples, and to relate this measurement to varying
sugar purity.

4.2.2 Experimental method and equipment

• 4.2.2.1 Light sources

The following light sources were investigated:

a) Incandescent lights (12W and 35 W)
b) Strobe light: 35 W, strobe at 4 Hz
c) Red light emitting diode (12 candela)

Light sources investigated in the preliminary trials were selected for

• possessing characteristics of physical robustness, long lamp life, low

maintenance and cost effectiveness. The characteristics of each light
sources are presented below.

a) Incandescent light

Previous literature shows the use of incandescent light by Miller and

Taylor (1974) and Proome (1982)]. Incandescent light is a

• polychromatic
spectrum.
light source, that is, it includes the entire
The ability of the sugar surface to absorb a certain fraction
colour
 4-5

• of the incident light and reflect the rest formed the parameter tested
during these trials.

The advantage of using an incandescent light source is its easy

availability. Incandescent light sources were also available in very high
outputs (>150W), thus allowing the advantage of greater illumination
and hence greater sample to tube distance. As mentioned previously

• this is required for the prevention

source and detector.
of molasses fouling of the light

The disadvantage of the incandescent lamp is its shorter life span

compared to a light emitting diode (LED). The life expectancy of an
incandescent lamp is 10 000 to 20 000 hours. LEOs have life spans of
between 5 and 10 times longer [(Lamps vs LEOs (1998)]. Another
disadvantage of the incandescent lamp is that it has a large heat
output, thus making it difficult to handle. The light output of an

• incandescent lamp also deteriorates with time and it is sensitive to

shock and vibration.

There are ways in which the life span of the light bulb may be
extended. The use of direct current (DC) is recommended where
possible and in areas of shock and vibration, the lowest possible
voltage should be used. Operating at voltages lower than the rated
voltage dramatically increases the bulb life [Lamps vs LEOs (1998)].

• The general arrangement of the electrical set-up for the testing of

incandescent light is presented in Figure 4.2 .

•
 4-6

• 220 V

Transformer

12 V

•
Tube

Jl \ Incident
Light

• ~~-------
Sugar surface

Figure 4.2 Incandescent Light - Electrical set-up

b) Strobe light

The strobe light is basically an incandescent light that is equipped with

• an electrical circuit allowing for an ON/OFF system thereby allowing for

the 'strobe' effect. As explained previously in the literature review, the
sugar climbing up the screen occurs in finger like projections. Also it
was evident that the sugar was not uniform in colour. It was envisaged
that the strobe light would allow for an 'averaging' effect of the light and
dark bands of sugar.

It was with these expectations that the strobe was selected for

• preliminary
electronically
trials. Note an averaging effect can also be applied
to the output of ordinary incandescent. The general
 4-7

• arrangement of the electrical set-up for the testing of the strobe light is
presented in Figure 4.3.
these trials.
A 4 Hz strobe frequency was used during

220V

•
AC to DC converter
Strobe Light
Circuit

• Tube

Incident
Light

Sugar surface

• Figure 4.3 Strobe Light - Electrical Set-up

•
 4-8

• c) Red light emitting diode (LED)

The use of LEDs was investigated as they are claimed to have some
advantages over incandescent lamps [Mantech Electronics (1998)].
As mentioned previously LEDs have a longer life span than an
incandescent lamp. They are also resistant to shock and vibration due
to their solid make-up. They have low heat generation (-7°C), and

• unlike the incandescent

therefore
lamp, do not deteriorate
do not require frequent
environment this is a great advantage.
replacement.
over time and
In an industrial

The greatest disadvantage of the LED was that it is available in much

lower outputs. The highest LED output that was obtained was a red
LED of 12 candelas. Candela refers to candle power. Candela is the
unit used to measure the intensity of light in a particular direction

•
[Language of Light (1998)]. One candela is equivalent to 0.8 W.
Another disadvantage was that it is generally more expensive than an
incandescent lamp. The above properties were considered when
selecting the red LED for preliminary trials.

The general arrangement of the electrical set-up for the testing of red
light from a LED (light emitting diode) is presented in Figure 4.4

•
 4-9

• 10 V

Maximum current
Resistor (500n) 20 mA

12 V

• ~==~~RedLE012
candela

Tube

Incident
Licht

•
Sugar surface

Figure 4.4 Red LED- Electrical Set-up

4.2.2.2 Light detector

The light detectors are equipped with photoconductive cells. Previous

literature shows the use of two types of industrial photo-detectors

• [Miller and Taylor (1974) and Proome (1982)] namely the photodiodes
and the light dependent resistors (LOR). The light detectors operate
in specific wavelength bands, therefore the choice of the photodiode or
LOR must be in accordance with the light source selected. Proome
[1982] used the photodiode as the light detector. As these trials were
a continuation of Proome's investigation, the light detector used in the
light source selection trials was a photodiode.

• The photodiodes
(semi-conductive)
are made of cadmium
cells. The light
sulphide
received by the
photoconductive
photo-diode
 4-10

• increases the conductance of the semi-conductors

falling on the photodiode increases electron movement.
the photodiode
that is the light
The output of
is simplified using electronics to provide a standard
instrumentation output of 4 to 20 mA (milliamps) or a 0 to 10 V (volts).
Voltage was recorded for these trials. The photodiode used for these
trials was the R5652-995-U335. This photodiode operates in the
visible light range.

• These voltages were recorded using an oscilloscope or a voltmeter.

the case of the incandescent and red LED light sources
In
the
oscilloscope was unable to detect low voltages, and hence a voltmeter
was used to accommodate for this shortcoming. Trials also included
the placing of colour filters over the light sensor to enhance the light
sensors ability to distinguish between the varying sugar purities.

Figure 4.5 presents a block circuit diagram of the operation of the

• photo-diode.

DC Signal
DC Power Processing o to 5 V
Supply (DC)

,
Light Light CPU

• Source Detector
Photo-diode

'If
Display
Reflected
Incident
Light
Light
Ray
Rav

Suqar Crvstal

• Figure 4.5 Light Detector - Photodiode

 4-11

• Light emitted from the light source is reflected off the sugar surface
and the detector measures the intensity of the reflected
Reflectance is the fraction of light reflected from a surface compared to
light.

the amount of light falling on that surface. A direct current (DC)

amplifier amplifies the signal received to a 0 to 5 Volt DC output. This
signal can be used directly to correlate a relationship with sugar purity
or can be conditioned by a central processing unit (CPU) that will

• electronically produce a 0 to 100% output. The voltage output or the 0

to 100% output is correlated to the sugar purity and a relationship is
established using statistics.

4.2.2.3 Sugar sampling and analyses

Low grade (C-sugar) samples used in the laboratory trials were

obtained from Maidstone Sugar Mill. These were analysed in the
laboratory using the method prescribed by the South African Sugar

• Technologists Association (SASTA). The method is presented

Appendix A. The analytical equipment used are as follows:
in

a) Polarimeterl Saccharimeters

The polarimeter was used to measure the apparent sucrose (pol) of

the sugar samples for sugar purity detection. The procedure for
ICUMSA pol determination is presented in Appendix A.

•
Manufacturer: Schmidt and Haensch
Make: Polartronic Universal
Serial: 25054

•
 4-12

• b) Digital Refractometer

The refractometer was used to measure the brix of the sugar solutions
for colour analysis. The procedure for ICUMSA brix analyses is
presented in Appendix A.

Manufacturer: Bellingham and Stanley Limited

Make: RFM 500 Digital refractometer

• Serial: Y95019
These analyses showed the sugar purity to be in the range of 81 to 92
% purity.

4.2.2.4 Sample preparation

The sample preparation for the laboratory test rig was as follows:

• The sugar
approximate
samples were
thickness of 5 mm.
provide a flat surface.
placed in containers allowing
The samples were compacted
Care was taken not to damage the sugar
for an
to

crystals during sample preparation. The sugar samples were replaced

whenever they dried out.

4.2.2.5 Data collation and analyses

• The voltage measurement corresponding to the different sugar purities

were recorded and analysed using statistical analysis. As mentioned
in Chapter 2, the theory on the reflectance of light off coloured bodies
revealed that lightly coloured bodies reflect more light and darkly
coloured bodies absorb more light. As C-sugar colour varies from dark
brown (low purity) to light yellow (high purity) it was envisaged that
there would be a linear relationship between sugar purity and the
reflected light intensity. Therefore regression analysis and correlation

• coefficients were obtained to establish the relationship between

 4-13

• reflected light intensity (voltage) and analysed sugar purity (sucrose

percentage).

Regression analysis is the use of graphically display trends in data to

analyse problems of prediction. Linear regression calculates the least
squares fit for a line represented by the equation y = mx + b, where m
is the slope and b is the intercept.

• When a suitable correlation between y and x has been obtained, either

by least-squares analysis or graphical curve fitting, it is necessary to
know how good the this fit is and the parameter which conveys this
information is the correlation coefficient (r). The correlation coefficient
r is a dimensionless index that ranges from -1.0 to 1.0 inclusive and
reflects the extent of a linear relationship between the two data sets. A
trend line is most reliable when the correlation coefficient is at or near
-1.0 or 1.0. The negative or positive value of r indicates a negative (y

• tends to decrease as x increases) or positive (y tends to increase as x

increases) correlation respectively.

A student's t-test was used to determine whether values achieved for

the various trials were statistically significant or not at a given
probability level. A 95% level of confidence was used for the analysis.
If the calculated t-(statistical) is less than the t-(critical) then there is no
significant difference between the values tested .

• The formulas and their derivations for regression analysis, correlation

coefficient and the student t-test can be found in any statistical text.

4.2.3 Experimental results and discussion

4.2.3.1 Strobe light

The distance between the sugar samples and the tubes housing the

• light source and the light sensor were arbitrarily chosen at 18 cm, 12
cm and 7 cm. Correlation coefficient values (r) of 0.61, 0.66 and 0.72
 4-14

• were calculated for the trials performed at these respective distances.

Although it was apparent that the relationship improved when the
sugar sample to the tubes distance decreased, the relationship was
not considered to be highly linear (not sufficiently close to the desired
1.0). The graphical representations of these trials have been
presented in Appendix B.

• As explained previously light sensors operate in specific wavelength

ranges. The selected light sensor (photodiode) operates in the visible
light spectrum, (-400 nm to 700nm). In order to determine the
optimum wavelength detected by the specific light sensor, that can be
used to measure sugar purity, the reflected light was passed through
colour filters before reaching the sensor. Five filter colours were used
in the following combinations:

1. Green

• 2.
3.
Green and orange
Green and blue
4. Green and yellow
5. Green and brown
6. Orange
7. Orange and blue
8. Orange and yellow
9. Orange and brown

• 10.
11.
12.
Blue
Blue and yellow
Blue and brown
13. Yellow
14. Yellow and brown
15. Brown

•
 4-15

• Preliminary testing showed the optimum correlation

purity and light reflectance using a separation
between the sugar samples and the tubes. This distance between the
distance
between sugar
of 7 cm

sugar sample and light source and detector tubes was therefore used
during colour filter trials. A marked improvement was observed in the
relationship between sugar purity and measured light reflectance when
using the blue and the combination filters of blue and brown.

• Correlation coefficients of r = 0.92 were obtained. The results of these

trials presented graphically in Figures 4.6 and 4.7.

80 -r-----------------------------------------~
y = 7.59x - 623.80
r=0.92 • ,//
~70 +---~~------------------------~.--/~./~~----~
> <). ~ •
g
.
60 +---------------------------~~¢~/--------------~
Q.l .,/,/
U
c
_.
('Cl 50 ----

•
u
Q.l
q:: 40
Q.l
0:::
30
Strobe-Blue
20 I

85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93
Sugar Purity (%)

Figure 4.6: Strobe Light: The relationship between sugar purity and
reflected light intensity, using a blue filter .

