MCB 201/ MCB 221: GENERAL MICROBIOLOGY I (3 UNITS)

Lecturer: Dr. Kelly BA

Types of Microorganisms
Microorganisms are tiny living organisms that are invisible to the naked eye and can only be seen
under a microscope. They exist in diverse forms and play crucial roles in ecosystems, human health,
industry, and disease processes. Microorganisms are classified into several major types based on their
structural, functional, and ecological characteristics. These classifications include Bacteria, viruses,
fungi, riskettsiae and algae

Bacteria
Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled organisms belonging to the prokaryotic domain. They lack a
true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, making them distinct from eukaryotic organisms.
Bacteria are among the most diverse and abundant life forms on Earth, thriving in nearly every
environment, including extreme conditions.
General Characteristics of Bacteria
1. They are Prokaryotic which means they have no true nucleus. Their genetic material is in a
nucleoid region.
2. Most bacteria have a rigid cell wall made of peptidoglycan which can either be thick or thin
3. Their cytoplasm contains ribosomes and other components but lacks cell organelles.
4. Many bacteria possess flagella for motility.
5. They have Pili/Fimbriae which are hair-like structures aiding in adhesion to surfaces or
DNA exchange.
6. They are known to primarily reproduce asexually through binary fission, where one cell
divides into two identical cells.
7. Bacteria can be autotrophic which means they are able to synthesize their food or
heterotrophic which means they consume organic matter.
8. They derive their energy from light (photosynthesis), organic molecules, or inorganic
compounds.
9. They are found in soil, water, air, extreme environments (hot springs, acidic lakes), and inside
organisms.
10. Bacteria are highly adaptable and exhibit immense genetic diversity, which allows them to
survive under various conditions.
 Types of Bacteria
Bacteria are classified into different types based on various criteria such as morphology, Gram
staining, oxygen requirement, temperature preference, and genetic characteristics. Bacteria are
incredibly diverse organisms with essential roles in natural processes, industrial applications, and
human health.
1. Types based on Shape
Bacteria are classified into four main types based on their shape:
i. Cocci: Spherical or oval-shaped.
Example: Staphylococcus aureus (clusters), Streptococcus pyogenes (chains).
ii. Bacilli: Rod-shaped.
Example: Escherichia coli, Bacillus anthracis.
iii. Spirilla: Spiral-shaped.
Example: Spirillum volutans.
iv. Vibrios: Comma-shaped.
Example: Vibrio cholerae.

