Chemical Methods STERILIZATION AND DISINFECTION • For histological examination

• Inhibition Growth of Bacteria. Embalming fixatives preserve

tissues by inhibiting bacteria
Advantages - Formaldehyde
• Highly effective disinfectant and sterilant.
• Preservation of biological specimen
• Relatively low cost
• Doesn't leave toxic residues after proper aeration
Disadvantages - Formaldehyde
Alcohols • Strong, pungent odor causing respiratory irritation.
Hydroxyl (-OH) germicides: • Classified as a carcinogen
Ethyl alcohol, Isopropyl alcohol • Requires proper ventilation and careful monitoring
Ethyl Alcohol • Ingestion of can cause burns and ulcers in the stomach or
• Naturally produced by fermenting yeasts-> beverage intestines.
• Effective in a lot of viruses • Use in Healthcare Settings.
• but doesn’t include hepatitis A or poliovirus C2H5OH • Broad spectrum (including bacterial spores, viruses, and
• Rubbing Alcohol mycobacteria)
• Less effective against nonenveloped viruses • Can penetrate complex medical instruments (lumens and
• although effective against enclosed viruses channels)
Isopropyl Alcohol Glutaraldehyde C5H8O2
C3H7OH Mechanism of Action • Rapid disinfection
• “Like dissolves like” • Cost-effective through limited reuse
• Alcohol breaks the lipid and denatures protein • Effective even at lower temperatures.
• Using amphipathic property (has polar and nonpolar) • Strong antimicrobial activity, including sporicidal action.
• It exposes the proteins to the solvent. • Compatibility with a variety of materials
• Interfere with the folding of proteins Advantages
• Forming hydrogen bonds with polar side chains • Strong, pungent odor (respiratory irritation)
• Dissolving the nonpolar side chains. • Prolonged exposure can lead to health risks
• Protein loses its shape and function -> denaturation • May not be as stable as other disinfectants
Advantages • Potential toxicity and irritability to humans.
• Rapid action and evaporation (wide range of surfaces). • Longer exposure times needed for spore eradication.
• Broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity. Disadvantages
• No Toxic residues Halogens
• Non-Staining 03 Group 17, salt-forming, oxidizing germicides Mechanism of
Disadvantages Action
• Volatility limits long-lasting effects. • Destroying proteins in cells.
• Ineffectiveness against bacterial spores -> Not • Disrupts by oxidizing proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and
recommended for sterilizing medical and surgical materials enzymes.
• Cannot penetrate protein-rich materials. • Interferes with oxidative phosphorylation (cell survival)
Aldehydes • Mechanism of action as a disinfectant: oxidizing. HOW
02 Carbonyl (C=O) germicides: Formaldehyde, Glutaraldehyde OXIDATION KILLS:
Mechanism of Action Chlorine (Cl)
• Forms covalent bonds with functional groups in proteins and • Chlorination -> used in disinfecting water.
nucleic acids. • Sodium hypochlorite, (from chlorine bleach) is routinely
• In proteins, they cross-link between adjacent amino acid used.
residues. • Chloramines kills disease-causing germs
• In nucleic acids, they covalent bond to nitrogenous bases • Salmonella, Campylobacter, and norovirus.
• Leads to the inactivation or death • Chlorine Dioxide. More effective than chlorine for viruses-
• Gaseous Form as a Sterilant. (wide range of microorganisms) contaminated water.
• Use as Disinfectant. Effective against vegetative bacteria, • Inexpensive yet effective
fungi, spores and viruses. • Fairly easy than other water treatment
Formaldehyde CH2O • Effective household disinfectant as chlorinated bleach
• Use in Preserving Biological Specimens. • Effective even at lower temperatures
• Prevents decomposition to maintain the morphology. • Stored for a long time without deterioration.
Advantages - Chlorine
 • Cannot inactivate all microbes (Some protozoan cysts) Q UAT E R N AR Y AMMO N IUM CO MPO UN DS (Q AC or Q
• Some take 15 minutes to kill viruses. uats) a.k .a. S UR FACTAN T S because they decrease the surface
• Lower effectiveness in turbid water tension of water.
