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2. Model Representations
• Transfer Functions of LTI Systems
• Concepts of Poles and Zeros
• Block diagram Representation and determining Transfer function
• Signal flow graphs –Mason’s gain formula.

Control Systems - Mathematical Models

The control systems can be represented with a set of
mathematical equations known as mathematical model for
analysis and design of control systems.
Design of control system involves development of
mathematical model based on the input and the output.
The mostly used mathematical models are,
• Differential equation model
• Transfer function model
• State space model

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Transfer Functions of LTI Systems

The transfer function of the Linear Time Invariant
system can be defined as:
• Ratio of Laplace transform of the output signal to the
input signal when the initial conditions are zero.
• Ratio of output to input in ‘s’ domain when the initial
conditions are neglected.
• Transfer function of the LTI system is the Laplace
transform of its impulse response.

Transfer Functions

T(S) = Transfer function of the system

C(S) = Controlled output
R(S) = Reference input
G(S) = Control System Gain

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Transfer Function of Mechanical System

Steps to obtain transfer function

Step 1: Write the differential equation.
Step 2: Find out Laplace transform of the equation assuming
'zero' as an initial condition.
Step 3: Take the ratio of output to input.
Step 4: Write down the equation of G(S)

Characteristic equation of a transfer function:

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Concepts of Poles and Zeros

• Poles (p) and Zeros (z) are the frequencies of the transfer
function for which the value of the transfer function. (Root
of denominator and numerator polynomial becomes zero)

• Roots of denominator polynomial of a transfer function are

called ‘poles’.
• And the roots of numerator polynomials of a transfer
function are called ‘zeros’.
Zeros are S = -3
Poles re S = 0, S = -2
Multiple poles at S = pole of
order 2 at S = -4.

The S-Plane
• The poles and zeros of the system are plotted in s-plane to
check the stability of the system.
• The S-plane is a complex plane with an imaginary and real
axis referring to the complex-valued variable z.
• Poles of the system are represented by ‘x’ and zeros of the
system are represented by ‘o’.
• Poles is also defined as “frequency at which system
becomes infinite”.
Example:
H(s)= s / [(s−1/2)(s+3/4)]
The zeros are: {0}
The poles are: {1/2, -3/4}

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System stability based on poles on S-Plane

• If all the poles of the system lie in left half plane the system
is said to be Stable.
• If any of the poles lie in right half plane the system is said to
be unstable.
• If pole(s) lie on imaginary axis the system is said to be
marginally stable.

Ѕ = σ +jω

System stability based on poles on S-Plane

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Feedback Control System

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Block Diagram Representation

• Block Diagrams : Single block or a combination of blocks to
represent the control systems in pictorial form.
• Basic Elements of Block Diagram
Block, Summing Point & Take-off Point

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Block Diagram Reduction Rules

1. Check for the blocks connected in series and simplify.
2. Check for the blocks connected in parallel and simplify.
3. Check for the blocks connected in feedback loop and
simplify.
4. If there is difficulty with take-off point while simplifying,
shift it towards right.
5. If there is difficulty with summing point while simplifying,
shift it towards left.
6. Repeat the above steps till you get the simplified form,
i.e., single block.
The transfer function present in single block is the overall
transfer function of the block diagram.

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Transfer Function-Block Diagram Reduction

Solution
Step 1: Two internal closed loops can be removed.

Solution
Step 2: Multiply the two blocks are in a cascade or series.

Step 3: solve the loop.

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Problem 1: Reduce the block diagram shown in figure

to a single transfer function.

Solution: Shifting summing point of H2 to left

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Problem 2: Reduce the block diagram shown in figure to a

single transfer function.

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Problem 3: Reduce the block diagram shown in figure to a

single transfer function.

Solution:
Summing and Take-off points of H3 are shifted to left and right.

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Problem 4: Reduce the block diagram shown in figure

to a single transfer function.

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Problem 5: Reduce the block diagram shown in figure

to a single transfer function.

The transfer function of the system is

Y(s)/zR(s)=G1G2G25(G3+G4)(1+G1G2H1){1+(G3+G4)G5H3}G5−G1G2G5(G3+G4)H2

• Step 1 − Use Rule 1 for blocks G1 and G2.

Use Rule 2 for blocks G3 and G4.

• Step 2 − Use Rule 3 for blocks G1G2 and H1.