2. Types Based on Gram Staining

The Gram stain differentiates bacteria based on the structure of their cell wall and how thick their
peptidoglycan layer is:
i. Gram-Positive Bacteria: They possess thick peptidoglycan layers which enables them to
retain the crystal violet dye after gram staining and appear purple under a microscope.
Example: Staphylococcus, Bacillus.
ii. Gram-Negative Bacteria: They have thin peptidoglycan layers and an outer membrane.
They are unable to retain the violet dye after gram staining and appear pink.
Example: Escherichia coli, Salmonella.
3. Types Based on Oxygen Requirement
i. Aerobic Bacteria: Those are the types of microbes that require oxygen for survival.
Example: Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
ii. Anaerobic Bacteria: They do not require oxygen and may die in its presence.
Example: Clostridium botulinum.
iii. Facultative Anaerobes: They can thrive in the presence or absence of oxygen.
Example: Escherichia coli.
iv. Microaerophilic Bacteria: They require low levels of oxygen for their survival
Example: Helicobacter pylori.
4. Types Based on Temperature Preference
i. Psychrophiles: They thrive in cold temperatures (0–20°C).
Example: Polaromonas.
ii. Mesophiles: Grow best at moderate temperatures (20–45°C).
Example: Escherichia coli.
iii. Thermophiles: Thrive in high temperatures (45–80°C).
Example: Thermus aquaticus.
iv. Hyperthermophiles: Prefer extremely high temperatures (>80°C).
Example: Pyrolobus fumarii.
5. Types Based on Nutrition
i. Autotrophic Bacteria: Synthesize their own food.
ii. Photoautotrophs: Use sunlight for photosynthesis (e.g., Cyanobacteria).
iii. Chemoautotrophs: Use inorganic substances for energy (e.g., Nitrosomonas).
iv. Heterotrophic Bacteria: Depend on organic material for nutrition.
v. Saprophytic: Feed on dead organic matter (e.g., Pseudomonas).
vi. Parasitic: Depend on a host (e.g., Mycobacterium leprae).
6. Classification Based on Motility
i. Motile Bacteria: Have flagella or other structures for movement.
Example: Salmonella.
ii. Non-Motile Bacteria: Lack movement structures.
Example: Lactobacillus.
Importance of Bacteria
1. Ecological Roles
They are able to act as decomposers and break down organic matter, recycling nutrients in
ecosystems.
Some of them convert atmospheric nitrogen into usable forms (e.g., Rhizobium).
2. Industrial Uses
They are used in the production of antibiotics for combating certain infectious ailments (e.g.,
Streptomyces produces streptomycin).
They are involved on the process of fermentation of food products (e.g., Lactobacillus in yogurt and
cheese).
3. Medical Significance
Some bacteria can cause diseases such as tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) and cholera
(Vibrio cholerae).
Probiotics: Beneficial bacteria promoting gut health (e.g., Lactobacillus acidophilus).
 Viruses
Viruses are microscopic infectious agents that exist at the borderline between living and non-living
entities. Unlike bacteria and other microorganisms, viruses are acellular and cannot reproduce or
carry out metabolic processes independently. They rely entirely on a host cell to replicate and
propagate. Despite their simplicity, viruses are highly diverse and play significant roles in ecology,
health, and biotechnology. Viruses are highly specific to their host, infecting bacteria
(bacteriophages), plants, animals, or humans.
Viruses replicate through various mechanisms depending on the type of virus, typically involving:
Attachment: Binding to host cell receptors.
Penetration: Entry into the host cell.
Replication: Using the host’s cellular machinery to produce viral components.
Assembly: Viral components assemble into new virions.
Release: Newly formed virions exit the host cell, often killing it.
Types of Viruses
1. Based on the nature of their Genetic Material.
Viruses can be categorized as either RNA or DNA virus. RNA viruses are viruses that have
ribonucleic acid (RNA) as their genetic material, rather than deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). These
viruses can be classified into two main groups based on the type of RNA they possess which are the
(1) Single-stranded RNA viruses (ssRNA): Examples include Influenza virus, HIV (positive-sense
ssRNA) and (2) Double-stranded RNA viruses (dsRNA): Example include the Rotavirus which is
a leading cause of diarrhea in children.
DNA viruses are viruses that contain deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) as their genetic material. They
can be classified into two categories based on whether their DNA is single-stranded or double-
stranded. They include Single-stranded DNA viruses (ssDNA) Example include Parvovirus, which
causes diseases in humans and animals. We also have Double-stranded DNA viruses (dsDNA) with
examples including the Herpes simplex virus.
2. Based on Shape and Structure
Viruses exhibit four primary shapes based on their capsid structure and these include
1. Helical Shape: The Capsid proteins form a spiral structure around the genetic material. The virus