•
 4-16

• 5'
80
70 ...
- ..- ----
y = 7.73x - 636.66
r=O.92
--.- ..----.----.--.-------
+ /

E • •• ~
- 60 +--------------~~-.-----~
~ 50 +----------~/~.-~~--.--------~
U /++/
,~ 40 +-------- •.
~/-------------~
ID /: •

•
~ 30 +----~/~-----------------~ -/
SBBr

20 -.~------~----~------~------~----4
84 86 88 90 92 94
Sugar Purity (%)

Figure 4,7: Strobe Light: The relationship between sugar purity and
reflected light intensity, using a blue and brown filter.

The results of the strobe light trials using colour filters are presented in

• Table 4.1.
reflected
The correlation coefficient between
light intensity were calculated for the various colour filter
sugar purity and

combinations .

•
 4-17

• Table 4.1 Overall Strobe Light Test Results

Corrélation
Distance and Colour
Coefficient
Filters
(r2)
Samples @ 18 cm 0.62
Samples @ 12 cm 0.66

• Samples
Blue Filter
Brown Filter
@7cm 0.72
0.92
0.88
Green Filter 0.90
Orange Filter 0.86
Yellow Filter 0.86
Blue and Brown Filters 0.92
Blue and Yellow Filters 0.88

•
Blue and Green Filters 0.89
Green and Yellow Filters 0.88
Green and Orange Filters 0.87
Orange and Brown Filters 0.87
Green and Brown Filters 0.87
Orange and Brown Filters 0.88
Orange and Yellow Filters 0.90
Yellow and Brown Filters 0.91

• As indicated in Table 4.1, there was poor correlation between sugar

purity and light reflectance without the use of colour filters. This
indicates that a light sensor works optimally at selected wavelengths.
The strobe light results show that the combination of yellow and brown
filters also yielded a high correlation coefficient for this specific light
sensor. The colours blue and yellow lie in the wavelength range of
473nm to 559nm. The more suitable light sensor would need to be in

•
this wavelength range. The results therefore indicate that the light
detector was inadequately selected.
 4-18

• Further experimentation using the strobe light source was not pursued
as other light sources yielded better results.

4.2.3.2 Incandescent light (12 W)

The experimental method of the strobe light also applies to the

incandescent light. Trials without colour filters produced a correlation

• coefficient of r= 0.88 for the distances of 18 and 7 cm from the sugar

samples to light source and light sensor tubes. Additional trials using
coloured filters yielded better correlation results. Similar colour filter
combinations were used for the strobe light trials, with a separation
distance of 7 cm between the sugar sample and tubes.

Table 4.2 presents the colour filters and their combinations together
with the calculated correlation coefficients. All raw data for the
incandescent light trials are presented in Appendix C.

•
 4-19

• Table 4.2 Overall Incandescent Light (12W) Test Results

Distance and Colour Correlation

Filters Coefficient (r2)
Samples @ 18 cm 0.88
Sample @7cm 0.88
Blue Filter 0.87

• Brown Filter
Green Filter
Orange Filter
0.53
0.90
0.91
Yellow Filter 0.85
Blue and Brown Filters 0.89
Blue and Yellow Filters 0.88
Blue and Green Filters 0.88
Green and Yellow Filters 0.90

•
Green and Orange Filters 0.89
Orange and Brown Filters 0.89
Green and Brown Filters 0.90
Orange and Blue Filters 0.89
Orange and Yellow Filters 0.90
Yellow and Brown Filters 0.91

Generally a fairly linear relationship was observed, with correlation

• coefficients ranging from 0.85 to 0.91. The use of a brown colour filter
yielded a rather poor correlation coefficient of 0.53. This was contrary
to other trials which produced correlation coefficients higher than ~ =
0.85. The reason for this anomaly was unclear, however due to the
success of other trials this matter was not pursued.

The most linear relationship achieved was r2 = 0.91, using an orange

filter. The colour orange corresponds to a wavelength of 615nm. The

• result of this trial has been graphically presented in Figure 4.8 .

 4-20

• I

I
7.5 -
7 -I-y. = n ::IR\( - ?7 qq

.:~.--. • »>
r=O.91
•
~ 6.5
ID
u
c:
(Il
6
.~'.
/~
t3 5.5 -
ID
co::
ID
5
~//.
•
0:::
•
• 4.5
4
85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92
10

93
Sugar Purity (%)
I
L

Figure 4.8: Incandescent Light (12 W): The relationship between

sugar purity and reflected light intensity, using an
orange filter

• The use of colour filters together with the incandescent light source of
12W clearly produced more definite relationships between sugar purity
and measured reflectance than using the 12 W light source on its own.
As noted with the strobe light trials, previously, there was a limitation in
the selected light detector, thus indicating that the light detector
selected was inadequate.

4.2.3.3 Incandescent Light (35 W)

• Although the results achieved from the strobe light and incandescent
light (12 W) trials were encouraging, it was envisaged that a lamp
emitting a higher light intensity would improve results. A 35 W
incandescent lamp was therefore tried. These lamps are easily
available and the cost was not considered to be significantly high. The
results produced a correlation coefficient of r = 0.98. This was
considered to be an excellent breakthrough in terms of improving the

• relationship
intensity.
between sugar purities and measured
Due to the highly linear correlation coefficient obtained no
reflected light
 4-21

• colour filter trials were conducted. The consideration

simpler the mechanics of the purity meter the higher its chances were
of surviving the harsh environment of the sugar factory.
was that the

Figure 4.9 presents the results of the 35 W lamp incandescent trials.

• 5'
110

100
y = 5.45x - 389.79
r=O.98

_/
•
-
--

.s 90 -
//
ID •
co
TI
CJ
r:::

ID
c;:::
ID
80 /
a:::
70 ~

/~
60
82 84 86 88 90 92

•
Sugar Purity %
White light&photodiode, 14/8/98

Figure 4.9: Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light,

using incandescent lamp of 35 W.

Two trials were performed to check for repeatability. The second trial
produced a correlation coefficient of 0.97. The repeatability of the trial
results was considered to be very satisfactory. A graphical
representation of the second trial has been presented in Appendix 0

• (Figure 01.1).

4.2.3.4 Red light Emitting Diode (LED)

Trials were performed using a 12 candela red LED. The 12 candela

red LED was of the highest output available during these trials. These
trials produced encouraging results with a correlation coefficient of
0.97. A sugar sample to tube distance of 7 cm was used for the red

• LED trials. No colour filters were required as the red light is a

 4-22

• monochrome light source. Figure 4.10 shows a graphical presentation

of the results obtained for the red LED.

450~-------------------------------------.
y = 37.53x - 3013.18
C' 400- R=O.97 /'

f
,.;;>

350 -1--------------------
+ // .. +
--+..--"7/.L./-+-/+-/-----------;

• ro
t5
Q)

'$
0:::
/~
~
//+
7
300-I-------------------:~-------------------j

250-1-----.--/--~_,•..--------------------------!
./ 1~1
200+---~----~----~----~----~--~,------;
85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92
Sugar Purity (%)

Figure 4.10: Relationship between sugar purity and reflected

light, using a Red LED at 12 Candela.

• Two trials were performed to check for repeatability. The second trial
produced a correlation coefficient of 0.96. The repeatability of the trial
results was considered satisfactory. A graphical representation of the
second trial has been presented in Appendix E (figure E1.1).

4.2.4 Conclusions

• The selection criteria for the light source were; the achievement of a
reliable and repeatable relationship between sugar purity and
measured reflected light intensity, and a robust light source that can
withstand the environmental conditions of the sugar mill. These criteria
were adequately met by all four light sources. However of the four light
sources tested (the incandescent lamp 12W and 35W; the 12 candela
red LED, and the strobe light) the results obtained for the 12 candela

• red LED and the 35 W white incandescent light sources were the most
favourable.
 4-23

• The use of colour filters for the strobe and incandescent

enhanced
light (12W)
the light sensors' ability to detect varying sugar purities,
suggesting that the selection of the light sensor for these light sources
were inadequate. The light sensors used for the red LED and the
incandescent (35W) were adequate.

•
 4-24

• 4.3 Selection of the light detector/sensor.

As mentioned in section 4.2.2.2 there are two types of industrial photo-

detectors that are generally used, they are the photodiodes and the
light dependent resistors (LOR). The photodiode was selected for the
light source selection, as part of the continuation of the earlier
investigation by Proome [1982]. It was decided to test the LOR on the

• selected light sources i.e. 12 candela red LED and the 35 W white
incandescent light sources, to check if the LOR would produce better
results than the photodiode.

The selection criteria for the light detector were; the achievement of a
reliable and repeatable relationship between sugar purity and
measured reflected light intensity, and a robust light detector that can
withstand the environmental conditions of the sugar mill.

• 4.3.1 Aim of the experiment.

To test the light dependent resistor (LOR) as a suitable light detector

for the measurement of reflected light intensity off sugar samples, and
to relate this measurement to varying sugar purity.
To compare results achieved from the LOR trials to those from the
photodiode trials .

• 4.3.2 Experimental method and equipment.

The properties of the photodiode have been discussed in section

4.2.2.2.

The light dependent resistor (LOR) measures photo emission by a

principle of varying electrical resistance. The resistance decreases

•
with increasing light levels (intensity). The LOR used for these trials
 4-25

• was the NORP12. This LOR is physically robust for use in an industrial
environment.

Figure 4.11 presents a block circuit diagram of the operation of the

LOR.

• DC Signal
Processing o to 5 V
(DC)

"
Light Light CPU
Source Detector
LOR

• Incident
Light
Reflected
Light
Display

Ray
Ray

Sugar Crystal

Figure 4.11: light Detector - lOR.

• The processing of the signal from the LOR was the same as that of the
photodiode. The LOR unlike the photodiode does not require a power
supply. The following trials were performed to ascertain the optimum
light sensor for measuring sugar purity:

The red LED and the 35 W incandescent light sources were tested to

• determine if a reliable and repeatable relationship between sugar purity

and measured reflectance could be obtained when using the LOR. A
 4-26

• separation of 7 cm was used between light source and sensor tubes

and the sugar.
LOR.
Reflectance readings were recorded in ohms for the

4.3.3 Experimental results and discussion.

It was established in the light selection trials (for the 35 W

• incandescent and 12 candela red LED lamps) that there was a linear
relationship between measured reflected light intensity
purity when using the photodiode as the light detector.
and sugar
To summarize
the results were as follows:
a) Incandescent Light
A correlation coefficient value of r=0.98 was obtained with a regression
analysis curve of y = 4.45x - 389.79.
b) Red LED
A correlation coefficient value of r=0.97 was obtained with a regression

• analysis curve of y = 37.53x - 3013.18.

Trials performed using the LOR on the incandescent (35W) and red
LED lamps yielded the following results:

For the 35 W incandescent lamp a correlation coefficient value of r=-

0.99 was calculated. A repeat of this trial produced a correlation
coefficient of r = -0.99. Note the negative correlation coefficient. As

• mentioned previously the negative

indicates y tends to decrease as x increases.
correlation coefficient merely
All other trials thus far
have yielded positive correlation coefficients. Figure 4.12 presents the
results of trials using the white light (35W) source and a LOR sensor.
The raw data for these trials are presented in Appendix 0 (Table 0.1).
The regression analysis curve generated was y=-1.05x+1 01.41 .

•
 4-27

• -ti)
17 -
. ...__.
r=-O.99
E 15
s:
0
~ 13
Q)
~
'.~
-
CJ
t:
cu
11
CJ
Q)
9 ~

•
ot:
Q)
cx: 7- I
0.~.
80 82 84 86 88 90 92
Sugar Purity (o/~
Incan+UR1

Figure 4.12: Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light,

Using Incandescent Lamp and a LOR

Figure 4.13 presents the red LED trials using a LOR. A correlation

• coefficient of r=-0.96 was obtained. A repeat of this trial produced a

correlation coefficient of r = -0.95. The graphical presentation of this is
shown in Appendix E (Figure E.2). The regression analysis curve
generated was y=-0.21x+11.49.

