Chapter No#05

Mineral Resources

YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO IDENTIFY THE FOLLOWING ON A MAP:

 Identify the main locations of limestone, gypsum and rock salt extraction from a map,
and understand their uses.

 Identify the main metallic and non-metallic mineral resources of Pakistan, and in what
quantities they: are extracted and exist as reserves

 Understand the extent to which these can be exploited

 Describe the environmental problems caused by mineral extraction
 Evaluate the benefits of developing mineral resources and understand the
sustainability of extraction
 Identify the main imported minerals, where they come from, and in what quantities.

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DEFINITION:
The natural inorganic OR organic substances found in the interior of earth and possess a definite chemical
composition and definite physical and chemical properties are known as minerals. Minerals have following
features.
 They are solids. They are formed naturally in the earth.
 They are not alive or made of living things.
 They have definite shape.
Minerals are divided into two categories,
 Renewable, which can be recycled, reused, Iron, Gold
 Non-renewable, Fossil fuels, Uranium
3 ES= EXPLORATION, EXTRACTION, EXPLOITATION
 To discover the metallic or non metallic minerals from the earth is called mineral exploration.
 Taking out the minerals from the earth by different methods is called mineral extraction.
 Means to utilize the available mineral resources for development purposes is called mineral
exploitation.
Metallic Mineral
Metallic minerals are those which are made up of a metallic compound e.g. Iron, copper. The pure metal can
be separated by heating. Mineral resources are non-renewable although many can be recycled and used
again. Though we obtain most minerals from quarries and mines, the seabed and sea-water are also rich in
minerals.
Characteristics (Metallic Minerals)
Economically more valuable e.g. Gold.
Generally hard, tough and shiny e.g. Iron.
Can change shape without breaking e.g. copper
Can be stretched and compressed e.g. Iron.
Many are good thermal and electrical conductors e.g. copper.
More reactive with water and acid e.g. copper.
Non - Metallic Mineral
Are those which are made up of a non metallic compound? Non-metallic mineral reserves consist of stone
quarries and clay and sand pits; chemical and fertilizer mineral deposits; salt deposits; deposits of quartz,
gypsum, natural gem stones, asphalt and bitumen, peat and other non-metallic minerals other than coal and
petroleum. These minerals do not include metal content. Sulphur, phosphates and nitrates are examples of
non-metallic minerals.
Characteristics (Non-Metallic Minerals)
Economically less valuable except power resources e.g. oil, gas and coal e.g. rock salt.
Softer, rough and may not shine e.g. clay.
Breaks away when shape is changed except oil and gas.
Cannot be stretched or compressed except natural gas e.g. gypsum.
Poor thermal and electrical conductors e.g. rock salt.
Lees reactive with water and acid except limestone and salt e.g. clay.

EXTRACTION OF COAL AND OTHER MINERALS:

Open cast mining
Opencast mining is used when the mineral layer is exposed near the surface of the earth. Firstly the
vegetation is cut, topsoil and subsoil removed. Then explosives are used to blast and loosen the rock.
Then diggers are used to remove the mineral containing rock which is then transported by huge trucks
carrying 500 tons in one go onto the surface. Opencast mine is a big hole in the ground with pathways
for trucks running on the diameter of the mine.
Adit Mining
Adit method of mining is used when a mineral layer is exposed near the surface of a hill. In this
technique a single near horizontal or multiple layers are dug into the mineral layer. Explosives are used
to blast and loosen the rock. Once this has been carried out, pillars and steel nets are installed. This
prevents the roof of mine from caving in and steel nets prevent rocks from falling down and killing the
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 miners. Then diggers are used to remove the mineral bearing rock and which is then transported by rail
or donkeys to the mine entrance after which is loaded into trucks
Shaft Mining
Shaft mining is used when the mineral layer is found deep in the soil. First a vertical layer is dug to
reach the mineral layer. Once the mineral layer is reached then a horizontal layer is dug in both sides into
the mineral layer. Explosives are used to blast and loosen the rock. Once this has been carried out then
pillars and steel nets are installed. This prevents the roof of mine from caving in and steel nets prevent
rocks from falling down and killing the miners. Then diggers are used to remove the mineral containing
rock after it has been blasted apart by dynamites. This is then transported by rail to the lift, whereas then
it is lifted to the surface to be transported by trucks. It must be noted that ventilation shafts are also dug
along the length of mine along with main shaft to prevent the build-up of explosive odourless gases like
methane.

