Data Communications and Networking

The OSI Model

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 The OSI Model (cont.)

□ An ISO standard that cover all aspects of

network communications is the open systems
interconnection (OSI) model.

□ An open system is a set of protocols that

allows any two different systems to
communicate regardless of their underling
architecture.

□ ISO is the organization, OSI is the model.

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 The OSI Model (cont.)

□ The Model:
It consist of seven
separate but related
layers, each of
which defines a
segment of the
process moving
information across a
network.

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 The OSI Model (cont.)

□ Layered Architecture:
The OSI model is built of seven ordered layers:
physical (layer 1), data link (layer 2), network
(layer 3), transport (layer 4), session (layer 5),
presentation (layer 6), and application (layer 7).

Please Do Not Touch Steve’s Pet Alligator.

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 The OSI Model (cont.)

□ The figure below shows the layers involved when a

message is sent from device A to device B. As the
message travels from A to B, it may pass through
many intermediate nodes. The intermediate nodes
usually involve only the first three layers of the OSI
model. In developing the model, the designers
distilled (extract) the process of transmitting data
down to its most fundamental elements.

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 Device A Intermediate Intermediate Device B
node node

peer-to-peer protocal(7 th layer)

Application Application 7
7 interface 7-6 interface 7-6
peer-to-peer protocal(6 th layer)
Presentation Presentation 6
6 interface 6-5 interface 6-5
peer-to-peer protocal(5 th layer)
Session Session 5
5 interface 5-4 interface 5-4
peer-to-peer protocal(4 th layer)
Transport Transport 4
4 interface 4-3 interface 4-3
3rd Network 3rd 3rd
Network Network Network 3
3 interface 3-2 interface 3-2
2nd 2nd 2nd
Data link Data link Data link Data link 2
2 interface 2-1 interface 2-1
1st 1st 1st
Physical Physical Physical Physical 1
1

*
Physical Communication 6
 The OSI Model (cont.)

□ Peer to Peer processes

Within a single machine, each layer calls upon the
services of the layer just below it. Layer 3, for
example, uses the services provided by layer 2
and provides services for layer 4. Between
machines, layer x on one machine communicates
with layer x on another machine.
□ This communication is governed by an agreed-
upon series of rules and conventions called
protocols.
□ The processes on each machine that
communicate at a given layer are called peer-to-
peer processes.

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 The OSI Model (cont.)

□ Headers are added to the data at layers 6,5,4,3

and 2. trailers are usually added only at layer2 .

□ At layer 1 the entire package is converted to a

form that can be transferred to the receiving
machine. At the receiving machine, the
message is unwrapped layer by layer, with each
process receiving and removing the data meant
for it. For example, layer 2 removes the data
meant for it. Then passes the rest to layer 3.
layer 3 removes the data meant for it and
passes the rest to layer 4 and so on.
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 The OSI Model (cont.)

□ Interfaces Between Layers

The passing of the data and network information
down through the layers of the sending machine
and back up through layers of the receiving
machine is made possible by an interface
between each pair of adjacent layers.

□ Each interface defines what information and

services a layer must provide for the layer above
it.

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 The OSI Model (cont.)

□ Organization of the Layers:

□ The seven layers can be thought (think) of as belonging to
three subgroups.
□ Layers 1,2, and 3-physical, Data link, and network-are the
network support layers: they deal with the physical
aspects of moving data from one device to another
(physical connection).
□ Layers 5,6, and 7-session, presentation, and application-
can be thought of as the user support layer: they allow
interoperability among unrelated software systems.
□ Layer 4, the transport layer, links the two subgroups and
ensure that what the lower layers have transmitted is in a
form that the upper layers can use (coordinate).
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 All exchange using the OSI model