-(Ij

E
.s: 1.7
1.9 --
•
0

.~
1.5

• ~ 1.3
Q)
(,)
e 1.1
!!I
<..,
~
o 0.9
Q)
00:
Q)
0:::
0.7
0.5 I
r=-O.96
<>~
~.
81 83 85 87 89 91
Sugar Purity (%) led,LOR

Figure 4.13: Relationship between sugar purity and reflected light,

• Using a red LED and a LOR

 4-28

• The results show that for both the light sources tested with the LOR
light detector, a linear relationship existed between sugar purity and
measured reflected light intensity.

4.3.4 Conclusions

The results achieved for the incandescent lamp 35 W using the

• photodiode and the LOR were fairly similar. Correlation

values of r=O.98 and r=-O.99 were achieved for the photodiode
LOR respectively.
coefficient

The results achieved for the red LED lamp using

and

the photodiode and LOR were also fairly similar, where the correlation
coefficients obtained were r=O.97 and r=-O.96 for the photodiode and
LOR respectively. The negative slopes were not of great concern as
these values can be electronically modified. The aim was to establish
a reliable relationship between sugar purity and measured reflected
light intensity.

• It can therefore be concluded that both light detectors (the photodiode

and the LOR) can be used for the successful detection of reflected light
intensity for the prediction of sugar purity .

•
 4-29

• 4.4 Testing of centrifugal environmental conditions.

The centrifugal environmental conditions/variables were identified as

temperatures ranging from 60 to 70oG, the spinning motion of the
sugar samples, steam addition and vibration experienced on the
centrifugal. Attempts were therefore made to replicate these
environmental conditions in the laboratory purity meter and test their

• effect on the light reflectance intensity measurement.

4.4.1 Temperature tolerance testing of the light

sensor/detectors.

4.4.1.1 Aim of the experiment.

The aim of these trials was to assess the ability of the light detectors
(the photodiode and the LOR) to provide stable light reflectance

• intensity
conditions.
measurements under high temperature (60 to 70oG)

4.4.1.2 Experimental method and equipment.

The operating temperature of the centrifugal in the factory (specific to

Maidstone No. 2 centrifugal) was approximately 65 "C. It was
therefore necessary to ensure that the sensors are capable of
producing a steady output in the range 60 to 70 aG. The following

• experiment was therefore performed to determine

temperature variations on the performance of the photodiode and the
the effect of

LOR sensors. The photodiode and the LOR were heated by using a
hair drier. The experiment was performed in a closed box to obtain
better temperature control. A digital thermometer was placed close to
the sensor. The relationship between temperature and light intensity
viz. voltage (photodiode) and resistance (LOR) was determined under
ambient light conditions .

•
 4-30

• 4.4.1.3 Experimental results and discussion.

The temperature tolerance testing of the two light detectors/sensors

yielded the following results:
Figure 4.14 presents the reaction of the photodiode to increasing
temperatures under ambient light conditions.

• ->
80
70 ....
-
-
E
Cl)
'C
60
50
....
e

.2 40 -
-
'C
0
0
-'=
a..
30
20
10 ... .... -
.... e eCli)
e

0
;

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
I
Temperature ('C)

• I
Temperature

Figure 4.14: Relationship between the photodiode

tes ts- Photod iode-12/8/98

output and increasing temperature.

It was clear that the photodiode output changed rather drastically with
increasing temperature. This shows that the photodiode is obviously

• unsuitable for use in a factory centrifugal in the operating temperature

range of 60 to 70 oe.

Figure 4.15 presents the effect of increasing temperature on the

performance of the LOR.

•
 4-31

•
-en
E
..s::
2

0
-
~
Cl)
CJ
c:
1.5 - • .. .....- - ...
-
.....
Cl)

•
en
en
Cl)
0::
1 ,

0 20 40 60 80 100

Temperature ('C)

Figure 4.15: Relationship between the LDR output and

increasing temperature.

• The results obtained from the LOR trials were very encouraging.
LOR output fluctuated slightly in the temperature range 20
The
oe to

approximately 50 oe. The output was however steady in the

temperature range of 60 to 70 oe (as desired).

4.4.1.4 Conclusions

• The LOR met both the requirements

repeatable relationship between sugar
of producing a reliable and
purity and the reflectance
measurement, and being able to produce a steady output at the
centrifugal operating temperature range of 60 to 70 oe. The LOR was
therefore chosen for subsequent trials .

•
 4-32

• 4.4.2 Effect of sugar crystal movement on the light

reflectance intensity measurement.

4.4.2.1 Aim Of experiment.

Sugar crystals in a centrifugal, apart from spinning with the basket at

approximately 2000 rpm, tend to tumble over each other as they move
up the basket. The aim of these experiments was to examine the

• effect of sugar crystal movement on measurement of light reflectance.

It was acknowledged that the actual motion of sugar crystals would be

difficult to simulate in the laboratory rig. However it was necessary to
ascertain if crystal movement of any kind affected the reflectance
reading.

For simplification these trials from hereon are referred to as the motion
trials.

• 4.4.2.2 Experimental method and equipment.

A laboratory variable speed stirrer (normally used to mix liquids) was

used to spin the sugar samples. The stirrer was turned upside down to
accommodate the sugar sample holder. A speed of 120 rpm was
selected. Higher speeds could not be attained, as the sugar sample
would spin off the sample holder. It was acknowledged that this speed

• is low compared to the 2000rpm experienced in the factory centrifugal.

However as mentioned above it was necessary to ascertain if crystal
movement of any kind affected the reflectance reading.

Sugar samples were placed on the holder on top of the stirrer and light
reflectance measurements were taken before and during spinning of
the sugar samples. These trials were performed using the red LED
and the incandescent lamps .

•
 4-33

• Figure 4.16 below presents a simplified schematic of the laboratory

set-up for these motion trials.

Light Source and Detector Tubes

/
•
7cm

Sugar sample
in holder

• Laboratory
Stirrer

Figure 4.16. Laboratory set-up for the motion trials.

4.4.2.3 Experimental results and discussion .

• When sugar samples are taken out of the centrifugal they are analysed
in the laboratory for sugar purity as a solution. However when this
solid sample is placed on the sample holder the sample may have
areas that vary slightly in appearance (colour). This effect can be
visually observed. It was therefore envisaged that the spinning motion
was likely to have an 'averaging effect' .

•
 4-34

• The results obtained for the motion trials using incandescent

and red LED light sources are presented below.
(35W)

a) Incandescent motion trials.

The motion trials for the incandescent light source showed that there

• was little difference

stationary
between the light reflectance
and spinning sugar samples.
measurement
The relationship between
on

sugar purity and measured reflectance remained linear, irrespective of

whether the sample was stationary or being spun.

Figure 4.17 presents the average results of the spinning trials. The raw
data from the motion trials are presented in Appendix 0 as Table 0.2.
A correlation coefficient of r = 0.99 was obtained for both the stationary
and motion trials. A students t-test, produced no significant difference

• between the stationary trial values and the spinning trial values (t-(stat)
=-2.1 < t-(critical) =2.2 at a 95% level of confidence.).

+' 17.0
I:
Q) 16.0 -
E ~ IIDl ~
...
Q)

:J
15.0
14.0 -
Q

(/).-. @!l ~
~ ~ 13.0

• :!: J: 12.0-
Q)
(J..lI:
1:-
nl
+'
(J
Q)
;:
Q)
0
11.0 -
10.0 -
9.0 -
8.0
il
dil di

mt 1111
-e-
0:::
7.0 -
80 82 84 86
Sugar Purity (%)
88 "
90 92

I o Stationary II! Spinning I white-spinav

-

Figure 4.17: Motion Trials: Incandescent Light Source and the LOR

•
 4-35

• b) Red LED motion trials.

The motion trials showed that there was very little difference in the
reflectance measurement between the stationary and spinning sugar
samples. The results were similar to that generated with the 35 W
incandescent lamp. Here too it was found that even with the slight
difference in the reflectance measurements, the reflectance

• measurement
displayed
taken for the stationary and spinning sugar samples
the same trend. Figure 4.18 presents the results of the
spinning trials. The raw data for the motion trials are presented in
Appendix E (Table E.1).

The relationship between sugar purity and measured reflectance

remained linear, irrespective of whether the sample was stationary or
being spun. A correlation coefficient of r = 0.96 and r = 0.95 was
obtained for the stationary and motion trials respectively. A students t-

• test, produced no significant difference

values and the spinning trial values (t- (stat) =--8.0 E-15 < t- (critical)
=2.2 at a 95% level of confidence).
between the stationary trial

2.10
-...
:!:

c: 1.80
(I)
el
E
...
(I)

:::::I-
1.50 -
ta

•
I/) I/) Cl)
m E
:!:,c
1.20 Ol
é
0 fil
(I)
CJ
0.90 - m
c:
...
C'CI Ii!l
@l

m
CJ
(I)
;:
(I)
0.60 '" -
lOl

0:::
0.30 - ,

80 82 84 86 88 90 92
Sugar Purity (%)

I- Stationary. IJ. Spinning I red spin-av

• Figure 4.18: Motion Trials: Red LED and a LDR

 4-36

• 4.4.2.4 Conclusions

The motion trials show that for both the incandescent and red LED
lamps that the spinning of the sugar samples had no significant effect
on the light reflectance measurement.

As mentioned previously these trials did not take into account the

• tumbling effect of the sugar crystals. The possibility that this effect (in
the centrifugal) could have an effect on the measured light reflectance
reading can therefore not be totally ignored.

•
 4-37

• 4.4.3 The effect of steam addition

measurement of reflected light.
on the

4.4.3.1 Aim of the experiment.

In the continuous centrifugal steam is introduced around the

massecuite feed to reduce massecuite viscosity. The aim of these
experiments was to examine the effect of steam on the light

• reflectance measurement.

4.4.3.2 Experimental method and equipment.

Initially steam was applied to the laboratory rig, however the steam
condensed inside the rig and proceeded to moisten the sugar samples,
to the extent that some of the sugar crystals dissolved. This adversely
affected the appearance of the solid sugar samples. A decision was
made to simulate a 'steam effect'. Dry ice was added to water to

• create a 'steamy' environment. This dry ice-water container was placed

adjacent to the sugar samples for maximum interference.

Sugar samples of varying purities were tested. Reflectance

measurements were taken before and after the introduction of the
'steam'. The quantity of dry ice added was sufficient to allow for
vigorous bubbling (approximately 10 g of dry ice in 50ml of water).

•
These trials were performed for the incandescent and the red LED
lamps. Trials were performed at a sugar sample to light source and
sensor tube distance of 7 cm.

The raw data of these trials are presented in appendices D and E.

•
 4-38

• 4.4.3.3 Experimental results and discussion.

a) Incandescent (35W) trials.

The steam simulation trials using the incandescent lamp show a slight
difference in the reflectance measurement after placing the dry ice in
the vicinity of the sugar samples. The difference was however not

• considered to be significant. These

interference effects expected from the steam. Figure 4.19 presents the
average results obtained from the steam simulation trials using the 35
results were contrary to

W incandescent lamp.