Problems associated with Underground Mining (Adit/Shaft)

Ventilation and underground transport problem.
Dangerous gases may produce which are dangerous for workers life.
Due to use of explosive material, the roofs of tunnel may be collapse.
Shaft mining is dependent on Power resource
Advantages (Open Cast Mining)
Easier access to materials
Easier to transport material to the destination
Cheaper /Safer and faster
No problem of ventilation
Dangers and hazards are less as compare to underground mining.

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 Disadvantages (Open Cast Mining)
Destroy the landscape
Destroy the natural habitat
Air , water and Noise pollution
Deforestation
Work is affected by weather.
MINERALS AND THEIR USES:
 Rock salt: is white and pink in color.
 It is used for the manufacturing of Soda Ash, Bicarbonate of soda, Caustic soda and sodas for
Laundry, Textile, Food processing and Tanning industry.
 Important mines are Khewra, Warcha and Kalabagh. It has over 100 million tonns reserves and
extraction 1445 million tons (2011-12).
Gypsum It is mined from Khewra, Dandot and Daudkhel.
 It is primarily used as a finish for walls and ceilings
 Plaster ingredient
 Fertilizer and soil conditioner
 Plaster of Paris (surgical splints; casting moulds; modeling)
 Adding hardness to water used for home brewing
 A component of Portland cement used to prevent flash setting of concrete.
 Soil/water potential monitoring (soil moisture tension)
 In foot creams, shampoos and many other hair products
Limestone
 The manufacture of quicklime (calcium oxide) and slaked lime (calcium hydroxide)
 Cement and mortar
 Pulverized limestone is used as a soil conditioner to neutralize acidic soil conditions
 Crushed for use as aggregate—the solid base for many roads
 As a reagent in flue gas desulfurization (sulphur dioxide air pollution control)
 Glass making, in some circumstances
 Added to paper, plastics, paint, tiles
 Toothpaste
 Re-mineralizing and increasing the alkalinity of purified water to prevent pipe corrosion and to
return essential nutrients
 Used in blast furnaces to extract iron from its ore
Marble
 It is found in bands of white, grey, yellow and brown.
 It is used in buildings and for making chips for flooring and decorative pieces.
 It is found at Chaghi, Thano Bula khan and Mullagori. Mullagori is a popular place for the extraction of
white marble.
 This type of marble is exported to other countries. Marble has very large deposits and 758 million tons
extracted 2011-12.
Sulphur
 Used to manufacture sulphuric acid, explosive materials, paints, dyes, pulp, fertilizers and is used in
the refining of petroleum.
 It is found in Sanni and Koh-e-sultan.
 Sulphur has 0.8 million tons deposits and 19919 million tons extracted 2011-12.
Fuller’s Earth
 It is used in steel mills, oil drilling and oil refining and found in Sulaiman ranges.
 It has fairly large deposits and 17 million tons extracted 2011-12.
Soapstone
 It is found in the form of stone and then crushed to make powder.
 It is used as filler in soap, ceramics and face powder. It is found Sherwan (Abbotabad).

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FACTORS AFFECTING MINERAL PRODUCTION:
 Topography: Thick, unbroken layers with little or no water are easy to mine. No methane gas is
present, which can lead to explosions. No excessive folding and faulting is present and no steep
slopes of the mineral layer. All this means that machines can be easily used as they have more room
for maneuvering. Large and good quality reserves also encourage higher output.
 Location: Climate is easy to work in, no extreme cold or heat. No flooding due to heavy downpour
occurs, leading to less mine closures and thus more production.
 Commodity Prices: Higher commodity prices mean that the mining company will be able to earn
more per kg of mineral and thus will likely keep most of its mines open due to little risk of loss even
from the most inefficient ones.
 Transport: Good access to road network means that the processed mineral is easily and cheaply
transported to where it is required. Also it becomes easier for trained labour to come from other parts
of country etc
 Ownership: Some owners are willing to invest more in new technology to increase production
which leads to more profit etc
EFFECTS OF MINING:
Economical Effects:
Mining brings jobs to the local people, which provides them with employment opportunities and raises their
income, which in turn raises the standard of their living. The country can export the mined mineral and earn
foreign exchange or reduce the import of a mineral. The capital saved can be used to build schools and
colleges etc
Environmental Effects:
The environmental impacts of mining are huge and catastrophic if check on the environment aren’t carried
out and environment laws aren’t enforced. This is because many mining companies are always looking to
reduce their costs by either dumping waste illegally or not treating it properly. Opencast mines leave a huge
hole on the surface. If it is not filled after mining has been finished it can be filled partly by rain water. This
can lead to leaching of dangerous substances like arsenic into the ground water (water table) thus poisoning
the water supply. At times the solid waste is dumped onto the surface and when it rains heavily, this dump
can become unstable and flow into rivers and streams thus killing fish. Also local wildlife may move out of
the area due to constant sound of explosions and vibrations. Trucks and chimneys can also cause air
pollution.
Miners:
Miners can suffer the most especially if they aren’t given proper safety gears like masks etc or clean food
and water. This can lead to lung cancer. Also, if proper ventilation systems aren’t installed, explosions can
occur due to collection of methane in the mine. The miners may also drown if they accidentally hit an
underground reservoir of water or they may be trapped if the roof caves in.
PAKISTAN’S MINERAL IMPORTS:

 IRON AND STEEL: Pakistan imports around $400 million worth of iron and steel related products
annually from countries like Japan, Russia, and Ukraine etc
 COAL: Pakistan imports around $300 million of coal and related products from countries like South
Africa and Indonesia
 CRUDE OIL AND PETROLEUM PRODUCTS: Pakistan imports around $5 billion worth of
these products, from countries like Saudi Arabia, UAE and Qatar etc
In order to minimize the environmental degradation due to mining, the following points
should be considered.
 Mining should be done on scientific lines to maximize the benefits and minimize the negative
effects.
 When mining is done in an area, special precautions must be taken to prevent environmental losses.
 The land should be leveled and the depressions should be filled in after the mining activity to avoid
deformation.
 All the mining waste including gases, fumes and semi-solid waste should be properly treated before
their final disposal.

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  The people involved should be provided with proper protective clothing to prevent the effects of
gases and dust.
 The area around the mine should be properly planted with trees so that the atmosphere may remain
healthy and when minors come out of the mines, they may have fresh air to breathe
 Water treatment plants should be set up to supply clean water to the workers living near mines.

In order to conserve the environment and prevent its degradation there should be:
 Compulsory Afforestation programmes near the mining centers.
 Proper disposal of the mining waste products, better safety measures in the mines.
 Improved working conditions for the miners.
Sustainable Development and Mining
 Mining should be done on modern lines to maximize the benefits and minimize the negative effects.
 The discharge of toxic substances and the release of heat, which is harmful to environment, should be
strictly checked.
 Proper training should be given to workers.
 The land should be leveled and the depressions should be filled in after the mining activity to avoid
deformation.
 Hi-tech knowledge and experts should be available.
 Provision of infrastructure (transport, power, telephone lines, water supply etc).
 Explore more mineral resources.
The Problems in the Mineral Sector:
 The mining carried in the country is still based upon the century old techniques:
where miners dig the coal from underneath thousands of feet (going as deep as 8000 ft.) and carry in
sacks of almost 100 kg on their backs way up or in some instances to a station in between from
where the haulage trolley carry it to the surface. The seams of the mines also vary from one to
another as in Mach it may be as small as less as a foot and as large as 9 feet in Duki.
 Another important issue faced by the miners is the lack of security of tenure:
At this time the government can take away the lease any time citing reasons low extraction, slow
work progress etc. This reason alone is enough to deter investment in the field. The mineral
development Act of 1948 is still in place which also needs to be addressed.
 Understaffing of Regional Directorates:
Regional directorate of minerals and mines is heavily understaffed. There is only one mine inspector
to visit for a whole district and only one Assistant Director of License to look after the licenses issues
in the whole region. Hence the officials are neither able to visit the mine sites nor are they able to
impart important trainings on health and safety issues to the mineworkers.
 Lack of technical know-how and proper data:
Data inconsistency is common in the data provided by the Provincial Offices and District Offices on
licenses, leases, budget, revenues, etc. Although the regional offices have recently got modern
facilities like computers, they are under staffed and do not have skilled data entry operators to make
use of those computers. Regional offices are not very reliable and do not help towards well-informed
policy initiatives.
 Lack of interest of the stakeholders in environmental issues:
Ironically, none of the stakeholders seem interested in the environmental issues. The coordination
unit has conducted many meetings in this respect. Dust control and controlled blasting regulations
are rarely followed and it is mandatory for all the crushers to install the dust controllers in their
crushing plants. The licenses of those not following these rules can be cancelled. However, the
relevant departments despite many complaints do not take any action against violators.
 Lack of interest of the foreign investors:
Although the FDI inflow in mining and quarrying sector in Pakistan has increased yet deteriorating
law and order situation and security issues are proving to be major barriers against the inflow of FDI
to specially in Balochistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. There is lack of interest of the foreign
investors in quarrying and mining sector due to unstable policies as well.