can appear rod-like or filamentous. Example include the Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) and the
Rabies virus: A helical RNA virus with an envelope.
2. Icosahedral Shape: The capsid forms a symmetrical, icosahedral structure with 20 triangular faces
which provides maximum stability with minimal protein use. Example include the Adenovirus and
the Poliovirus.
3. Complex Shape: This is a combination of helical and icosahedral structures, often with additional
components. It is common in bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria). Example include the T4
bacteriophage which has an icosahedral head containing DNA, a helical tail, and tail fibers for
attachment.
4. Spherical Shape: Some enveloped viruses appear spherical under the microscope, although their
capsid may be icosahedral. Example include the Influenza virus and HIV.
 Fungi
Fungi are a diverse group of eukaryotic organisms that play essential roles in ecosystems, human
health, and industries. Unlike plants, fungi do not perform photosynthesis, and unlike animals, they
lack motility and rely on external sources for nutrients. Fungi can be found in a variety of habitats,
from soil and water to on plants, animals, and decaying organic matter. They are of great importance
in decomposition, nutrient recycling, and have practical applications in medicine, food, and
biotechnology.
Characteristics of Fungi
Fungi share several key characteristics that distinguish them from other living organisms, such as
plants, animals, and bacteria. These are as follows
1. Fungi are Eukaryotic Cells: Fungi are eukaryotes, meaning they have a true nucleus enclosed
within a membrane. They also have membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria, Golgi
apparatus, and endoplasmic reticulum.
2. Heterotrophic Nutrition: Fungi are heterotrophs, meaning they cannot make their own food
like plants (which are autotrophs). Instead, they obtain nutrients by breaking down organic
matter, either from living organisms (as parasites) or dead organic material (as decomposers).
3. Cell Wall Composition: Fungal cells have a rigid cell wall primarily made of chitin (not
cellulose like plants), which provides structural support and protection. This is a major
distinction from plants and bacteria.
4. Non-Photosynthetic: Unlike plants, fungi do not contain chlorophyll and do not carry out
photosynthesis. They obtain nutrients from other organisms by absorption after digesting
the organic material externally.
5. Reproduction: Fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually. Asexual Reproduction is
through the formation of conidia, sporangia, or budding. Asexual reproduction is often rapid
and leads to the proliferation of genetically identical offspring. Sexual Reproduction involves
the fusion of specialized sexual structures (e.g., gametes or spores), leading to genetic
recombination and increased diversity.
6. Multicellular and Unicellular Forms: Multicellular Fungi: Include molds, mushrooms, and
yeasts that grow as mycelium (a network of filamentous structures). Unicellular Fungi
include Yeasts that are unicellular which live independently but can form multicellular
structures under certain conditions (e.g., budding).
Types of Fungi
Fungi are classified into several groups based on their reproductive methods, morphology, and
genetic characteristics. The major groups of fungi include:
1. Zygomycota (Zygomycetes): They includes fungi that typically form large sporangia (spore-
producing structures) during asexual reproduction. They have simple, non-septate hyphae, meaning
the hyphae lack cross-walls (septae) between cells. Asexual reproduction involves the formation of
sporangia, while sexual reproduction occurs through the fusion of specialized hyphae to form a
zygosporangium. Examples include Rhizopus (black bread mold) and Mucor.
2. Ascomycota (Ascomycetes): This is the largest group of fungi which are characterized by the
formation of ascus (a sac-like structure) during sexual reproduction. Ascomycota have septate hyphae
with cross-walls dividing the cells. Asexual reproduction is by the formation of conidia (spores). In
sexual reproduction, the fusion of two compatible hyphae produces an ascus containing ascospores.
Examples include Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker’s yeast), Penicillium and Aspergillus.
3. Basidiomycota (Basidiomycetes): They are known for their large fruiting bodies, such as
mushrooms, toadstools, and puffballs. These fungi typically have septate hyphae and produce sexual
spores (basidiospores) on specialized structures called basidia, located on the surface of the fruiting
body. Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of two compatible hyphae to form a basidium, which
produces basidiospores. Examples include Agaricus bisporus (common mushroom)
4. Chytridiomycota (Chytrids): Chytridiomycota are mostly aquatic fungi with simple, primitive
structures. They are unique in that they produce flagellated spores called zoospores. Chytrids have
non-septate hyphae and produce zoospores that are capable of swimming through water.