U) 20.0 ...,---------------------,
E
.c
~ 15.0 -!----"''-I-=----'~~-...-------------I

•
__ v Ill! ~
ID • •
o Ill!
2o 10. 0 +-- ~I:---""--I11--------1
ID
;:;::::
ID
0::: 5.0 -\-----,-------r-----,----,-----,-----j

80 82 84 86 88 90 92
Sugar Purity (%)

I.No Steam Ill! Steam incan

• Figure 4.19: Steam Trials:

Reflectance Measurement,
LOR
Simulation of the Steam Effect on the
Using a 35W Incandescent lamp and a

A correlation coefficient of r = 0.98 and r = 0.97 was obtained for the

steam and no steam trials respectively, indicating highly linear
relationship between sugar purity and measured reflectance. A
students t-test, produced no significant difference between the steam
and no steam addition values (t- (stat) =-2.4 < t- (critical) =2.2 at a 95%

• level of confidence).
 4-39

• b) Red LED Trials

The steam simulation trials using the red LED light source show that
there were no significant changes in the reflectance measurement after
placing dry ice and water in the vicinity of the sugar sample. Here the
difference between the readings with and without the addition of dry ice
seems less noticeable than the measurements with the incandescent

• lamp. These results were contrary to interference effects expected

with the steam. The average results achieved
simulation trials for the red LED are presented in Figure 4.20. The raw
from the steam

data for these trials are presented in Appendix E (Table E.2).

en 2.00
E

"
..c
0

• --
~ 1.50

c
Q)
u
I
,I tlil
!!li
.....co 1.00
u
!!li
!Ill ,
Q)
;:;::: ~
Q) iii !!li
Il:: 0.50
80 82 84 86 88 90 92
Sugar Purity (%)

I (> No Steam Ill! Steam

• Figure: 4.20 Steam Trials:

Reflectance Measurement,
Simulation of the Steam Effect on the
Using A Red LED And A LOR

A correlation coefficient of r = 0.96 and r = 0.95 was obtained for the

steam and no steam trials respectively, indicating highly linear
relationship between sugar purity and measured reflectance. A
students t-test, produced no significant difference between the steam
and no steam addition values (t- (stat) =0.4 < t- (critical) =2.2 at a 95%

• level of confidence.).
 4-40

• 4.4.3.4 Conclusions

The 'steam' addition, trials showed that there was no significant effect
on the measurement of reflected light intensity. The reflectance
readings follow the same trend with and without the steamy effect.
The relationship between sugar purity and measured reflectance was
linear and repeatable. It was acknowledged that the steam simulation
trials did not exactly replicate the environment on the insides of a

• continuous centrifugal.

•
 4-41

• 4.4.4 Efforts to accommodate the effect of vibration.

The continuous centrifugals are mounted on steel frameworks. When

the centrifugals are in operation, vibration of the centrifugal casings
can always be observed. A major contributor to the vibration levels
experienced in continuous centrifugals is the improper installation of
centrifugal screens, which results in an imbalance. However it was
apparent that no matter how perfectly the screens were installed there

• is always some vibration. Based on past experience on the centrifugal

station, where due to the vibration levels, screws, nuts and bolts have
slowly come undone; it was necessary to take these factors into
account when building the purity meter prototype.

Since the purity meter prototype would be installed on top of the

monitor casing it was necessary to assess the effect this vibration
would have on the purity meter. Trying to subject the laboratory rig to

• the vibration levels experienced on the monitor casing would not have
had any effect on the reflectance
move/vibrate. Therefore
reading as the entire rig would
the sugar samples and light sensor and
detector are moving relative to the monitor casing, but are stationary to
each other. A relationship between the stationary sugar samples of
varying purities and measured reflectance has already been
established.

•
It was therefore decided that the tubes would be welded on to a tube
plate and that the tube plate needed to be welded on to the monitor
casing. The opening in the monitor casing would be sufficient to allow
for tube distance to the centrifugal screens to be adjusted. This could
be achieved by sliding the tube plate forward and backward. The light
source and the light sensor were fitted securely to avoid damage by
vibration .

•
 4-42

• It was with the knowledge of the preliminary trials in the laboratory that
the second purity meter prototype was built and was ready for trials in
the factory.

4.5 Conclusions of the Laboratory Trials

The following is a summary of the conclusions drawn from the

• laboratory purity meter trials.

I. It was established that there was a reliable and repeatable, linear

relationship between sugar purity and measured reflected light
intensity.
II. The light sources selected for the factory purity meter prototype
was the red LED and the 35 W incandescent lamps. These
lamps would be tested separately.

• III. The light detector/sensor chosen for the factory purity meter
prototype was the LDR due to is ability to provide stable readings
in the required temperature range of 60 to 70°C.
IV. The testing of the environmental variables (crystal motion and
steam addition) in the laboratory showed that these factors had
no effect on the light reflectance measurement.
V. The need to build a robust factory purity meter to accommodate
for the effects of vibration was highlighted.
VI. The correlation coefficient value for the red LED was

• approximately r=0.96.
was y=-0.21x+11.49.
The regression analysis curve generated

VII. The correlation coefficient value for the incandescent lamp (35W)
was r=0.99. The regression analysis curve generated was
y=-1.05x+101.41 .

•
 5- 1

• Chapter 5

DEVELOPMENT OF THE FACTORY PURITY

METER.

• The experiences from the laboratory purity meter trials were used to
construct the factory purity meter. Chapter 5 describes and discusses
the factory experimental work performed in the development of an
industrial meter for the detection of sugar purity in a continuous
centrifugal. Both light sources were tested (the red LED and the 35 W
incandescent lamps) with the aim of selecting the best light source.
Trials were performed on the number 2 C-centrifugal at Maidstone Mill.
Chapter 5 is divided into the following sections:

• 5.1 Red LED factory trials.

5.2 Incandescent lamp (35W) factory trials .

•
 5- 2

• 5.1 Red LED factory trials.

5.1.1 Aim of the experiment.

The aim of these factory trials was to test the purity meter prototype
using the red LED (light emitting diode) as a light source and the LOR
(light dependent resistor) as the light sensor. Trials were performed on

• low-grade C-sugar in a continuous centrifugal.

5.1.2 Experimental method and equipment

a) Factory purity meter rig.

The purity meter factory prototype was built of stainless steel tubes. A
clamping plate held the two tubes on to the top surface of the centrifugal.
The tubes housed the light source (12 candela red LED) and the light

• dependent resistor (LDR- NORP 12).

prototype.
Figure 5.1 presents the factory
The tubes were mounted on a base plate that slides on the
monitor casing, allowing for the adjustment of the distance from the
tubes to the centrifugal basket surface. This was necessary for focusing
purposes and to prevent fouling of the tubes. Figure 5.2 illustrates the
purity meter installation on the centrifugal monitor casing. The tubes are
angled at 90 0 to the basket.

• Purity meter prototype I was constructed such that the electronic unit was
mounted on top of the tubes. The electronics in prototype II were remotely
panel mounted, adjacent to the centrifugal operating panel. The reasons for
this are explained in the experimental results and discussion section .

•
 5- 3

•
CLAMPING PLATF:: 7

• Figure 5.1: Purity meter prototype

•
•
_l
«£
ti
2
~
«!t'-;!I!""-
II. ---.----- -~,-------
o I

• cv
0')

-
.2
'b:
s::
(I)
o

-
(I)
s:
e
o

-.s
Q.
::::J

•
I

(I)

...
IJ)

(I)
E
~
't:
::::J
Q.
N
IJ)

e
::::J
,~
LL

•
 5-5

• b) light and light detector signal processing.

Figure 5.3 presents the general layout of the light source and the
light detector.

•
CPU
Intel
A to 0 ----il>'> 8052 ~ 0 to A converter
Converter

Analog
signal
Power Processing
Supply (0 - 5V
DC)

• Light
Source
Light
detector
4 to 20mA
out put
Reflectance
Reading
Display 0-10 Vout
put
Automatic
Valve

• Sugar surface

Figure 5.3: Light and light detector processing .

•
 5-6

• Power is supplied to the light source. It is important that the light source
emits light of a repeatable and constant level since the failure to provide
a constant light source will result in a light source of varying light emitting
intensities. To achieve a constant light intensity, a constant AC voltage
supply is needed.

•
Light reflected off the sugar surface is received by the photo-detector.
The analogue signal (A) from the photo-detector is converted to a digital
signal (D). This signal is processed by the central processing unit (CPU).
The CPU is the PlO (proportional, integral and derivative) control and the
signal-processing unit. The digital output from the CPU is converted to a
4 to 20 mA output for the display and is read as a 0 to 100 % output.
Preliminary laboratory trials did not include the processor and thus those
trials recorded volts (for the photodiode) and resistance (for the light
dependent resistor). The signal processing with the 0 to 100% output

• display was used in later trials.

A 0 to 10 volt DC output was required to operate the water valve. The

use of the automatic valve to automatically control wash water was not
within the scope of this research report.

c) Calibration of the purity meter.

• Sugar samples of purity ranging from 85% to 94% were obtained from
the continuous centrifugal. These were analysed as per the SASTA
manual, in the laboratory (Appendix A). Calibration was required to
establish an operating range. The purity meter was calibrated in the
laboratory before being installed in the factory .

•
 5-7

• d)

Sugar
Sugar Samples

samples were periodically taken from the centrifugal and

corresponding light reflectance measurements were recorded. The
massecuite feed and water addition to the centrifugal were changed in
order to achieve different sugar purities. Sugar samples were analysed
as per the prescribed SASTA method (Appendix A). Laboratory

• analyses were necessary to compare the purity meter measurement

the actual sugar purity.
to

5.1.3 Experimental results and discussion.

5.1.3.1 Purity meter operations.

The following sub-sections describe initial shortcomings and

• development of the purity meter prototype.

a) Water ingress into the electronics.

Purity meter prototype I was constructed such that the electronics were
mounted on top of the tubes. Due to water ingress into the electronics,
(by the washing of the centrifugal surface as a housekeeping function)
there was the resultant short-circuiting of the instrument. This obstacle
was overcome by having the electronics in prototype II remotely panel

• mounted, adjacent to the centrifugal operating panel.

•
 5-8

• b) Fouling of the purity meter tubes.

During trials it was found that molasses blocked the meter's tube
openings thus preventing accurate reflectance measurements. The red
LED purity meter prototype was constructed with tubes of 13mm
diameter. A deflector metal plate was installed immediately 'upstream' of
the meter tubes so that it could shelter and protect the tubes from direct

• contact with the molasses.

This plate initially seemed to reduce the problem of fouling of the tubes
but the problem reappeared with time. The molasses collected on the
plate and dripped onto the tubes. Once again the tube openings became
obscured rendering the purity meter useless. The plate was therefore
removed.

In an effort to reduce molasses fouling the purity meter tubes were

• shortened such that the distance from the tubes to the centrifugal basket
was 22 em. Air supply was added to the light and light detector tubes to
provide a positive pressure down the tubes to minimize fouling of the
tubes. Figure 5.4 represents graphically the final position of the purity
meter tubes relative to the centrifugal basket for the red LED trials .

•
 5-9

•
Light Source and Detector Tubes

Centrifugal
Monitor Casing
I \
• 12 cm
34 cm

,/ 22 cm

\/
Centrifugal
Basket Surface

• Figure 5.4 Red LED light source and detector tube distance to
continuous centrifugal basket.

On reducing the length of the purity meter tubes it was noted that after
one week of operation, the tubes remained relatively free of blockage by
the molasses. It was therefore agreed that the cleaning of tubes once
per week was a reasonable maintenance period. A standard procedure

• was prepared for the cleaning of the reflectance meter tubes and
involved washing off all molasses from the tubes with hot water.
light source and detector are also removed and wiped clean to prevent
The

unreliable readings .

•
 5-10

• 5.1.3.2 A comparison between laboratory and factory

trials.

The reduction of initial fouling problems allowed for further testing

of the purity meter. As explained in previously the purity meter
electronics were adjusted to provide a percentage output. The

•
laboratory purity meter was re-calibrated using new samples and a
correlation coefficient of r=O.98 was achieved. The regression
analysis curve generated was y=-2.05x-127.75. The purity meter
was then installed in the continuous centrifugal.

It was found that the reflectance measurements obtained from the

laboratory trials and those obtained from the factory trials were
significantly different. This variation can be seen in figure 5.5
where sugar samples were taken from the centrifugal in the factory

• and compared to the calibration curve obtained from the laboratory

rig.