• Potential taste and odor objections. The hydrophobic core region of the detergent micelle
• Explosive when mixed with carbon monoxide gas associates with the hydrophobic surfaces of proteins and
Disadvantages - Chlorine Iodine results in soluble protein-detergent complexes. Q UAT E R N AR
• Antiseptic agent in surgical procedures. Y AMMO N IUM CO MPO UN DS (Q AC or Q uats) E X AMPLE of
• Skin infections of wounds, minor burns, and scratches. Q uats:
• Active component: Povidone-iodine (PVP-I). • benzalk onium chloride
• Providone-iodine: water-soluble compound of iodine and • benzethonium chloride
polyvinylpyrrolidone. • methylbenzethonium chloride
• Effective: Gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, fungi, • cetalk onium chloride
and viruses. • cetylpyridinium chloride
• Wound healing applications (efficacy and tolerability). • cetrimonium
• Povidone iodine's broad spectrum of activity • cetrimide
• Ability to penetrate biofilms • dofanium chloride
• Lack of associated resistance • tetraethylammonium bromide
• Anti-inflammatory properties • didecyldimethylammonium chloride
• Low cytotoxicity and good tolerability • domiphen bromide. Q UAT E R N AR Y AMMO N IUM CO MPO
• No negative effect on wound healing observed UN DS (Q AC or Q uats) D eterg ents
Advantages - Iodine Limitations - Iodine Effective in killing bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Q UAT E R N AR
• Potential irritation, staining, and allergenic reactions. Y AMMO N IUM CO MPO UN DS (Q AC or Q uats) D eterg ents
• Variable activity based on pH and organic matter Found in common disinfectant products.
• When taken by mouth: Unsafe when more than 1100 mcg Gram-negative bacteria such as Pseudomonas auruginosa,
daily mycobacteria, and bacteria in biofilms are resistant to Quats
• Side effects risk: thyroid problems. *When applied to the due to them having additional layers that need to be
skin: Safe for most if diluted, but: penetrated or disrupted.
• May cause severe irritation or burns product spillage may cause skin dermatitis, or inflammation,
• Rare: allergy with fever and eye and mucus membrane irritation. Workplace exposure
• generalized skin eruptions may lead to death may cause asthma symptoms.
Phenolics
 Chlorine Use of various chemical agents and techniques to isolate and
 Detergents extract phenolic compounds from plant sources
 Phenolics Are widely distributed in nature, have diverse biological
 Heavy Metals activities, and health benefits solvent extraction technique is
Chlorine commonly used for phenolic extraction.
A bleaching agent Other techniques include chemical emthod and ultrasound-
Used to disinfect water and aids in the cleanliness of sewage assisted extraction
and industrial waste. Solvents such as ethanol, methanol, and acetone are
Fight diseases caused by water contamination, there are frequently employed to extract phenolic compounds from
different methods that are used especially in the laboratory plant materials since they are polar in nature.
such as chlorination. For example, ethanol is commonly used for the extraction of
Chlorination phenolic acids. The extraction process involves maceration or
a chemical disinfection process for sanitizing water inactivates refluxing of the plant material with the chosen solvent,
the microorganisms by damaging the cell membrane followed by filtration and concentration of the extract. P
can inactivate germs, but not efficient against viruses and henolics
bacteria. However, cysts of some protozoa are resistant. Q AC Solvent extraction technique
are commonly used as disinfectants, antiseptics, preservatives, Release phenolic compounds from their glycoside conjugates,
and detergents because of their antibacterial property. which are commonly found in plants
Detergents Glycosides are sugar molecules attached to phenolic
The amphiphilic structure of Q ACs allows them to intercalate compounds, and they contribute to the stability and solubility
into microorganism surfaces since the positively charged of phenolics.
nitrogen strongly binds to the bacteria’s negatively charged Acid hydrolysis
membrane, which induces an unstable and porous membrane.
However, Glycosides can hinder the bioavailability and Significance H eav y Metals Heavy metals contribute to the
biological activity of phenolic compounds. Acid hydrolysis creation of advanced materials. For instance, they're used in
involves the treatment of plant extracts with acid, typically the production of superconductors, which have applications in
hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid, to break the glycosidic bond medical imaging devices like MR I machines, as well as in
and release the aglycone form of the phenolic compound. electronics and energy storage systems. In small amounts,
P henolics several heavy metals like iron, cobalt, and zinc are necessary
Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction for human nutrition but are poisonous in larger amounts. Uses
The resulting hydrolyzed extract can then be used for further of Metals
analysis or purification of phenolic compounds. Heavy metals are employed as indicators of pollution and
Ultrasonic waves generate cavitation bubbles, which environmental contamination
ccreatelocalized high temperatures and pressures, leading to Their presence in water, soil, and air can provide insights into
the disruption of plant cell walls and increased mass transfer the health of ecosystems and the impact of human activities
rates on the environment.
more efficient than conventional extraction methods, with Uses of ENVIRONMENTALMONITORING
shorter extraction times and higher phenolic yields. Metals Platinum-based compounds are vital in chemotherapy,
Allows reduced solvent consumption and lower extraction and heavy metals lik e gold have been used in treating arthritis.
temperatures, which leads to the preserved bioactivity of Heavy metals can be utilized in drug delivery systems and
phenolic compounds. imaging agents.
Heavy Metals Uses of MEDICINE AND PHARMACOLOGY
They include elements like lead, mercury, cadmium, arsenic, S ome heavy metals lik e titanium dioxide are used as
and chromium. photocatalysis. T hey can initiate chemical reactions when
High atomic mass and toxicity to living things are two traits that exposed to light, finding use in environmental remediation and
define heavy metals. even potentially in medicine for targeted drug release.