7 7 L7 data
L7 data

L7 data H6
L7 data 6 6
H6

L6 data H5
5 5
L6 data H5

L5 data H4
4 4
L5 data H4

L4 data H3
L4 data 3 3
H3

2 2
T2 L3 data H2 T2 L3 data H2

010101010101101010000010000 1 1 010101010101101010000010000

Transmission Medium

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 Functions of The Layers

1. Physical Layer
The physical layer coordinate the functions
required to transmit a bit stream over a physical
medium.
□ It deals with the mechanical and electrical
specifications of the primary connections. Such
as cable, connectors, and signaling options that
physically link two nodes on a network.
□ The first layer receives a data unit from second
layer and puts it into a format stream of being
carried by a communication link. It oversees the
changing of a bit stream into electromagnetic
signals, and their transmission onto & across a
medium .
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 Physical Layer

From data link layer To data link layer

L2 data L2 data

Physical Physical
layer 10101000000010 10101000000010 layer

Transmission medium

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 Functions of Physical Layer

□ Line configuration: how can two or more devices,

be linked physically? Are transmission lines to be
shared or limited to use between two devices? Is
the line available or not?
□ Data transmission mode: it does transmission flow
one way or both ways between two connected
devices? Or does it alternate?
□ Topology: how are network devices arranged? Do
they pass data directly to each other or through an
intermediary? And by what paths ?
□ Signals: what type of signals are useful for
transmitting information ?
□ Medium: what is the physical environment for the
transmission of data ?

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 2. Data Link layer

Data Link layer:

The data link layer is responsible for delivering
data units (groups of bits) from one stations to
the next without error. It accepts a data unit
from the third parity layer and adds meaningful
bits to the beginning (header) and end (trailer)
that contain addresses and other control
information. A data unit with this additional
information is called frame.

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 Data link layer

From network layer To network layer

L3 data
L3 data

Data
Data Frame Frame T2 10101000000010 H2
T2 10101000000010 H2 link
link layer
layer

10101000000010 10101000000010

To physical layer From physical layer

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Responsibilities of data link layer:

□ Node-to-node delivery: the data link layer

is responsible for node-to-node delivery.
□ Addressing: headers and trailers added at this
layer include the physical address of the most
recent node and the next intended node.
□ Access control: when two or more devices
are connected to the same link, the data link
layer protocols are necessary to determine which
device has control over the line at any given time.

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Responsibilities of data link layer:

□ Flow control: to avoid overwhelming the

receiver. The data link layer regulates the amount
of data that can be transmitted at one time. It
adds identifying numbers to enable the receiving
node to control the ordering of the frames.
□ Error handling: data link layer protocols
provide for data recovery, usually by having the
entire frame retransmitted.
□ Synchronization: headers contain bits to alert
the receiving station that a frame is arriving in
addition these bits provide a pattern to allow the
receiver to synchronize its timing to that of
transmission ( to know the duration of each bit).
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 Responsibilities of data link layer:

□ Trailer contain bits for error control and also bits that
indicates the frame has ended, and that anything to
follow is either a new frame or an idle channel.

□ When the standards were developed for local area

networks, the data link layer was subdivided into two
sub layers: logical link control (LLC) and media
access control (MAC). This subdivision allows for
inconsistencies between the protocols of different
vendors.

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Example: Data link layer

10 28 53 65 87

T2 Data 10 87

Trailer Source Destination

address address

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 3- Network Layer

Network Layer:
□ The network layer is responsible for the source-to-
destination delivery of a packet across multiple
network links. Whereas the data link layer overseas
station-to-station (node-to-node) delivery.
□ The network layer ensures that each packet gets
from its point of origin to its final destination
successfully and efficiently.
□ To make such end-to-end delivery possible the
network layer provides two related services:
switching and routing:
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 Network Layer (cont.)

□ Switching refers to temporary connections between

physical links, resulting in longer links for network
transmission (telephone conversation).

□ Routing means selecting the best path for sending a

packet from one point to another when more than one
path is available. In this case, each packet may take a
different route to the destination, where the packets
are collected and reassembled into their original order.

□ Routing consideration is include speed, cost, and the

ability to change pathways in midtransmission.
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 Network Layer (cont.)