-
CI)~70-
8)

(.J 'E 60 •
• •
CCI)
cu
-ES) "
(.JCl)
•...
,"
CI) ...
;;::::::::140
_m fil ma
CI)",

• O::~3J
:::!:
20-
74
•
77 00 83
m
es
-
89 92 95
Sugar Puity e~
I. Ortri~ ma Lámtay I 22/10'00

Figure 5.5: Relationship between the Laboratory Calibration and the

Centrifugal Reflectance Measurements .

•
 5-11

• A correlation coefficient of r
analysis curve generated
= 0.97 was obtained and the regression
was y=-2.05x-127.75 (for the centrifugal).
Although the linear relationship between sugar purity and measured
reflected light continues to exist the regression curves have changed
significantly. It was apparent that the purity meter was operating in
different ranges in the centrifugal and in the laboratory rig. This indicated

•
that the purity meter was capable of measuring sugar purity in the
continuous centrifugal, but that the initial laboratory calibration cannot be
used to predict sugar purity in the continuous centrifugal. There was
therefore the need for independent calibration of the purity meter
electronics in the factory.

A reason suggested for the significant offset between the factory and
laboratory reflectance measurements was that in the centrifugal the
meter sees the top surface of the sugar only. Any liquid, that is, water

• and molasses drain away rapidly under the high centrifugal forces.
withdrawn sample on the other hand may be a blend of the sugar and the
molasses when it leaves the top of the basket. Hence the range in which
The

the purity meter detects the purity of sugar under ambient conditions in
the laboratory and the range in which purity is detected in the continuous
centrifugal are not the same. For this reason it should be expected that
reflectance readings in the centrifugal, of specific sugar purities might be
slightly different to those of extracted sugar samples .

• The surface of the sugar may provide another reason for the variation of
the light detection range. The laboratory samples are placed in a
container and the surface is levelled (compacted) to the height of the
container. In the centrifugal the sugar surface is essentially compressed
to the centrifugal basket due to the centrifugal forces. Hence a possible
reason for the different light detection ranges .

•
 5-12

• The sheer difference

continuous centrifugal
of environment of the laboratory rig and the
was also a likely reason for the shift in the
detection range. Although the preliminary laboratory trials attempted to
simulate conditions found in the centrifugal, it was acknowledged that the
exact conditions were very difficult to simulate without actually acquiring
a pilot plant scale continuous centrifugal.

• It is clear from the above trials that the sensor detects the varying sugar
purity, but the calibration of laboratory sugar samples does not apply to
the centrifugal.

5.1.3.3 The Relationship between the measured light

reflectance and sugar purity in the continuous
centrifugal.

• Having concluded that the laboratory rig could not be used for calibrating
the purity meter, further calibrations were performed on the continuous
centrifugal. Sugar samples were collected at varying massecuite feed
and wash water additions and the purity analysis were performed in the
laboratory. Corresponding reflectance measurements were recorded
and together with laboratory analysis a purity curve was generated.
Figure 5.6 presents a typical purity curve generated from these trials.
The relationship between measured light reflectance and sugar purity

• was linear .

•
 5-13

• C
Q)
75
y = 2.05x - 127.75
E
Q)
..... 65- r=0.97 •
:::J
(/)
CU
Q) 55-
~~ 0
Q)"'_"
U 45
c
CU

•
+-'
U 35-
Q)
ï+=
Q)
0::: 25 - •
74 77 80 83 86 89 92 95

Sugar Purity (%)

24/10

Figure 5.6 Typical calibration curve for the continuous centrifugal.

• Massecuite quality in terms of crystal content, crystal size, shape and

colour can change with changing sugar cane quality and process
operations (boiling and crystallisation parameters). In order to check the
effect that the quality of massecuite had on the reflectance
measurement, calibration curves were generated on different days
(during one week). Figure 5.? presents data obtained on three separate
days .

•
 5-14

• 1-- ~
0

CID 75
E
85
l1li
...
,
.1
ml
! ~ 65 '"
•
. ... I
:::J
IJ)
co
ID 55
... •
~ ... ...
..
..
ml
ID
u
c 45 • I
co I

• ..
+-'
u .. ml i
ID
c;:::: 35 •
i m
ID
0:::
25 • lA I
74 77 80 83 86 89 92 95
Sugar Purity (%)
I. Day 1 61 Day 2 A Day 31 Red All

Figure 5.7:Calibration curves generated on separate days (red LED

Trials).

• Under conditions of varying massecuite quality the relationship between

sugar and light reflectance measurements remained linear. There was
however a change in the curve gradients. Table 5.1 presents the
regression analysis and correlation coefficients calculated for the sugar
purity measurement trials .

•
 5-15

• Table 5.1: Regression analyses and correlation

on separate days (Red LED).
coefficients

Correlation
generated

Day Regression Analysis Coefficient

1 Y=2.05x-127.75 r=O.97

2 Y=2.95x-195.77 r=O.98

3 Y=4.01x-299.87 r=O.96

• Combined

Correlation coefficients
Y=2.51-165.77 r=O.90

generated for the 3 days are not significantly

different from each other. When the data for these three days were
combined, the general curve generates was; y = 2.51x -165.77 and the
correlation coefficient was r=O.90. The relationship between sugar purity
and measured reflected light intensity is fairly linear, however the linearity
has decreased. These results indicate that there exists a possibility to

•
calibrate once per week, however in order to acquire finer control of
sugar purity, calibration is required on a daily basis. Daily calibration
was considered to be a reasonable period.

5.1.4 Conclusions

The red LED (12 candela) and the LOR (NORP 12) produced a reliable
and repeatable linear relationship between sugar purity and measured

• reflected light. Calibration of the factory purity meter is required to be

performed while the purity meter is operational in the centrifugal.
laboratory calibration of the purity meter does not apply to operation in
The

the centrifugal. Although there were various reasons suggested for the
difference in the laboratory and factory measurements the exact reason
for the fundamental difference between the laboratory and the factory
purity meter is a fact that the laboratory purity meter failed to identify .

•
 5-16

• The factory purity meter is however capable of providing the centrifugal

operator with a reliable measure of sugar purity.

Calibration of the purity meter on a daily basis is suggested due to the

changing quality of massecuite and for purposes of greater accuracy in
sugar purity control. Calibration of the purity meter once per week

•
seems possible. No lamp deterioration was noted during operation (6
months).

•
 5-17

• 5.2

5.2.1
Incandescent light - Factory trials.

Aim of the experiment.

The aim of these trials were to test the purity meter prototype using the
35 W incandescent lamp as a light source and the LOR (light dependent
resistor) as the light sensor in a low grade C-sugar continuous

• centrifugal.

5.2.2 Experimental method and equipment.

The experimental equipment and method are the same as that used for
the red LED trials. The light source was the incandescent lamp (35W)
and the light dependent resistor (LDR- NSL 19).

5.2.3 Experimental results and discussion.

• 5.2.3.1 Purity meter operations.

Experiences from the red LED trials allowed for a more informed
approach to the incandescent light trials. The new purity meter was
installed on the number 2 C-centrifugal at Maidstone Sugar Mill on the
North Coast. The following sub-sections describe the setbacks and
developments of the purity meter prototype using an incandescent lamp .

• a) Modification to the light source and light detector

tubes.

The major advantage of the incandescent lamp (35 W) was that the lamp
radiated a high light intensity. This property offset the negative effect of
the shortened tubes (so that molasses fouling can be minimized). The
high intensity light source indicated that more light would be reflected off

•
 5-18

• the sugar surface and would provide the light detector with a stronger
signal. The purity meter tubes were shortened such that the distance
from the tubes to the centrifugal basket was 25 cm (previous distance
was 22 cm). Another modification to the purity meter tubes was that the
tube diameter was increased from 13mm to 30mm. These modifications
significantly reduced the molasses fouling. The weekly maintenance
period remained unchanged.

• Figure 5.8 represents graphically the positions of the purity meter tubes
relative to the centrifugal basket.

Light Source and Detector Tubes

• Centrifugal
Monitor Casing
/ \
12 cm
34 cm

./

•
25 cm
....

Centrifugal
Basket Surface

Figure 5.8: Incandescent lamp and detector tube distance to the

continuous centrifugal basket.

•
 5-19

• It was noted that the 35W incandescent

temperatures
lamp operated at such high
that the plastic insulation the electrical wiring (inside the
tube) melted. In order to prevent further damage, high temperature
resistant plastic fittings were used to prevent electrical contact with the
stainless steel tube housing.

An air purge was added to the light source tube to assist in cooling of the

• lamp and to provide a positive pressure down the tube so that molasses
fouling could be reduced.

c) Purity meter electronics.

The collaborating Instrument Engineer, Mr. Simon Proome performed all

the electronic equipment design and their calibration. Due to

• confidentiality the actual makeup and circuitry of the reflectance meter

electronics have been omitted from this report.

d) Purity meter reflectance measurement.

During the red LED trials a concern was raised, that the meter was
unable to provide operators with a direct readout of sugar purity.
Reflectance measurements and sugar purity are not necessarily of the

• same magnitude and hence actual sugar purity would have to be read off
calibration
measurements
curves.
(resistance
For the incandescent
in kilo ohms) were therefore
lamp reflectance
electronically
modified to provide a sugar purity reading in the range of 70 to 99%. The
operation range for the C-sugar purity was 80 to 84%. Therefore the
purity measurement that the operator reads off the purity meter is a direct
indication of the purity of sugar exiting the centrifugal basket.

•
 5-20

• e) Calibrating the purity meter.

It was established from the red LED trials that the calibration of the purity
meter had to be performed in the centrifugal. Calibration at high sugar
purity (high wash water rate) and at low sugar purity (low wash water
rate) was necessary to establish an operating range. A constant
massecuite feed and water addition, were maintained during each

• calibration.
from
This was necessary to prevent the conditions to the machine
changing. Calibration was such
measurements and the laboratory analysis were compatible.
that the purity meter

The procedure for calibration was as follows: A sugar sample was

obtained at low wash water rate, analysed in the laboratory and the
required adjustment was made to the purity meter. A sugar sample was
then obtained at high wash water rate, analysed in the laboratory and the
required adjustment was made to the purity meter. Sugar samples were

• analysed as per the prescribed SASTA method (Appendix A).

5.2.3.2 The relationship between measured light

reflectance and sugar purity in the continuous
centrifugal.

• As mentioned previously it was necessary that the calibration

purity meter be performed while the purity meter was installed in the
continuous centrifugal. The calibration method has been discussed
of the

previously. Figure 5.9 presents a typical curve generated from these

trials .

•
 5-21

• ......
c
Q.l
E
85
r=O.90
•
Q.l
"-
84.5 ~
:J
en
ro
Q.l.--..
•
~~ 84 ~
Q.l-
u ~
c
ro
...... 83.5 -
u
Q.l

•
ii=
Q.l
0:::: 83 I

83 83.5 84 84.5 85 85.5 86

Sugar Purity (%)

27/8/00

Figure 5.9: Relationship between purity meter measurements

and laboratory purity analysis.

The relationship between measured light reflectance and sugar purity

• was linear.

As with the red LED trials, the effect of changing massecuite was tested.
Figure 5.10 presents data obtained on three separate days of the same
week. The relationship between sugar purity and the light reflectance
measurement remained linear for the three sets of data. As experienced
with the red LED trials, the gradients of the lines varied. This implied that
the range, in which the purity meter operated, changed daily. This

• phenomenon is more clearly expressed

regression analysis and correlation coefficients calculated for the sugar
purity measurement trials are presented .
in Table 5.2 where the

•
 5-22

• r-

,~.-
90 -

~ 88-
... Iii!
III
C
<Il
E 86
<Il
•
L..
:::J
VI 84 -
ii .I!
ro
<Il
~ 82 - A_A-IJ.
<Il A-IAA
o
c I!!.
ro 80

• t5
<Il
<+=
<Il
c:::
78 -

76 -
-
om
A
•
76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90

Sugar Purity (%)

I. Day 1 m Day 2 A Day 3 1 10/12/99

Figure 5.10: The effect of changing massecuite quality on the Purity

Meter measurement.