Heavy metals are natural elements with high weight and Uses of PHOTO CATALYSIS
density, over five times that of water. Heavy Metals Techniques like atomic absorption spectroscopy
Described as naturally occurring compounds in the context of and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry use heavy
health that build up and harm the environment and other living metals to detect and quantify trace amounts of elements in
things, including humans. Excessive exposure to toxic heavy samples.
metals such as lead and mercury can result in severe health
issues, including neurological damage, organ dysfunction, and Uses of ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES
even death. Group 9 Ethylene oxide Periacetic acid Hydrogen peroxide
Heavy metals can be fatal to humans and contaminate the Ethylene Oxide
natural environment and ecosystem. What is a Gas?
Can serve as alternatives to conventional antibiotics. A gas is a substance that is in a gaseous, or vaporous, state of
Some bacterial strains that are resistant to antibiotics have matter.
shown susceptibility to heavy metals due to shared resistance The term gas is also used in reference to the state itself when
mechanisms. applied to matter that has the properties of a gaseous
Heavy metals have exhibited notable antimicrobial properties, substance.
making them subjects of interest for various bacteriological Sterilization
applications. Sterilization describes a process that destroys the spores of
Heavy metals like silver and copper possess potent various organisms present on surfaces, in liquids, in
antibacterial properties. Thus, it is incorporated into medical medication, or in compounds such as biological culture media.
equipment, surfaces, and textiles to inhibit bacterial growth It can be achieved by high-pressure steam (autoclave), dry heat
and transmission and reduce healthcare-associated infections. (oven), chemical sterilants or physical agents (radiation).
S significance Metal complexes can be utilized as contrast Because sterilization is a process, not a single event, all
agents, such as in magnetic resonance imaging (MR I) or for components must be carried out correctly for sterilization to
radioisotope imaging (from the radiation they generate). By occur.
altering the ligands in a complex to make it more specific so Disinfection
that it will only be taken up by a particular type of cell or organ, Disinfection describes a process that eliminates many or all
such imaging can be improved. Heavy Metals Medical imaging pathogenic microorganisms, except bacterial spores, on
diagnostics frequently mak e use of metal ions. inanimate objects
It involves the use of physical (e.g., heat or ultraviolet light) or
S ignificance H eav y Metals
chemical (e.g., disinfectants) processes to reduce, inactivate, or
Overexposure to heavy metals can lead to the development of
resistant bacterial strains and environmental contamination. destroy pathogenic microorganisms.
STERILIZATION AND DISINFECTION
Ethylene Oxide sets/bloodlines, Gowns and drapes, Heart valves, Pacemakers,
Ethylene oxide (also abbreviated EO and EtO) is a versatile Surgical drills, Pumps, Respirators, Electrical equipment,
compound used in the production of other chemicals for a Uterine monitors, Surgical staplers, Diagnostic electrode
variety of industrial applications and everyday consumer catheters
products, including household cleaners, personal care items Ethylene Oxide - Disinfectant
and fabrics. can be used as a disinfectant in certain situations, such as in
used for sterilization of a wide range of materials that are not healthcare facilities and industrial settings that cannot be
compatible with other methods of sterilization. exposed to heat or alternative chemicals.
a low temperature gaseous process. can be used to disinfect equipment and materials that are
an alkylating agent that disrupts cellular metabolism and sensitive to heat or moisture, such as pipettes, glassware, and
reproductive processes of microorganisms in which it plastic items.
penetrated breathable packaging, making contact with all effective at killing a wide range of microorganisms, including
accessible surfaces of the product to deliver the required bacteria, viruses, and fungi.
sterility assurance level. It works by damaging the DNA and proteins within these
Products that are commonly processed with Ethylene Oxide: organisms, preventing their growth and reproduction.
 Assembled complex devices note that the use of ethylene oxide as a disinfectant comes
 Catheters with significant safety and regulatory considerations due to its
 Custom procedure packs toxicity.
 Equipment with integrated electronics Hydrogen Peroxide
 Multi-lumen tubing products Stents Hydrogen Peroxide Hydrogen peroxide is an antimicrobial
Ethylene oxide sterilization chemical that can kill various microorganisms, (bacterial
consists offour primary variables: spores,protozoan cysts, and also infectious proteins)
 Gas concentration can be liquid or gas form for different purposes, such as
 Humidity preserving, disinfecting and sterilizing.
 Temperature low temperature, surface compatibility and low toxicity.
Sterilization – Hydrogen Peroxide
 Time
Hydrogen peroxide is a clear, colorless liquid that can be used
Benefits of Ethylene Oxide Sterilization:
as a sterilizing agent in microlabs,sterilization concentration is
Sterilization at Low Temperatures - Ensures the integrity of
30%.
both the product and packaging.