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 Q) . Using following Fig only, describe two features of the Salt Range. [2]

 Badland topography/dissected/rugged;
 Steep slopes/high land/mountainous/hilly;
 Sharp peak/peaks;
 Ridge/ravine/gullies/rills;
 Sparse vegetation/greenery/shrubs/scrub/bushes;
 Bare rock/rocky/gravel/barren/small rocks/scree/sandy/stony;
 Red/orange/brown rocks;
 Rocks in layers;
 Dry/arid
Q). Name two minerals that can be obtained from the Salt Range and suggest one use for each. [4]

Mineral: salt/halite
 Use: for cooking/preserving/foods/soda/bicarbonate of soda/caustic soda/soda for
laundry/textiles/tanning/bath salts/cosmetics/ (decorative) lamps.

Mineral: gypsum/anhydrite.
 Use: cement/concrete/paints/fertilizers/plaster boards/plaster of Paris/spread on saline soil in
farming. •

Mineral: limestone
 Use: cement/concrete/buildings/iron and steel extraction/bleaching
powder/glass/soap/paper/paints/lime/treats sugar cane waste to produce alcohol fuel/painted on bark
of trees to control pests and termites/aerate soil/treat salinity/acidity/as fertilizer.

Mineral: coal
 Use: in brick kilns/to make coke/coal briquettes/in power generation/ cement
production/medicines/tars/(home and commercial) heating.

Mineral: bauxite,
 Use: to produce aluminum/utensils/tins/cans/furnace linings/abrasives.

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Q) Explain two ways in which the natural topography of the Salt Range makes mineral exploitation
difficult. You should develop your answer.

 Steep slopes/mountainous/rugged/uneven ground – so it is difficult to get (large) machinery into

the area/can be landslides due to drilling/explosives;
 Deep ravines – inaccessible as difficult to build roads to where minerals are found;
 Loose rocks/rock falls/landslides – dangerous working conditions/risk of accidents;
 Badland topography – more expensive to reach the minerals/ expensive to build roads;
 Barren land – difficult to construct roads; etc.
Q) Describe three environmental problems caused by mineral extraction.
 Vegetation cut down/deforestation as land is cleared for mining;
 Soil erosion by exposure of soils to rains as land is cleared
 Habitats/ecosystem lost due to clearance of land;
 Mining waste produces land pollution;
 Water supplies polluted from mineral waste/chemicals from mining processes seep into groundwater
and rivers/sea; air pollution from machinery/explosives/dust and smoke;
 Noise pollution from machinery/extraction processes e.g. blasting;
 Scarred landscape/deformed landscape from pits, tips, spoil heaps;
 Subsidence due to collapse of underground tunnels;
 Landslides due to explosions;
 Depressions/deep holes which fill with rainwater.
d) Evaluate the benefits and problems of further developing the mineral extraction industry in
Pakistan. Give reasons to support your judgement and refer to examples you have studied. You
should consider different points of view in your answer. [6]
Answers are likely to refer to
Benefits:
 Loans for equipment/hiring experts from abroad with technical expertise;
 Sustainable mining techniques reduce environmental damage/allow safe disposal of waste;
 Provides employment opportunities in remote rural regions;
 Large mineral reserves - extraction allows long-term development;
 Wages in mining often higher than in farming etc;
 Transport and power infrastructure developed in remote areas
 Encourages growth in industries using the minerals e.g. steel industry near coal and iron ore;
 Improves the balance of payments/reduces imports and increases exports;
 Producing more minerals means more income and increased GDP;
 More industrial development brings jobs, means increase in tax revenue for Pakistan can be spent on
education/health;
Examples include: In 2014, the Chinese company MCC took over the operation of Duddar lead/zinc mine
in Balochistan. Production increased rapidly as MCC brought in experts and modern mining machinery.
Since 1980, US$236 million has been invested in Duddar: US$101 million by MCC. MCC invested in local
education, health and water supplies.
Problems:
 some minerals are low quality/may not be worth extracting - if the iron content of iron ore is less
than 60%, it is not suitable for high-quality steel production e.g. coal from the Thar coalfield
contains too many sulphur and lime impurities to be used in power stations;
 Better to develop other sectors of the economy e.g. agriculture to fulfill the demand from an
increasing population
 The financial cost of exploitation may not be fully recovered from the sale/use of the raw materials;
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Examples include: Under Thario Halepoto village in the Thar Desert lie 1.5 billion tons of coal but
exploitation will mean villagers lose their homes and grazing lands, the destruction of desert trees and
ecology, and pollution of underground water that they rely on for drinking.
Q) Study following Fig, a map showing the four main areas of gypsum and limestone extraction in
southern Pakistan.