Reproduction is both sexual and asexual reproduction occur, with sexual reproduction involving
gametes that fuse to form a zygote. Examples include Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (causes
chytridiomycosis in amphibians).
5. Glomeromycota (Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi): This group of fungi forms symbiotic
relationships with plant roots. They are essential for the uptake of nutrients, especially phosphorus,
by plants. Glomeromycota have unique hyphal structures that form inside plant roots, creating
specialized structures called arbuscules. They reproduce asexually through the formation of spores.
Examples include Glomus species.
6. Deuteromycota (Imperfect Fungi): The Deuteromycota, or "imperfect fungi," are fungi that do
not have a known sexual reproductive stage. As a result, they are grouped together based on their
asexual reproductive structures. They can have both septate and non-septate hyphae. Reproduction
is exclusively via asexual means, forming conidia or conidiophores. Examples include Aspergillus,
Penicillium, and Trichophyton which causes athlete's foot.
Economic and Medical Significance of Fungi
1. Fungi are widely used in the production of food products, including bread, beer, wine, and
cheese. Yeasts like Saccharomyces cerevisiae are used in baking and fermentation.
2. Fungi have been an important source of antibiotics. The most famous example is Penicillium,
which produces penicillin, a groundbreaking antibiotic that revolutionized medicine.
3. Fungi are used in the production of enzymes and organic acids.
4. Some fungi cause diseases in humans, including fungal infections like candidiasis and
aspergillosis.
Rickettsiae
Rickettsiae are a group of obligate intracellular gram-negative bacteria that require living host cells
to survive and reproduce. They are primarily transmitted by arthropod vectors, such as ticks, lice,
fleas, and mites, and are responsible for several zoonotic diseases in humans and animals.
General Characteristics of Rickettsiae
1. They are Prokaryotic, gram-negative bacteria.
2. They are small, pleomorphic rods or cocci with a thin peptidoglycan layer in their cell wall.
3. Reproduction is through binary fission and occurs only inside the host's cytoplasm or within
vacuoles.
4. They are energy parasites, relying on the host cell for ATP production.
5. Arthropod vectors play a crucial role in spreading Rickettsiae from host to host.
6. They Infect endothelial cells of blood vessels, leading to vasculitis (inflammation of blood
vessels).
7. Causes fever, rash, and systemic complications.
Types of Rickettsiae
Rickettsiae are classified into various groups based on their genetic characteristics and the diseases
they cause. Examples include:
1. Spotted Fever Group (SFG)
They are characterized by the development of spotted rashes on the body. Examples include
Rickettsia rickettsii which causes Rocky Mountain spotted fever and Rickettsia conorii which causes
Mediterranean spotted fever.
2. Typhus Group (TG)
They are associated with typhus fever, marked by systemic symptoms and sometimes high mortality
rates. Examples include Rickettsia prowazekii which causes epidemic typhus, transmitted by body
lice and Rickettsia typhi which causes endemic (murine) typhus, transmitted by fleas.
3. Transitional Group
They include species that share characteristics of both spotted fever and typhus groups.
Examples are the Rickettsia felis which Causes flea-borne spotted fever.
Economic Importance of Rickettsiae
1. Rickettsial diseases like Rocky Mountain spotted fever, typhus, and scrub typhus lead to
significant morbidity and mortality, especially in endemic regions. These diseases require
medical interventions, causing a burden on healthcare systems.
2. Epidemic typhus (R. prowazekii), associated with crowded and unsanitary conditions, can
occur during wars, natural disasters, or refugee crises, exacerbating human suffering.
3. Rickettsiae can infect animals, leading to diseases that affect livestock and pets, causing
economic losses.
4. Arthropod vectors like ticks, fleas, and mites, which transmit Rickettsiae, also affect livestock
health by causing anemia, weight loss, and decreased milk or meat production.
5. Rickettsiae are model organisms for studying intracellular parasitism and host-pathogen
interactions. Understanding these mechanisms can lead to advances in treating intracellular
infections.
6. Research on Rickettsiae is vital for developing vaccines against vector-borne diseases,
potentially saving lives and reducing economic burdens.
7. Due to their infectious nature and potential for rapid spread, Rickettsiae have been studied
as possible biological weapons, raising concerns about biosecurity.
Chlamydia
Chlamydia is a genus of bacteria that consists of obligate intracellular pathogens. These bacteria
depend on host cells for replication and cause various diseases in humans, animals, and birds.
Chlamydial infections are significant public health and economic concerns worldwide due to their
impacts on human health, veterinary health, and agriculture.