□ Routing and Switching require the addition of

a header that includes, among other
information, the source and destination
addresses of the packet. These addresses are
different from the physical (node) addresses in
data link header.
□ Data link addresses are of the current and
next node only (the physical addresses). They
change as a frame moves from one node to
the next. Network layer addresses are those of
the original source and the final destination.
They do not change during transmission and
are often called logical Addresses.
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 Network Layer

From transport layer To transport layer

L4 data
L4 data

Network Network
layer H3
layer
H3 Packet Packet

L3 data L3
data
To data link layer From data link layer

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 Functions of Network Layer

□ Source-to-destination delivery. Moving a packet

(best effort) from its point of origin to its intended
destination across multiple network links.
□ Logical Addressing. Inclusion of the source and
destination addresses in the header.
□ Routing. Deciding which of multiple paths a packet
should take.
□ Address transformation. Interpreting logical
addresses to find their physical equivalents.
□ Multiplexing. Using a single physical line to carry
data between many devices at the same time.
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Example: Network Layer
A E

87 Bus
10

F 20
T2 Data A P 10 20
R
G
99 T

45 Ring T2 Data A P 99 33

N
33
R
71 66 z
T2 Data A P 66 95

P M

95 Bus
77
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 4- Transport Layer

□ The transport layer is responsible for source-to-

destination (end-to-end) delivery of the entire
message. Whereas the network layer overseas end-
to-end delivery of individual packets, it does not
recognize any relationship between those packets.

□ It treats each one independently, as though each

piece belonged to a separate message, whether or
not it does. The transport layer, on the other hand,
ensures that the whole message arrives intact and
in order, overseeing both error control and flow
control at the source-to-destination level.
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 Transport layer (cont.)

□ Transport layer header must therefore include a type

of address called service-point address (port address
or socket address).
□ The network layer gets each packet to correct
computer, the transport layer gets the entire message
to the correct application on the computer.
□ The transport layer also contains sequence, or
segmentation, numbers. As the transport layer
receive the message to be sent to the session layer, it
divides into transmittable segments, indicating in the
header the sequence of the segments so that they
can be reassembled upon receipt at the destination.
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 Transport layer

L5 data L5 data

Transport Transport
H4 H4 H4 H4 H4 H4
layer layer

L4 data L4 data

L4 data L4 data

L4 data L4 data

To network layer From network layer

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 Transport layer (cont.)

□ For added security, the transport layer may create

connection between the two end point.
□ A connection is a single logical path between the
source and destination that is associated with all
packets in a message. Creating a connection involves
three steps: connection establishment, data
transfer, and connection release.
□ By confining transmission of all packets to a single
pathway, the transport layer has more control over
sequencing, flow, and error detection and correction.

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 Functions of Transport layer

□ End-to-end delivery: overseeing the transmission and

arrival of all packets of a message at the destination point.
□ Service-Point (port) addressing: guaranteeing delivery
of a message to the appropriate application on a computer
running multiple application.
□ Segmentation and reassembly: dividing a message into
transmittable segments, and marking each segment with a
sequence number. These numbers enable the transport
layer to reassemble the message correctly at the
destination and to identify and replace packets lost in
transmission.
□ Connection control: deciding whether or not to send all
packets by a single path.
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 Example: Transport layer
A B

Transport Transport
k Data j k
Data j layer
layer

Network Network Data-1 j k A P

Data-2 j k A P layer layer
Data-2 j k A P
Data-1 j k A P

Data link Data link

layer layer T2 Data-1 j k A P H2
T2 Data-2 j k A P H2
T2 Data-2 j k A P H2
T2 Data-1 j k A P H2

Physical link

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 5- Session Layer

□ The session layer is a network dialog controller. It

establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the
interaction between communicating devices. It also
ensure that each session closes appropriately rather
than shutting down abruptly and leaving the user
hanging.

□ It validates and establishes connections between

users. The data unit at this layer may carry the
credential of the host seeking the connection,
including password and log-in verification.

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 Session Layer (cont.)

□ Reliability: at the session layer is created by dividing

the session into sub sessions using checkpoints
inserted into the stream. Checkpoints allow a session
to backtrack certain distance without completely
starting over when problems occurs (as in the
transfer example). Depending on requirements of the
specific transmission checkpoints can be either
extremely important or ignored altogether.
□ The header for this layer includes control information
such as the type of the data unit being sent and
synchronization point information.