Complete the shading of the oval shapes in Fig, to show the main areas where gypsum and limestone
are extracted. Use the information in the key. One area of limestone has already been shaded for you.

 Gypsum one area correctly identified (horizontal oval) and shaded

 Limestone two areas correctly identified (both vertical ovals) and shaded

State two uses of each mineral in Pakistan

Gypsum uses:

 Cement;
 Fertilizers;
 Plaster of Paris;
 Spread on saline soil /help reclaim land for farming/chemical industry.

Limestone uses:
 Bleaching;
 Painted on barks of trees/reduce pest attacks;
 Produce alcohol/fuel;
 Soap;
 To treat sugar cane waste.

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Study Fig 1.2, a bar graph showing the amount of GDP Pakistan earned from mining between 2011
and 2018. Complete Fig. 1.2. to show that Pakistan earned 345 000 PKR Million from mining in 2018.

Describe the changes in GDP earned from mining between 2011 and 2018. You should include data in
your answer. [3]

 Overall increase;
 2011 lowest (at 270 000 PKR million);
 2018 highest (at 345 000 PKR million);
 Amount of increase 75 000 PKR Million (tolerance to be agreed);
 Largest increase between 2015 and 2016 (of 21 000 PKR million)

Complete the passage below about limestone extraction in Pakistan. Choose the correct words from
the list and place them in the spaces provided.

Building Equipment Excavation Explosives Methods

Minerals Mining Outcrops Seams

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When limestone .............................. at the surface it is extracted by quarrying. Quarrying is an open
.............................. from which stone is extracted for .............................. and engineering purposes.
Quarrying is carried out by using different .............................. and .............................. such as hand tools,
.............................. or power saws, depending on the final use of the limestone.

(a) (i) Study Fig. 3.1, a diagram showing a method of coal extraction.

Complete the boxes on fig. 3.1 by choosing the correct words from the list below. [4]

 Cable Cage Coal Seams Head Frame Tunnel Winch Wheel

(ii) Using Fig. 3.1, state the depth of the mine at X.

 120 m

(iii) The method of coal extraction shown in Fig. 3.1 is an example of:

 Open cast mining Adit mining Shaft mining

(iv) Study Fig. 3.2 (Insert), a diagram showing a hydel power station. Using Fig. 3.2 only, describe how
electricity can be generated using this method.

 Uses the force of flowing water to spin the turbines;

 The turbine in turn causes the shaft to spin rapidly inside a magnetic field in the generator;
 The generator creates electricity;
 The electric current is regulated by the transformer; Electricity is sent through the power line to
where it is needed; etc

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(v) Explain two benefits of generating electricity using hydel power. You should develop your answer

 Water is a renewable resource; (will not run out/can be used over again);
 HEP is referred to as white coal; (because it doesn’t have to burn anything/ is environmentally
friendly);
 Can be developed in highland areas; (where there are steep slopes and adequate supply of
rainfall/very little else can be developed in these areas);
 Once HEP stations have been set up running costs are low; (saving money in the long term); etc.

(a) Study Fig. 3 which is a map showing the locations where three different non-metallic minerals
are extracted in Pakistan.