• Table 5.2: Regression

generated on separate days (incandescent lamp).
analysis and correlation coefficients

Correlation
Day Regression Analysis Coefficient

1 Y=1.52x-44.16 r=0.94

2 Y=0.83x+14.43 r=0.92

3 Y=0.43x+0.45 r=0.95

• Combined Y=0.87x+10.47 r=0.80

The changing quality of massecuite (crystal size, shape and colour) has
a definite impact on the calibration curve. When data the three days was
combined, the regression produced was y= 0.87x + 10.47 and the
correlation coefficient was r=0.80. The correlation coefficient has
decreased substantially. Therefore a general equation cannot be

•
 5-23

• produced once per week. Calibration

considered to be a reasonable period for a factory.
is required daily. This is

The correlation coefficients of factory trials decreased from the r=-O.98

recorded in laboratory trials. This may be due to the deterioration of the
incandescent lamp. The deterioration of the lamp was visually observed
and the lamp had to be changed twice during the three- month trial. The

• deterioration of the lamp may also account for the poor combined
regression curve generated. The daily measurements however were a
reasonable measure of the sugar purity in the continuous centrifugal.

5.2.4 Conclusions

The 35W incandescent lamp produced a reliable and repeatable linear

relationship between sugar purity and measured reflected light intensity.

• As experienced with the red LED, calibration was required daily due to
the changing quality of the massecuite.
during the 3- month trial period .
Lamp deterioration was noted

•
 5-24

• 5.3 CONCLUSIONS FOR THE FACTORY TRIALS

The factory purity meter (using both red LED and the 35W incandescent)
lamps is capable of producing a reliable and repeatable relationship
between measured reflected light intensity and sugar purity in a
continuous centrifugal. Calibration of the factory purity meter is required

• to be performed while the purity meter is operational in the centrifugal.

The laboratory calibration of the purity meter does not apply to operation
in the centrifugal. The reason for the fundamental difference between
the laboratory and the factory purity meter is a fact that the laboratory
purity meter has failed to identify. The factory purity meter is however
capable of providing the centrifugal operator with a reliable measure of
sugar purity.

• No lamp deterioration
deterioration was observed
was noted for the red LED trials.
for the 35W incandescent lamp.
Lamp
The
correlation coefficients generated for the red LED in the laboratory
(r=0.96) was fairly consistent with the factory trials of r=0.97 to 0.98.
The correlation coefficients generated for the 35W incandescent lamp in
the laboratory (r=0.99) was not consistent with the factory trials of r=0.92
to 0.95. Weekly calibration seems to be a possibility with the red LED
but not with the 35W incandescent lamp. This may be attributed to lamp

• deterioration.

The red LED seems to be the more reliable light source for the purity
meter .

•
 6-1

• Chapter 6

Conclusions and Recommendations

• The main objective of this investigation was to develop a purity meter that
would provide the centrifugal operator with a reliable on-line measurement
of sugar purity, thereby facilitating the automation of the continuous
centrifugal. The conclusions and recommendations for this investigation
are stated below.

Preliminary laboratory investigations involved the construction of a

laboratory rig for the housing of the light sensor and the light detector,

• followed by the selection of the light source and light detector for the purity
meter prototype. The selection criteria for the light source and sensor
were:
a) the achievement of a reliable and repeatable relationship between
sugar purity and measured reflected light intensity, and
b) a light source and sensor that can withstand the environmental
conditions of the sugar mill.

• Four light sources were tested viz. incandescent lamp (12W and 35 W),
red LED (12 candela), and a strobe light (35W strobe at 4 Hz). As part of
the continuation of earlier trials by Tongaat Hulett Sugar, the light detector
used for the light selection trials was the photodiode. Two lamps were
selected. The 12- candela red LED and the 35W incandescent lamps
both provided a repeatable, highly linear relationship between laboratory
analysed sugar purity and measured reflected light intensity .

•
 6-2

• The light detector selection trials involved the testing

dependent resistor (LOR) and the photodiode sensors to check if better
of the light

results could be produced for the selected light sources. Results showed
both the LOR and the photodiode sensors were able to successfully
predict sugar purity. The relationship between sugar purity and measured
reflected light intensity was linear and repeatable. The light sensor
selection trials were performed at ambient temperatures.

• Attempts were made to replicate the environmental conditions of the

continuous centrifugal. As a result high temperatures (60 to 70oG), the
spinning motion of the sugar samples, steam and vibration effects on the
light reflectance measurement were tested. The following results apply to
both the red LED and the 35W incandescent lamps.

);> For the temperature tolerance testing the two light detectors were

• tested viz. the photodiode and the LOR (light dependent resistor).
The LOR was selected for its ability to provide a steady output at
the specified temperature range of 60 to 70oG. The photodiode
output was unstable in this temperature range.

);> The investigation to determine the effect of sugar crystal movement

on light reflectance measurements showed that the movement
(spinning) of sugar crystals had no significant effect on the

• measurement of light reflectance for the red LED

incandescent lamps. The samples were spun at 120 rpm. Higher
speeds could not be attained as the sugar samples tended to be
and the

spun off the sample holder. It was acknowledged that although the
laboratory rig simulated some movement of the sugar crystals it
was unable to accommodate the tumbling action of sugar crystals
as they move up the centrifugal basket on a continuous centrifugal.

•
 6-3

• ~ The addition of steam to laboratory rig resulted in the condensation

of steam onto the sugar samples and eventually, also in the
dissolving of the sugar. The effect of steam was therefore
simulated with the use of dry ice in water. There was no significant
effect on the measured light reflectance readings in the steam
simulation trials for both the red LED and the incandescent lamps.

• The relationship between sugar purity and measured

reflectance remained linear and repeatable for both light sources.
light

~ The effect of vibration could not be simulated for the laboratory

meter, however efforts were made accommodate for this when
building the factory meter prototype. It was decided that purity
meter tubes would be welded on to a tube plate and the plate
would be welded on to the centrifugal monitor casing. The light

• source and detector would be held securely

electrical securing equipment.
with appropriate

The success of the laboratory trials led to the construction of the factory
purity meter prototype. Both the red LED and the 35W incandescent
lamps were tried in the factory. The following results were obtained for

• the factory trials:

For the red LED trials the relationship between sugar purity and
measured light reflectance remained linear and repeatable in the
continuous centrifugal. However calibration of the purity meter had to be
performed with the purity meter installed in the continuous centrifugal as
the laboratory calibration did not apply. It was discovered that the range
in which the purity meter operated in the centrifugal and the laboratory

• rig varied. Although there were reasons suggested for this occurrence
the exact reason for the fundamental difference between the laboratory
 6-4

• and the factory purity meter is a fact that the laboratory purity meter has
failed to identify. The factory purity meter is however capable of
providing the centrifugal operator with a reliable measure of sugar purity.
Correlation coefficients in the region of 0.97 were achieved for the red
LED factory trials.

The effect of varying massecuite quality was tested and it was found that

• although
reflectance
the relationship
remained
between
linear and repeatable,
sugar purity and measured light
the gradient of the lines
changed with changing massecuite quality. When the results of 3 days
(trials performed in the same week) were combined to verify if calibration
could be performed once per week, it was discovered that the linear
relationship between sugar purity and measured reflected light
deteriorated from r = 0.97 to 0.90. Due to the narrow range in which the
sugar purity has to be controlled (82 to 85%), it was decided that the

• calibration of the purity meter had to pe conducted daily.

The following modifications were made to improve the purity meter

prototype. The light source and detector tubes were shortened so that
they were a distance of 22 cm from the centrifugal basket. This was
performed to reduce molasses fouling of the tubes. A cleaning period of
once per week was achieved and considered a reasonable maintenance
period. The electronics were remotely panel mounted after short-

• circuiting occurred due to water ingress when the electronics were initially
mounted on top of the centrifugal monitor casing.

The following results were obtained from the incandescent lamp trials:
The experiences from the red LED trials led to a more informed approach
to the incandescent light trials. The purity meter was subjected to a few
modifications before the initiation of the factory trials. The tubes were
increased from 13 mm to 30 mm. It was noted that the small diameter

• tubes from the red LED trials would sometimes become totally obscured
by molasses. Larger diameter tubes reduced this phenomenon and the
 6-5

• large diameter tubes also allowed for the further shortening of the tubes.
The incandescent lamp had the advantage of high light intensity thereby
offsetting the negative effect of the shortened tubes. The tubes were
shortened such that there was a distance of 25cm to the centrifugal
basket.

The molasses fouling was significantly reduced and a weekly

• maintenance period was maintained. Disadvantages noted with the 35W

incandescent lamp were high heat emission and deterioration of the lamp
light intensity with time. Electrical insulation was added to the electrical
wiring for the incandescent lamp as the high temperatures resulted in
burning of the wires. An air purge was added to assist in cooling of the
lamp and also for applying a positive pressure down the tubes so that
molasses fouling could be minimised.

• The purity meter electronics were modified to operate in a range of 70 to

99%. This allowed operators to have a direct correlation of sugar purity in
the continuous centrifugal. Correlation coefficients in the region of 0.94
were achieved for the incandescent lamp factory trials. The purity meter
was calibrated daily while the centrifugal was operational. This was
necessary as the calibration gradient changed with changing massecuite
quality. Attempts to use the combination of 3 days data (of the same
week) resulted in a correlation coefficient of r =0.80. This relationship was

• considered unacceptable.
the red LED trials.
This was the same result as experienced with

The objective of this investigation, to provide the centrifugal operator with

a reliable measure of sugar purity was adequately achieved with both
light sources. The results from the red LED trials are however better than
those achieved from the incandescent lamp trials. The correlation
coefficients achieved with the incandescent lamp in the laboratory

• (r=0.99) deteriorated
deterioration
when tested in the
was the reason for this phenomenon.
factory (r=0.94).
The
Lamp
red LED
 6-6

• maintained the good linear relationship of correlation coefficient values of

approximately r= 0.97 in both the laboratory and the factory trials.

The LEOs as mentioned previously have the advantage of a long life

span. They are also resistant to shock and vibration due to their solid
makes up and they have low heat generation (-7°C). LEOs unlike

•
incandescent light do not deteriorate over time and therefore do not
require frequent replacement. In light of these advantages it is believed
that the red LEO would be the better choice for the light source for use in
the detection of sugar purity in the continuous centrifugal.

The purity meter although capable of providing a reliable measure of

sugar purity cannot totally replace daily laboratory analyses. This is
proven by the fact that the meter requires daily calibration. The meter will
however assist in significantly reducing the number of laboratory analyses

• performed and assist in reducing the loss of sucrose to molasses.

•
•

REFERENCES

•
• R- 1

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•
•

•
Appendix A

Experimental Procedure

•
 A-1

• Appendix A
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

A 1.1 PROCEDURE FOR PURITY DETERMINATION OF MAGMA

• Purity of magma (C-sugar) is the ratio percentage

determined according to the procedure specified
of pol to brix.
by the SASA (South
It is

African Sugar Association). The procedure is as follows:

a) Preparation of a stock solution

i) 50 g of well mixed sugar sample is weighed in a 500ml Erlenmeyer
flask.
ii) Distilled water is added to the flask to give a final mass of 250,Og.