Use Rule 4 for shifting take-off point after the block G5.

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• Step 3 − Use Rule 1 for blocks (G3+G4) and G5.

• Step 4 − Use Rule 3 for blocks (G3+G4)G5 and H3.

• Step 5 − Use Rule 1 for blocks connected in series.

• Step 6 − Use Rule 3 for blocks connected in feedback loop.

This is the simplified block diagram

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Signal Flow Graph Representation

• Signal flow graph is a graphical representation of algebraic
equations.
• SFG is a graphical representation of the relationship
between the variables of a set of linear algebraic equations.
• In the signal flow graph, the transfer function is referred to
as transmittance.
• Block diagram reduction is the method for determining the
transfer function of the control system.
• For a complicated system, Block diagram reduction is very
difficult and time-consuming process.
• SFG doesn't require any reduction technique or process.
• It is only applicable to the linear system.

Signal Flow Graph Representation

Basic elements are Nodes and Branches
Node is a point which represents either a variable or a signal.
• Input Node (Source) − Only outgoing branches.
• Output Node (Sink) − Only incoming branches.
• Mixed Node − Both incoming and outgoing branches.
• Branch: Path from one node to another node, in the
direction indicated by the arrow.

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• Forward Path: It is a path from an input node to an output

node in the direction of branch arrow.
• Loop: It is a path that starts and ends at the same node.

• Non-touching loop: Loop is said to be non-touching if they

do not have any common node.

• Forward path gain: A product of all branches gain along the

forward path is called Forward path gain.
• Loop Gain: Loop gain is the product of branch gain which
travels in the loop.

Conversion of Block Diagrams into Signal

Flow Graphs
• Represent all the signals, variables, summing points and
take-off points of block diagram as nodes in signal flow
graph.
• Represent the blocks of block diagram as branches in signal
flow graph.
• Represent the transfer functions inside the blocks of block
diagram as gains of the branches in signal flow graph.
• Connect the nodes as per the block diagram.
• If there is connection between two nodes (but there is no
block in between), then represent the gain of the branch as
one.

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Block Diagram -> Signal Flow Graph

Mason’s Gain Formula

The relation between input variable and output variable of a signal
flow graph is given by Mason's Gain Formula.
The overall system Gain (Transfer Function) T is given by

Where,
• PK = forward path gain of the Kth forward path.
• Δ = 1 - [Sum of the loop gain of all individual loops] + [Sum of
gain products of all possible of two non-touching loops] + [Sum
of gain products of all possible three non-touching loops]+ .......
• ΔK = 1 – (loop gain which does not touch theKth forward path)

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Application of Mason’s Gain Formula

• Stability Analysis: Masons Gain formula help in stabilizing
the system by calculating the poles and zeroes of the
overall transfer function.
• Closed-Loop Systems: Mason’s gain formula helps in
analysis of closed loop system, considering feedback and
determining the effect of feedback on system performance.
• Transient and Steady-State Response: The formula helps in
understanding how the system responds to transient and
steady-state inputs.
• Filter Design: Mason’s Gain Formula assists in designing
filters by allowing engineers to analyze the frequency
response of the system.

Problem 1: Determine C/R for the Signal Flow Graph shown:

1. Forward Path Gains 2. Loop Gains

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3. Non-Touching Loops gains

No combinations of three
non-touching loops, 4 non-
touching loops and etc.
4. Loops gains

5. Overall Transfer function

Problem 2: Determine Transfer Function for the Signal Flow

graph shown in figure.

1. Forward Path Gains 2. Loop Gains 4. Overall Transfer Function

3. Non touching Loops

=0

Transfer Function for

the Signal Flow graph

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Problem 3: Determine Transfer Function of the SFG.

1. Forward Path Gains 2. Loop Gains

P1 = G1G2G3G4G5 L1 = – G1H1
P2 = G1G2G6 L2 = – G4H2

3. Gain Δ
Δ = 1 – (L1+L2) + (L1L2)
Δ = 1 – (- G1H1 – G4H2) + [(- G1H1) (- G4H2)]
Δ = 1 + G1H1 + G4H2 + [(G1G4 H1H2)]

4. Gain of forward path non touching loops

Δ1 = 1 Δ2 = 1 – (L2)
Δ2 = 1 + G4 H 2

5. Overall Transfer Function

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Block Diagram Vs. Signal Flow Graph

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