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(i) For any two locations, state the name of the mineral extracted and a use for this mineral. Write
your answers in the spaces provided on Fig. 3. [4]

You should choose from the following list: gypsum limestone rock salt

 Location NW – rock salt / limestone / gypsum

 Central – limestone / gypsum
 S – limestone
 Uses of Rock salt: cooking / preservation / soda (used in laundries / textiles / tanning
 Use of Gypsum: paints / fertilizers / boards / cement / to treat saline soil / plaster of paris
 Use of Limestone: for building / cement / bleach / glass / soap / paints / to treat saline soil

(ii) Using Fig. 3 and your own knowledge, suggest difficulties there may be in getting minerals to
export markets. [3]
 Heavy / bulky commodities
 Expensive to transport
 Roads and railways from mining areas poorly developed / or not connected
 Mostly extracted far inland / away from ports / Karachi / distance from markets
 Theft
 Inappropriate / inadequate vehicles to transport minerals
(a) Study Figs 3 and 4 which give information about the extraction of three metallic minerals in
Pakistan in 2010–11.

(i) How much iron ore was extracted in 2010–11? [1]

 329000tonnes (accept 327000tonnes to 331000tonnes)
(ii) State the difference between information being provided in Fig. 3 compared to that in Fig. 4. [1]
(iii) What are the benefits of extracting mineral resources for local people and the national economy?
Local people National economy
 Employment opportunities  Raw material for named sectors of economy, e.g. energy,
 Higher/more stable incomes construction, agriculture, industry
 Higher living standards/settled  Revenue/taxes for government
lifestyle  Export earnings/contributes to balance of payments/source of
 Business opportunities for local foreign exchange

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(iv) Explain why burning fossil fuels in power stations is unsustainable. [4]
 Releases carbon dioxide/contributes to global warming/climate change
 Will exhaust/run out eventually/non-renewable/cannot be replaced?
 Having to be extracted from increasingly inaccessible/inhospitable places, e.g. Arctic/ deep sea
 Named environmental damage other than air pollution, e.g. oil spills from tankers/ pipelines
 Becoming expensive
 Production/prices controlled by cartels, e.g. OPEC
 Many countries, e.g. Pakistan, have few deposits and have to import
(a) Study Fig. 1 which shows mineral extraction in 2008 in Pakistan.

(i) Name two minerals shown on Fig. 1 that are used to make cement. [2]

 Limestone
 Gypsum

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(b) Study Fig. 2 which shows chromite extraction in Pakistan. Describe the changes in production
from 1992 to 2008. [3]

 Increases overall
 Variable overall / 1992-2008
 comment on fall and rise from 1992-97/98
 variable 1998 – 2004/5
 Rises from 2004-2008 / sharp rise in 2007
 Secondary peak 1996-1998 / rises then falls 1996-1999
 Lowest 1994

(ii) Suggest why the production of minerals, such as chromite, varies from year to year. [3]

 Investment / funding
 Demand / orders
 Bankruptcy / companies leave
 Problems with machinery
 Reserves reducing /new reserves exploited /geological problems
 Terrorism

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(d) To what extent can more extraction of mineral resources help to increase development in
Pakistan? [6]

In favour (res. 2)

 Increase trade / exports / reduce imports

 Raise GDP/GNP/ increase the economy Increase employment
 Raise taxes/ government earnings
 Foreign investment
 Rural development
 Industrialization / more industry
 Better infrastructure + example
 Provides more fuel or raw material + example.
 Education / skills

Against (res. 2)

 Lack of funds
 Lack of machinery / technology
 Unattractive to investors In remote areas
 Lack of infrastructure ( but do not double mark)
 Competition from other countries / other countries safer
 Environmental damage
 Lack of skills / expertise

Study Fig.7, which shows the distribution in Pakistan of deposits of three minerals.

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Q.Which of the minerals has the most widespread deposits?
 Limestone.
Q. Which of the mineral has deposits only towards the north of Pakistan?
 Rock salt
Q.Name one source of limestone that has led to the development of a cement factory in Karachi
 Manghopir / Murli Hills.
Q.Name one source of limestone that has enabled a cement factory to be built in Hyderabad
 Ganjo Takar.
Q. Explain your choices in (iii) and (iv).
 Limestone / lime is bulky / very heavy / needed in large amount
 Not a valuable mineral
 Not economic to transport it far.
Q.Look at Fig.7 and name one gypsum deposit in the Salt Ranges
 Dandot / Daud Khel / Khewra.

(a) Fig. 3 shows how cement is made.

Name the inputs, X?

 Chalk

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