General Characteristics of Chlamydia

1. They are Prokaryotic, gram-negative bacteria.
2. They are mostly obligate and can only grow and reproduce within the host cell, as they lack
several metabolic pathways and rely on the host for ATP (energy).
3. Chlamydia infects humans, animals, and birds, targeting epithelial cells in mucosal tissues.
4. They can spread via direct contact, respiratory droplets, or sexual transmission, depending
on the species.
Types of Chlamydia and Associated Diseases
The genus Chlamydia consists of several species, each causing specific diseases. The three most
clinically relevant species are:
1. Chlamydia trachomatis
Infects humans and targets mucosal surfaces, particularly the eyes, urogenital tract, and rectum.
Causes one of the most common bacterial sexually transmitted infections (STIs).
2. Chlamydia pneumoniae
Primarily affects the respiratory tract and spreads via respiratory droplets.
Causes respiratory infections worldwide.
3. Chlamydia psittaci
They are zoonotic pathogen transmitted from birds to humans.
Causes psittacosis (parrot fever) in humans and avian chlamydiosis in birds.
4. Chlamydia felis
They Cause conjunctivitis in cats, often affecting pet care industries.
5. Chlamydia abortus
Causes abortions in livestock, impacting animal husbandry.
Economic Importance of Chlamydia
1. Chlamydia trachomatis infections are the most common bacterial STIs, leading to infertility
and ectopic pregnancies. Trachoma also remains a leading cause of blindness, particularly in
underprivileged regions.
2. Expenses related to diagnosis, treatment, and management of complications is usually high
(e.g., infertility, PID).
 3. Chlamydia abortus causes abortions in sheep, goats, and cattle, leading to reduced
productivity and financial losses.
4. Infections in poultry usually by Avian Chlamydiosis lead to decreased egg production and
high mortality rates in birds.
5. Transmission from infected birds to humans in the case of Psittacosis poses occupational
risks for bird handlers and pet owners.
6. Understanding the biology of Chlamydia has contributed to advancements in vaccine
development, molecular biology, and the study of host-pathogen interactions.

Protozoans
Protozoans are unicellular, eukaryotic microorganisms that exhibit a wide variety of forms, behaviors,
and ecological roles. Found in diverse habitats, they can be free-living or parasitic, with significant
implications for human health, veterinary science, and agriculture.

General Characteristics of Protozoans

1. They are Eukaryotic, possessing a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
2. They appear as unicellular, though some may form colonies.
3. They possess specialized structures like cilia, flagella, or pseudopodia for locomotion.
4. They are mostly heterotrophic (ingestion or absorption of organic matter) although some
are photoautotrophic (e.g., Euglena).
5. Reproduction is asexual via binary or multiple fission.
6. Sexual reproduction occurs in some species through processes like conjugation or gamete
fusion.
7. They are mostly found in soil, freshwater, marine environments, and as parasites in hosts.
8. Many protozoans are parasitic, causing diseases in humans, animals, and plants.
Types of Protozoans
Protozoans are traditionally classified based on their mode of locomotion and other biological
characteristics.
1. Amoeboids (Phylum: Amoebozoa)
Mode of Locomotion: Use pseudopodia (temporary projections of the cell membrane).
Examples:
Entamoeba histolytica: Causes amoebic dysentery in humans.
Amoeba proteus: A free-living, harmless species found in freshwater.
2. Flagellates (Phylum: Euglenozoa and others)
Mode of Locomotion: Use flagella for movement.
Examples:
Trypanosoma brucei: Causes African sleeping sickness, transmitted by the tsetse fly.
Giardia lamblia: Causes giardiasis, a gastrointestinal infection.
Euglena: A mixotrophic protozoan capable of photosynthesis.
3. Ciliates (Phylum: Ciliophora)
Mode of Locomotion: Use of cilia (hair-like structures) for movement and feeding.
Examples:
Paramecium: A free-living, freshwater protozoan.
Balantidium coli: Causes balantidiasis, a zoonotic infection in humans.
4. Sporozoans (Phylum: Apicomplexa)
Mode of Locomotion: Non-motile; rely on host or vectors for transmission.
Examples:
Plasmodium falciparum: Causes malaria, transmitted by the Anopheles mosquito.
Toxoplasma gondii: Causes toxoplasmosis, transmitted through cat feces or undercooked meat.
Cryptosporidium: Causes cryptosporidiosis, a waterborne diarrheal disease.
Economic Importance of Protozoans
1. Protozoan parasites cause numerous diseases in humans, leading to high healthcare costs and
loss of productivity.
2. Protozoan parasites affect livestock and pets, causing diseases that result in economic losses
in the agricultural and pet care industries.
3. Some protozoans damage crops by infecting plants or their pollinators.
4. Protozoans play crucial roles in ecosystems by maintaining the balance of microbial
populations and contributing to nutrient cycling.
5. Free-living protozoans consume bacteria and other microorganisms, aiding in organic matter
decomposition.
6. Certain protozoans are used as bioindicators for monitoring pollution levels in aquatic
systems.
7. Protozoans are used as model organisms in biological research and in the development of
new drugs and vaccines.