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 Session layer

From presentation layer To presentation layer

L6 data L6 data

Session Session
layer layer
H5 H5
syn syn syn syn syn syn

L5 data L5 data

To transport layer From transport layer

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 Responsibilities of Session Layer

□ Session management: Dividing a session into sub sessions

by the introduction to checkpoints and separating long
messages into shorter units, called dialog unit appropriate
for transmission.
□ Synchronization: Deciding in what order to pass the dialog
units to the transport layer, and where in the transmission
to require confirmation from the receiver.
□ Dialog Control: Deciding who sends, and when.
□ Graceful close: Ensuring that the exchange has been
completed appropriately before the session closes.
□ Example: a computer needs to update huge file (database).
The session layer subdivides the tasks into different dialog
units.
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 6- Presentation Layer

□ The presentation layer ensures interoperability

among communicating devices, functions at this
layer make it possible for two computers to
communicate even if their internal representations
of data differ (e.g. when one device uses one type
of code and the other uses another).
□ It provides the necessary translation of different
control codes, character sets, graphics characters,
and so on to allow both devices to understand the
same transmission the same way.

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 Presentation Layer (cont.)

□ The presentation layer is also responsible for the

encryption and decryption of data for security purpose
and for the compression and expansion of data when
necessary for transmission efficiency.

□ Header is added at this layer include information on

the type and parameters of the transmission. And the
length of the transmission.

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 Presentation Layer

From application layer To application layer

L7 data L7 data

Presentation Presentation
Encoded. Encrypted H6 decoded. decrypted H6
layer layer
Compressed data deCompressed data

L6 L6
data data
To session layer From session layer

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 Functions of Presentation Layer

□ Translation: Change the format of a message from

that used by the sender into one mutually
acceptable for transmission . Then, at the
destination. Changing that format into the one
understood by the receiver.
□ Encryption: Encryption and decryption of data for
security purpose.
□ Compression: Compressing and decompressing
data to make transmission more efficient .
□ Security: Validating (prove) password and log-in
codes.
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 7- Application Layer

□ The application layer enables the user, whether human

or software, to access the network. It provides user
interfaces and support for services such as electronic
mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database
management, and other types of distributed
information services.
□ many application services available, the figure shows
only three, X.400 (message handling services), X.500
(directory services), and FTAM (file transfer and access
management). The user at this moment uses X.400 to
send an e-mail message. Note that no headers or
trailers are added at this layer.
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 Functions of Application Layer

□ Network virtual terminal. A software version of

physical terminal. A virtual terminal allows you to log
on to a remote host. To do so, the application
creates a software emulation of a terminal at the
remote host. Your computer talks to the software
terminal, which in turn talks to the host, and vice
versa. The remote host believes it is communicating
with one of its on terminals and allows you to log on.
□ File access, transfer, and management. Allows a
user at remote computer to access files in another
host (to make changes or read data); to retrieve files
from a remote computer for use in the local computer
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Functions of Application Layer (cont.)

and to manage or control files in a remote computer

at that computer.
□ Mail services. Provides the basis for electronic mail
forwarding and storage.
□ Directory services. Provides distributed database
sources and access for global information about
various objects and services.
□ Example: a user in Beijing. China, wants to send a
large proprietary data file to a station in Los Gatos.
California. An application service such as FTAM (file
transfer and access management) can do the job.

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 Application Layer

User User

Application Application
Layer x.500 FTAM x.400 Layer x.500 FTAM x.400

L7 Data L7 Data

To presentation layer From presentation

layer

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 Summary of layer function

Application To allow access to

network resources
. To translate. encrypt
Presentation
And compress data
To establish, manage and
Session terminate sessions
To provide reliable end-to-
end message delivery Transport
and error recovery To move packets from
Network source to destination: to
To organize bits into provide internetworking
frames: to provide node- Data link
to-node delivery To transmit bits over a
Physical medium: to provide
mechanical and electrical
specification

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