2 Methods of utilization for hydrogen peroxide in terms of
Product Compatibility - Effectively sterilizes a broad range of
sterilization.
polymers, resins, natural materials, and metals as well as dual
drug-device combination products that require external  Hydrogen peroxide gas plasma (HPGP)
contact surface sterilization.  VHP Sterilization Sterilization
Sterility Assurance and Treatment Efficacy - Consistently Hydrogen peroxide gas plasma( HPGP)
is a nontoxic sterilization method that uses hydrogen peroxide
meets product and regulatory requirements. Ethylene Oxide
gas.
Key Benefits of Ethylene Oxide Sterilization:
can sterilize materials that are sensitive to heat, such as
Flexibility and Versatility - Effectively sterilizes a wide range of
orthopedic implants, syringes, and electronic devices.
products with different variations in dose requirements,
low-temperature, environmentally friendly, and cost-effective
densities, and packaging/box sizes.
sterilization method.
Parametric Release - Allows for the release of products directly
VHP Sterilization
after processing which results in fast turn times to help get
is a method that uses vaporized hydrogen peroxide to sterilize
products to market rapidly.
various instruments in laboratories
ETO is also highly compatible with a wide range of medical
high and low-temperature sterilization depending on the type
device materials with various constructions, allowing medical
of device and material
device companies to produce a number of devices that would
Mechanism of Action
not be feasible without ETO.
Plasma Generation:
It is well known that medical devices sterilized by ETO operate
Hydrogen peroxide gas plasma requires the generation of a
at a high level of performance and effectiveness.
plasma field, which is not needed in VHP.
Ethylene Oxide Medical Devices that Require EtO
Temperature: VHP operates at higher temperatures than
Sterilization
hydrogen peroxide gas plasma, which may affect the material
Fiberoptic endoscopes, Specula, Surgical kits, Syringes,
compatibility of some items.
Sutures, Catheters, IV sets, Plastic tubing, Inhalation therapy
Cycle Duration: VHP cycles are often longer than hydrogen
supplies, Surgical telescopes, Anesthesia masks and circuits,
peroxide gas plasma cycles due to the time required for
Renal peritoneal dialysis sets, Renal hemodialysis sets, Tubing
vaporization and diffusion.
CHALLENGES OF THE TECHNIQUES * Temperature and pH Tolerance Disadvantages:
(1) Chamber size is typically smaller than that of steam * Irritation
sterilizers/autoclaves * Corrosion
(2) Sterilization cycles have specific device and load limitations * Limited shelf life
based on design and manufacturer validation * Safety precautions
(3) Unlike heat-stable instruments, heat and moisture-sensitive * Environmental impact
devices are not always validated or compatible with all models * Regulatory concerns
(4) Pre-processing of devices is critical (cleaning, drying,
wrapping, etc.)
Disinfectant - Hydrogen Peroxide
Hydrogen peroxide is a powerful disinfectant that can kill a
wide range of microbes
decomposes into water and oxygen, leaving no harmful
residues
can be used to treat gum inflammation, disinfect water, and
prevent microbial growth in water systems
used to clean and sanitize surfaces, objects, tools, workspaces,
and personal protective equipment
3% solution is suitable for disinfection applied for at least 10
minutes at room temperature for maximum effectiveness
Hydrogen peroxide is not suitable for skin disinfection due to
its harshness
Periacetic Acid
Sterilization
Peracetic acid (PAA) is formed by the reaction of acetic acid and
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2); these compounds exist in
equilibrium and their eventual decomposition results in oxygen
(O2), carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).
Vaporized peracetic acid (VPA) has revolutionized the
sterilization of medical devices.
The room-temperature VPA process significantly increases
material compatibility.
Vaporized peracetic acid (VPA) is a very effective sterilant that
kills surface pollutants while maintaining efficacy.
EVIDENCE The sporicidal activity of peracetic acid vapor at 20,
40, 60, and 80% relative humidity and 25°C was determined on
Bacillus atrophaeus spores on paper and glass surfaces.
Appreciable activity occurred within 10 minutes of exposure to
1 mg of peracetic acid per liter at 40% or higher relative
humidity. Portner, D. M., & Hoffman, R. K. (1968).
Sporicidal effect of peracetic acid vapor. Applied Microbiology,
16(11), 1782–1785.
https://doi.org/10.1128/am.16.11.1782-1785.1968
Disinfection - PERACETIC ACID
*Common concentrations range from 0.2% to 5% or higher
*Typically, contact times can range from 1- 10 minutes or more
Disinfection
PerACETIC acid is a strong disinfectant and sterilant.
Several reasons:
*Oxidation
* Broad-Spectrum
* Fast-Acting
* Residue-Free
* Environmental Considerations