• The flask is then stopper-ed.

iii) The sample is shaken until completely dissolved (ca 1 hour).

b) 8rix Determination
i) 100ml from (a) is transferred into an Erlenmeyer flask. 2g of
kieselguhr is added. This is well mixed.
ii) The mixed solution is filtered through a filter paper. The funnel
must be covered with a watch glass to prevent evaporation

•
losses and contamination .
iii) The first 10ml is rejected.
iv) When sufficient sample is collected, the brix is determined at 20°C
using the refractometer described in section 3.3.2.
v) If the brix is not obtained at 25°C, Table 2 (P380) [SASTA (1985)]

allows for brix adjustment at 20°C.

The final brix value is multiplied by 5.

•
 A-2

• c) Pol Determination
i) 150ml of the stock solution prepared in (a) is poured into an
Erlenmeyer flask.
Add 4g of lead sub-acetate.
ii) The flask is stopped and shaken thoroughly to dissolve the lead
sub-acetate.

• iii) The solution is allowed to stand for 5 minutes.

iv) The solution is then filtered. The funnel must be covered with a
watch glass to prevent contamination and evaporation losses.
v) The first 25ml is rejected.
vi) The clear filtrate is collected in a clear, dry beaker.

vii) Rinse the Pol tube three times with portions of the filtrate and
determine the Pol using the polarimeter described in section
3.3.1. Pol is read in degrees Pol (OZ).

• viii) The saccharimeter and refractometer readings must both be

taken at 20°C. If the saccharimeter reading is not taken at

20°C, the brix reading from (b), before multiplying by 5, must

be adjusted using table 4 (P386) [SASA (1985)]. The Pol is
then calculated using the saccharimeter and refractometer
reading from (b). The Schmitz's table [table 3, P381), [SASA
(1985)] .

• The final Pol is multiplied by 5.

d) Purity Determination
Purity is the ratio percentage of Pol and brix

P'tun y = Poll brix x 100

-1-

•
 A-3

• An example is provided below:-

Brix
Refractometer reading @ 26,4°C = 18,21°
Temperature correction @ 26,4°C= + 0,49°
Corrected brix at 20°C = 18,70°
Final brix = 5 x 18,70 = 93,50°

• Pol
Saccharimeter reading @ 26,2°C = 67,80°
Brix @ 20°C = 18,70°
Adjustment for 26,2°C = - 0,40°
Adjusted brix = 18,30°
From the Schmitz's table Pol is calculated using the saccharimeter reading
of 76,80 and the brix reading of 18,30°.

• The result is 16,42°C.

Final Pol = 16,42°s x 5

= 82,100s

.. Purity = 82,10 x100

93,50

= 87,81%

e) Computer Calculation

• Mill laboratories are now equipped with computers that automatically

calculate the purity after the samples have been added to the saccharimeter
and refractometer .

•
•

•
Appendix B

Strobe Light Trials

•
 B-1

• ,..-...
100
90
._-_.

y = 10.03x- 838.12
-

••
_._._----
•
•
--

>E 80 r -u.o i
./
........
70 ./
.>
Q)
u
c
co 60
......
u
• ./.... • •
Q)
ï+=
Q)
0:::
50
40 • »: •
./ • S-12cm

-:
•
30
20
••
85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93
Suagr Purity (%)

Figure B.1: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected Light

at a 18 cm Sample Distance

• ,..-...
100
90 -
y = 10.03x - 838.12
••
•
<>
L
>E 80
»:
A

r -u.oo
........
70
Q)
u
c ./
.
60
co
......
u
50 • L.... • •
Q)
c;::::
Q)
40
./ •
0:::
./ <> S-12cm
30
20 r +.
,

• 85 86 87 88
Suagr Purity (%)
89 90 91 92 93

Figure B.2: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected

Light at a 12 cm Sample Distance

•
 B-2

•
190-~----------------------------------~
170 +-.!J--=__JJJ....J.
•
>E 150-~--------------------------------~--~
'-"
<ll
130 +---------------------.._---:::~--------___l
u •
~ 110 -r---------------------~~----------------~

•
~ 90 +-----------~---=~--------~------------~
c;::=

& 70 +---------~~--~~--------------------~
50 +----E~--------~----------------~Ch~~
30+-------~--------~--------~------~
85 87 89 91 93
Sugar Purity (%)

Figure B.3: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected Light

at a 7 cm Sample Distance

•
80
= 7.59x - 623.80
//

t r=0.92 ~ /

70 /

_.......
>
-E 60
··L~ •
<ll .//+
o
c
cu
50
~/
• /'

+-'
c .>: •
<ll
40

•
'+=
<ll //~
0::: e
<> /// <>
30 - /

Strobe-Blue
20 - ,

85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93
Sugar Purity (%)
---

Figure B.4: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected

Light, using a Blue Filter

,
 B-3

• 240
220 y- 21.18x - 1734.68

/....--
.--"'--../
+
5' 200 .r. nr.
·V.V'"'
....+ ....
.s
ID
180 -
/+-:
o 160 -
C .~+/
ro
+-'
o 140
ID ~
120

•
Ii=
ID
c::: ~~
100 +.--// SBr
80
60 ,
85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93
Sugar Purity (%)

Figure B.5: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected Light

using a Brown Filter

• ,"" 45
v= 4.22x - 347.31
.........
40 -
> r = 0.90 + • -<>+ / ...,...'"

E 35 •
.........

c
ID
o 30
,V/
.s-:
ro
25
.>.
+-'
o
ID
i:i=
20
•
/~

ID //
0::: ~
15 ~'"

• 10
85 87 89
Sugar Purity (%)
91 93

Figure B.6: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected Light

using a Green Filter

,
 B-4

• 115
v - 10 9Bx - 904 OB
105 - _../
r=O.86 +.... .,/
----
> 95
E
.__.
al 85 • .>
u //+
c 75
_.
Y
(Il
u
65

•
al
Cj::
/+
al
Cl:: 55 -
45 +/
//: • ;:,v

35 -
85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93
Sugar Purity (%)

Figure B.7: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected Light,

using an Orange Filter

• 210

>
E
170
-; 150 -
u
190 -Y - I o.~~X

r=O.86
- I ::J::JLj.Oq

/./
•
..
/
,//
• /+
./ -----

•
c 130 -
(Il
+-'
u
al 110 • /./
Cj:: ~/
al
...
/'
Cl:: 90 /./
Sy

•
70
50
85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93
Sugar Purity (%)

Figure B.8: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected Light,

using a Yellow Filter

•
 B-5

• I
80 ---_ _----
..
y = 7.73x - 636.66
_----_ ...__ ......._--_. __ ..._-----_
_ ... _- __
...._ .... _..__ .. ........ _..... _ ..._.- .... __ .

__ 70 r=O.92
• ..... ~.

>E • ·L •
-- 60-
Q)
o
c
....../.
(IJ
......
50 +.....

.
o ~' I

Q)
ti= 40 _.........../
Q)
•
•
0::: /~
30 y
SBBr
20
85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93
Sugar Purity (%)

Figure B.9: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected Light,

using a Blue and Brown Filter

• 70 -

........
60 = 6.67x- 554.85
> r=O.88
.s 50
ID
o
c 40 -
co
+-'
o
ID
i:i= 30 -
ID
0::
20 -
•
SBY

• 10
85 87 89
Sugar Purity (%)
91 93

Figure B.10: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected Light

, using a Blue and Yellow Filter

•
 B-7

• 26 --- -------_._--

24 -

5' 22 --y-=-2iJ8x--=-t6-r.8:-
• • .>
520
r=O.87 • /~
Q)
o L-
-c 18
cu
0
Q)
;:;::::
16
//.
.>
•
Q)
14
0:::

12
/;
./ "''''U
10 -
85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93
Sugar Purity (%)

Figure B.13: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected

Light, using Green and Orange Filters

• 120
110 -
.- 100 y = 11.64x - 964.56 • L_
>E
.._... 90
r=O.87
•• L'-·-
././ ..... ~
Q)
u
80
c 70 ~
cu
.......
u 60 .e:
Q)
c;::::
50 .>
Q)
0:::
40 :,.....
~~ •
SOBr
30

• 20
85 86 87 88 89
Sugar Purity (%)
90
I

91 92 93

--~----

Figure B.14: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected

Light, using an Orange Brown Filter

•
 B-8

• 120
110
•
.......... 100 -_y
>E
.._., 90 -
= 11.64x - 964.56
r=O.87 •• ....-
___.-
->

u 80
Q) -> •
c ~
cu 70
......
u 60 Z
Q)
c;::
50 ->
• .> .. •
Q)
c:::: 40 -/
SOBr
30
20 -
85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93
Sugar Purity (%)
---

Figure B.15: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected

Light, using Green and Brown Filters

• 120
--

5'
E
.._.,
110
100 -
90
y = 11.64x - 964.56
r=O.87
••
.-~. •______ ___.-'tY
/

Q)
u 80 •
c _V
cu
......
70
u 60 Z
Q)
c;::
L_/
50
Q)
c:::: 40 -:.-----
~~ •
SOBr

• 30
20
85 86 87 88 89 90
Sugar Purity (%)
91 92 93

Figure B.16: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected

Light, using Orange and Brown Filters

•
 B-9

• ~-

..
110
y = 11.29x - 93649

../ .
100 ---
..........
90
r=0.90
• /
>E
.._ 80 •
Q)
o
+/
C
70
cu
...... /'~
60
o
Q) /+

•
t+= 50
Q)
0::: 40 - /~ •
~ SOY
30
20
85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93
Sugar Purity (%)

Figure B.17: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected Light

using Orange and Yellow Filter

• 230
-_.~.
_..,.., "7C,
~
_... _---_. _--- ...._---_._ .._..
.__ ._.. __ ._ ............ _ ....... __ ..._--_ ..

»:
210 ]

r=0.91
.~~

• • -:
....../

.
..........
190
> ,/+
E 170
.._
Q)
./'
o 150
c
cu
...... 130 - //
o
Q)
ij:::
110
/.
Q)
0:::
90
/~ •
•
+/ SYBr
70
50
85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93
Sugar Purity (%)

Figure B.18: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected Light

using Yellow and Brown Filters
 •

•
Appendix C

Incandescent Light (12W)

•
e
 C-1

• 6 -r------------------------------------------,
y = O.32x- 23.84 • .~
~ 5.5 +-':.._-r-=O=-.8=8---------~- ... -...-AII-. r=---.----!
...

~, 5 +----------~~~~-.---------!
o ~./
C ~.
S 4.5 -~------~~=-------------------~
u .---
Q) ~..
~Q) 4 -~--.v·~~-~-:.._----------------~

• 0::
3.5 -r-------------------------------------~
3 +-----~--~--~--~---~--~-~-----!
85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93
118cm

Sugar Purity (%)

Figure C.1: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected Light at a 18

cm Sample Distance

• 7.5
•
--
>
Q)
u 6.5
7
y = O.27x- 17.28
r-,
-v.vv

.~~
~..----- •
4> 4>
._~.r-

<>

-
c
ns
u ...------------.
6
•
.>:
Q)
~Q)
0::
5.5 ~
• 112cm

• 5 ,
85
•
86 87 88
Sugar Purity (%)
89 90 91 92 93

Figure C.2: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected Light at

a 12 cm Sample Distance

•
 C-2

y = O.37x - 25.45
-v.uu
..
./~. .~-
•
~.---;
•

I7cm

86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93
Sugar Purity (%)

Figure C.3: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected Light at a

7 cm Sample Distance

• 5.5 ,-----------------.-- ------,

Figure CA: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected Light,

using a Blue Filter

•
 C-3

• 8 ,-----------------------------------------,
y = 0.26x - 16.52 +
7.5 ~----=3~----------------~ ...
.-----------------~
r=0.5 + + +
.--.. + ---~
G 7 -~---------------------r_~-~=--------~
m + -~~
~ 6.5 +-------------------_7""""~:....---~-----------------__l
U .>:
~ 6 -~-------~=~+------
++--
---------------------~

• 0::
5.5
»>: •
-1-----------------------1
+

5 +---~,---~----,----.--~---~---,--~
+

• IBr

85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93

Sugar Purity (%)

Figure C.5: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected Light,

using a Brown Filter

• 5

~
m
4.5 -

4
y = 0.28x
r 'U.~U
- 21.60

.:~O... ~
.>.