Algae
Algae are simple, autotrophic organisms that can perform photosynthesis and produce their own
food, making them essential components of aquatic ecosystems. They vary in size from microscopic
phytoplankton to large, macroscopic seaweeds. Algae play critical roles in oxygen production, the
carbon cycle, and as the foundation of aquatic food webs. Algae can be found in a wide range of
environments, including freshwater, marine, and even terrestrial habitats.
General Characteristics of Algae
1. They are Eukaryotic, with a well-defined nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
2. Some algae are unicellular, while others are multicellular.
3. Most algae are photosynthetic and contain chlorophyll, enabling them to convert light energy
into chemical energy.
4. Some algae also have the ability to fix nitrogen and perform other metabolic processes.
5. Algae reproduce both sexually (via gametes) and asexually (via fragmentation, binary fission,
or spore formation).
6. Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of male and female gametes, while asexual
reproduction results in the formation of identical offspring.
7. Algae thrive in aquatic environments (freshwater and marine) but can also grow in moist
terrestrial environments (e.g., rocks, soil, tree bark).
8. Algae possess various pigments (chlorophyll, carotenoids, phycobilins) that allow them to
absorb light energy for photosynthesis.
9. The presence of different pigments gives algae their diverse colors, ranging from green to red,
brown, and golden.
Types of Algae
Algae are typically classified based on their pigmentation, cellular structure, and habitat. They are
divided into four main groups: green algae, brown algae, red algae, and golden algae.
1. Green Algae (Phylum: Chlorophyta)
Characteristics:
Contain chlorophyll a and b, making them green in color.
Found in freshwater, marine environments, and on land (in moist areas).
Some species are unicellular (e.g., Chlamydomonas), while others are multicellular (e.g., Ulva).
Examples include Chlamydomonas: A motile, unicellular alga often used in scientific research.
2. Brown Algae (Phylum: Phaeophyta)
Characteristics:
They Contain chlorophyll a and c, along with carotenoids (especially fucoxanthin), which give them
a brown or olive color.
Most brown algae are multicellular and can grow to large sizes, forming kelp forests.
Found mainly in cold, marine environments.
Examples:
Laminaria: A large kelp species used in food and industrial applications.
3. Red Algae (Phylum: Rhodophyta)
Characteristics:
They Contain chlorophyll a and red pigments like phycoerythrin, which gives them a red or purple
color.
Most red algae are marine, with some species found in freshwater.
Red algae can be found at deeper depths in oceans than other algae types due to their ability to
absorb blue light.
Examples:
Porphyra: Used in the production of nori, a popular sushi wrapping.
4. Golden Algae (Phylum: Chrysophyta)
Characteristics:
They contain chlorophyll a and c, along with carotenoids and xanthophylls, giving them a golden-
brown color.
Typically, they are unicellular and are found in freshwater environments.
Some species can produce toxins, making them harmful in certain conditions (e.g., harmful algal
blooms).
Examples: Synura: A common genus found in freshwater bodies.
Economic Importance of Algae
1. Algae, particularly red and brown algae, are a rich source of nutrients, including proteins,
carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals.
2. Algae, especially green algae, have high lipid content that can be converted into biodiesel.
3. Algae contain compounds used in the production of drugs, especially for conditions like
arthritis or cardiovascular diseases.
4. Agar extracted from red algae, agar is used in microbiology labs for culturing microorganisms
and in food as a gelling agent.
5. Algae are used in skin care products for their hydrating, anti-aging, and healing properties.
6. Algae play a role in reducing carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, contributing to efforts to
combat climate change.
7. Some algae species are used in wastewater treatment processes to remove excess nutrients,
improving water quality.
8. Algae, particularly seaweeds, are used as natural fertilizers, enhancing soil quality and
promoting plant growth.