<>
I
o •
- c
co ~.~
I
.
o .>
m 3.5
~/.
I

c;::::
m ~~ • I!
0::
3 -
.- /'

• 2.5
85 86 87 88 89
Sugar Purity (%)
90 91 92
lG

93

Figure C.6 Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected Light I

using a Green Filter

 C-4

• 7.5

7 - - n ?'Rv - ?7 __99_ + ~
r=O.91 +:~ .. +
~ 6.5 -
+~~ ...
Q)
CJ 6 - •..>:
-c
cu
CJ
Q)
<;::::
5.5 -
->:
~
+

•
Q)
5 -
0:::
•
4.5 -
10
4
85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93
Sugar Purity (%)

Figure C.7: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected Light,

using an Orange Filter

• 8 - '-

7.5 f--*-=-(L4..1 v -_10.2£1 .-.---

~
7 -
r=O.85
•• .>: _<>_

Q)

c 6.5
CJ .?
- cu
CJ
Q)
<;::::
6
+.-.---/
/
Q)
5.5 - L+ <I>
0:::
+//
.....-
5 _ +

• 4.5 ,
85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92
lY

93

Sugar Purity (%)

Figure C.8: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected Light,

using a Yellow Filter

•
 C-5

• 5 .__ . --'-ï
I
I
y = 0.27x - 20.50
4.5 • ->
.--..
G
Q.l 4
r=o.ss
·Y~ •
o

-c
cu
o
/.~ ,
Q.l 3.5
/-/
•
c;::::
Q.l
0:::
3
• I
2.5
IBBr
I
85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93
Sugar Purity (%)

Figure e.9: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected Light,

using a Blue and Brown Filter

• I 6
y = 0.32x - 23.64
5.5 -
r=0.88 ~ //
> 5 -
•• .s:
.~y<
..._"
v
Q.l
o

-c
cu
o
Q.l
c;::::
Q.l
4.5

4 -~/~
/~
0:::
//
~/

•
•
3.5
IBY
3 -
85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93
Sugar Purity (%)

Figure e.10: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected Light,

using a Blue and Yellow Filter

•
 C-6

•
.
3.8 y =--O:Z3x:1T.b..-.--b------------- ---.------
3.6 _ r~nAA

3.4 +------------_._'_/----...c.,,.L------l
/
~ 3.2 -.~---------------------.~~---.---.---~
g 3 -.~-----------------.~~--.---------~
n 2.8 -.~---------~/-------------~
~ 2.6 _.~------~A~~~~~~v-------------~

•
cr: /~
2.4 -I---/-~---.------------l
2.2 -I----.>-----------------------------""IS-;::G--I

2 +---~r---_r---~----~--~---~--,_----l
85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93
Sugar Purity (%)

Figure C.11: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected

Light, using Blue and Green Filters

• 4.5 -~-----------------------.----------,

4 _~ = O.24x - 17.78
.
r-O.90

./.~ .
//

~ -, ~

~
~
~ 3.5 -~------------,

3 +---------~~~------------------l
~.~ ~.r-~~---------~

& ~-~
2.5 -I---- ------------------------------_l
....

• 2 +----,---,---,----.--,---,--,--~
85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92
IGY

93
Sugar Purity (%)

Figure C.12: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected

Light, using a Green and Yellow Filters

•
 C-7

• ----

4.5

..~/
y = O.24x - 18.46
4 - r-O.89

~
ID 3.5 - • •
u
c ~~ ...
ro
1:5
ID 3 - .r:
;;::::
ID
~_..----.._..----_..../

•
a::
2.5 -
//
•
IGO
2 ,
85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93
Sugar Purity (%)
--

Figure C.13: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected

Light, using Green and Orange Filters

• 4.3 :J
",..,"'.
v.~v.

r=O.90
49:-38
-:
4.1
.., e
• «~
~ 3.7
ID
3.9

./.
-: •
u 3.5
ro
c
......
u 3.3
y
ID
;;::::

a:: 3.1
ID /+
L~
2.9
/~ •
• 2.7
2.5
85
9-

86 87 88 89 90 91 92
IGBr

93
Sugar Purity (%)

Figure C.14: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected

Light, using Green and Brown Filters

•
 c-s

.... /
......
6.5 -
y - 0.37x - 27.22
r=0.89 .:/~ •
G
Q)
u
6
.y.
.~
c
.....co 5.5 -
u
Q)
t+=
5

•
Q)
0:::
/+ •
4.5 -
IOBr
4 ,

85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93
Sugar Purity (%)

Figure C.15: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected Light,

using an Orange Brown Filter

• 5 -

.
4.8 - ,

4.6 -
y = 0.27x - 20.34
.... ..,
• ///

r=O.o~

~ 4.4
__;<
~
•
u 4.2 -
Q)

c z-:
..... 4
co
u
Q) 3.8
»:
t+=
Q)
0::: 3.6
+/+
3.4 ~
L_ •
• 3.2 -
3
85
•
86 87 88 89 90 91 92
IUt:!

93

Sugar Purity (%)

Figure C.16: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected Light,

using Orange and Brown Filters

•
 C-9

• 7.5 ,---------------.------,
y = C.38x - 27.59

.........
7 r-O.90
./.
G 6.5 -f-------------X~.-.---;7"..-.I<..--+--------j
Q)
.. • ./

u 6 -
c
co
......
u 5.5
Q)
t;::
Q)
Cl::: 5
4.5 +------------------------------------j
lOY
4 -f-----,-----r------~------._-----~
84 86 88 90 92 94
Sugar Purity (%)

Figure C.17: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected

Light, using Orange and Yellow Filter

• 8
7.5
-r-------------------------------------~
v = 0 39x - 28 15
r=O.91

5 +------------------------------~

• 4.5

85
-~-----------------------4

86 87 88 89 90
IYBr
4 +----,---r----.----,,---~---~----,_--~
91 92 93
Sugar Purity (%)

Figure C.18: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected

Light, using Yellow and Brown Filters
•

•
Appendix D

Incandescent Light (35W)

•
• 0-1

110
y = 5.38x - 383.90
r=0.97
100
:;-
S 90
ID IIil

•
o
C
co
t5 80 -
ID
,.::
ID
0:::
70

60 -
82.00 84.00 86.00 88.00 90.00 92.00
Sugar Purity %
White light&photodiode, 14/8/98 t2

Figure 0.1: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected Light,

using Incandescent Light of 35 W, Trial 2

•
 0-2

Table D.1: Raw Data for the Incandescent Lamp and LDR Trials.

Purity Trial1 Trial2 Average

(%) (kO) (kO) (kO)
81.59 15.5 15.8 15.6

•
82.10 15.3 15.5 15.4
83.01 14.7 14.8 14.8
83.54 13.3 13.2 13.2
84.43 12.8 13.6 13.1
85.25 11.5 11.7 11.6
86.52 10.2 10.1 10.0
87.15 10.4 10.3 10.5
88.29 7.9 8.1 8.2
89.09 7.9 8 8.2
89.90 7.3 7.3 7.7

Table D.2: Incandescent Motion Trials Raw Data

• Sugar Stationar Spinning Stationar Spinning Average Average

Purity y (kO) (kO) Y (kO) (kO) Stationar Spinning
(%) y (kO) (kO)
81.59 15.5 15.6 15.8 15.5 15.7 15.6
82.10 15.3 15.5 15.5 15.5 15.4 15.5
83.01 14.7 15 14.8 15 14.8 15.0
83.54 13.3 13.5 13.2 13.5 13.3 13.5
84.43 12.8 13.4 13.6 13.6 13.2 13.5
85.25 11.5 11.5 11.7 11.8 11.6 11.7
86.52 10.2 10 10.1 10.1 10.2 10.1
87.15 10.4 10.2 10.3 10.2 10.4 10.2
88.29 7.9 8.1 8.1 8.1 8.0 8.1

•
89.09 7.9 8.1 8 8.1 8.0 8.1
89.90 7.3 7.5 7.3 7.6 7.3 7.6

•
• 0-3

Table 0.3: Incandescent Steam Simulation Trials - Raw Data

Sugar No Steam Steam Steam Average

Purity Test 1 Test 2 Steam
(%) (kO) (kO) (kO) (kO)

• 81.59
82.1
83.01
83.54
15.6
15.4
14.9
13.0
16.1
16.3
15.5
14
16.4
16.2
15.8
14
16.3
16.3
15.7
14.0
84.17 14.1 14.6 14.5 14.6
84.43 12.9 14 14.1 14.1
85.25 11.6 11.9 11.5 11.7
86.52 9.7 10.5 10.5 10.5
87.15 10.9 10.4 10.6 10.5
88.29 8.5 8.4 8.3 8.4
89.09 8.7 8.5 8.5 8.5
89.9 8.4 8 8 8.0

•
•

•
Appendix E

Red LED Light Trials Data

•
 E-1

450
y = 35.09x - 2798.87

:> 400" - r=n QR

E
.......,
Q) 350
o

-c
eo
o
Q)
t;::
Q)
300

0::: 250 ,//

11--/
200 "
85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92
Sugar Purity (%)

Figure E.1 : Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected Light,

using a Red LED at 12 Candela.

1 .9 _..
R· ••••••••••••••• • _ •••••• ._.·· _ - ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ---- .

''1
Ë 1.7 -1--"<>'----------------------1'

..c:
o 1.5 ---"~

-
E 1.3 -l----.,"""'~::::---.------------l
Q)
g
~CJ
1.1
0.9 -I---------=--_::::,..""'~----------I
• ~
~
. ~

iI"-
0.7 -
r=-O.95
• ~
~ <>
0.5 +------,.----,----..,.--------,-__::".__--I

81 83 85 87 89 91
Sugar Purity (%) led,LO

Figure E.2: Relationship between Sugar Purity and Reflected Light,

using a Red LED and :LDR
 E-2

Table E.1: Raw data for the Motion Trials

Sugar Stationary Spinning Stationary Spinning Average Average

Purity (%) (mn) (mn) (mn) (mn) Stationary Spinning
I(mn) I(mn)
81.59 1.73 1.74 1.73 1.75 1.73 1.75
82.1 1.45 1.45 1.39 1.4 1.42 1.43
83.01 1.27 1.28 1.31 1.3 1.29 1.29
83.54 1.19 1.17 1.15 1.17 1.17 1.17
84.17 1.25 1.27 1.23 1.25 1.24 1.26
84.43 1.1 1.09 1.11 1.1 1.11 1.10
85.25 0.96 0.93 0.95 0.94 0.96 0.94
86.52 0.8 0.79 0.8 0.82 0.80 0.81
87.15 0.82 0.82 0.83 0.85 0.83 0.84
88.29 0.63 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.63 0.63
89.09 0.69 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.68 0.67
89.9 0.6 0.58 0.6 0.6 0.60 0.59

Table E.2: Raw data for the Steam Simulation Trials

Sugar No Steam Steam Steam Average

Purity (mn) Test1 Test 2 Steam
(%) (mn) (mn) (mn)
81.59 1.73 1.81 1.76 1.79
82.1 1.45 1.38 1.39 1.39
83.01 1.27 1.33 1.35 1.34
83.54 1.19 1.13 1.12 1.13
84.17 1.25 1.2 1.23 1.22
84.43 1.10 1.1 1.09 1.10
85.25 0.96 0.93 0.95 0.94
86.52 0.80 0.81 0.83 0.82
87.15 0.82 0.83 0.84 0.84
88.29 0.63 0.64 0.64 0.64
89.09 0.69 0.66 0.67 0.67
89.9 0.60 0.58 0.59 0.59