ANU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERNING & TECHNOLOGY

Engineering Physics
I- B.Tech EC-112 & CS/EE- 122 STUDY MATERIAL
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UNIT – III
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES and FIBER OPTICS
1. Introduction
Electrostatic fields are produced by static electric charges. While magneto
static fields ae produced by moving electric charges and natural magnets. On other
hand we have time varying electrical and magnetic fields.
A time varying electrical field produces a time varying magnetic field is
called Induced magnetic field, and a time varying magnetic field produces a time varying
electrical field is called Induced electrical field. The combined field of such mutually
induced electric and magnetic field is called the electromagnetic field.
The electromagnetic field possesses energy, mass and momentum and can
convert into other forms of matter and energy. Both induced fields continuously
changed, a wave of electromagnetic energy is generated and transmitted.

i. Del operator
Electromagnetic field problems involve there space variables as a result
of solutions tend to become complex to solve such problem the differential operator 
called del or nabla is used.
  
In Cartesian coordinates it is defined as =i + j +k
x y z here i, j, k are the
vectors along the x, y, z axes. There are three possible operations with  corresponding
to the three possible types of vector multiplication.

ii. Gradient of Vector

If A is a vector quantity and is multiplied by a vector  then the result is
a vector. The gradient of any vector function is a vector.
A A A
Thus A = GradA = i + j +k
x y z
iii. Divergence of Vector
The second process of multiplication is the Scalar or dot product.
Consider a vector A = (Axi + Ayj + Azk) dot or scalar product of two vectors is a divergence
of a vector which is scalar quantity, is given by
Ax Ay Az
 • A = divA = + +
x y z
iv. Curl of Vector
The third process of multiplication is cross or vector product. If a vector A is
multiplied by another vector , then we get vector quantity given by

   
  A = curlA =  i + j + k   (Ax i + Ay j + Az z )
 x y z 
i j k
  
Determinant form  A =
x y z
Ax Ay Az

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  A Ay   Ax Az   Ay Ax 
= i z − +  + j  − +  + k  − + 
 y z   z x   x y 

v. Vector Identities
i.  • (A) = Div(GradA) =  2 A
ii.   A = curl (GradA) = 0
iii.   (A) = Div(curlA) = 0
iv.   (  A) = curl (curlA) = ( • A) −  2 A

vi. Gauss divergence theorem

It is tells about conversion of surface integral to volume integral  Ads =   • Adv
S V

vii. Stoke theorem

It is tells about conversion of line integral to surface integral  Adl =    Ads
l S

2. Maxwell’s Equations
In 1862, Maxwell formulated the basic laws of electricity and magnetism
in the form of four fundamental equations known as Maxwell’s equations. The integral
forms of these equations are.
q
i.  E • s = 
Gauss law for electricity

ii. Gauss law for magnetism  B • s = 0

 B
iii. Faraday’s law for electromagnetic induction  E • l = − dt
iv. Ampere’s law for electromagnetic induction  B • l = i
Differential forms of Maxwell’s equations
 
i. DivE = or  • E =
 
ii. DivB = 0 or •B = 0
− B − B
iii. curlE = or   E =
t t
 E   E 
iv. curlB =   J +   or   B =   J + 
 t   t 
The Differential forms of Maxwell’s equations can be obtained from the integral forms
as follows.
i. According to Gauss’s law in electrostatics, the total electric flux through any closed
1
surface is equal to times to the net charge enclosed by the surface.

q
  E • ds =

Let  be the volume charge density and dv be the volume considered. Then we can
 q 
write q = v   = v 
1
 Es =   v
Converting the surface integral to volume integral using Gauss divergence theorem

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  Es =   • Ev
1
   • Ev =  v

 
•E = or DivE = . This equation is referred as Maxwell’s electric flux equation.
 
ii. According to Gauss theorem in magnetism, magnetic flux through a closed
surface is zero.
 B • s = 0
Converting the surface integral to volume integral using Gauss divergence theorem

 • Bv = 0 . As volume is arbitrary, the integral must be zero.
DivB = 0 or  • B = 0 .
This equation is referred as Maxwell’s magnetic flux equation.

iii. According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction the negative time rate
of change of magnetic flux linked with a circuit is equal to the emf induced in the
circuit.
B  B 
 E • l = − t 

B =
s
  B = Bs 

 B
=−
t  B • s = − 
t
• s
Converting the line integral to surface integral using Stoke’s theorem

 E • l =  (  E )s
B
 (  E )s = − t • s

(  E ) = − B or curlE =
− B
.
t t
This equation is referred as Maxwell’s induced electric field equation.

iv. According to Ampere’s circuital law the magneto motive force around a closed
path is equal to the  times to the current enclosed by the path. Mathematically it is
 B • l = −i .
Converting the line integral to surface integral using Stoke’s theorem
i
 B • l =  (  B ) • s Current density J =
s
 (  B ) • s = i =   J • s
  B = J
The above equation holds good only for time independent fields and does not hold
good for time varying fields. So Maxwell modified the above equation for time varying
fields.
  B =  [Current density + displacement current density]
 E 
  B =  J +  .
 t 
This equation is referred as Maxwell’s induced Magnetic field equation.

3. Electromagnetic Wave Equation and Velocity

Engineering physics 3Unit- III
 Let us apply Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations to a homogeneous,
isotropic dielectric medium. As the dielectric is one which offers infinite resistance to
the current. Therefore J = 0, there is no volume distribution of charge, volume charge
density  = 0, hence Maxwell’s equations in free space for can be simplified as.


i. •E =   • E = 0 − − − − − − − − −1

ii. •B = 0  •B = 0−−−−−−−−−2
− B − B
iii. E =  E = −−−−−−−3
t t
 E  E
iv.   B =  J +     B =  0 0 −−−−−4
 t  t
Taking the curl to equation 4 we get
 E 
  (  B ) =     0  0 −−−−−−−5
 t 
Where  0 and  0 are the permeability and permittivity of free space and they are remain
constant through the medium.
 E   E  
Right hand side of equation --- (5)    0 0  =  0  0    =  0  0 (  E )
 t   t  t

  − B 
=  0 0   From equation (3)
t  t 
2B
= −  0 0
t 2
Left hand side of equation --- (5)   (  B ) = ( • B ) −  2 B = (0 ) −  2 B
  (  B ) = − 2 B From equation (2)
Left hand side and right hand side of equation --- (5)
2B
−  2 B = −  0 0
t 2
2B
 2 B =  0 0 − − − − − −6
t 2
Similarly equation (3) we can show that
2E
 E =  0  0 2 − − − − − −7
2

t
Equation 6 and 7 represent the relation between the space and time variation of
magnetic field B and electric field E. these are called electromagnetic wave equations.
These equations have some general form of the differential equations of
wave motions, represented by

1 2E
2 y = − − − − − −8
V 2 t 2
Where V is velocity of wave and y is its amplitude. Comparing equations 8 and 6 we
get
1 1
=  0  0 or V 2 =
V 2
 0 0
1
V =
 0 0

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 1
Where  0 = 4  10 −7 H / m and  0 = C 2 / N − m2
4  9  10 −9
1
V = = 9  1016 = 3  108 m / s
1
4  10 −7 
4  9  10 9
Thus the velocity of propagation of variation of E and B is the same as the
velocity of light.
FIBER OPTICS

1. Introduction to optical fibers

Soon after the discovery of laser some experiments were carried out
on propagation of information through light waves in open atmosphere. If light beam
acting as a carrier wave is cable of caring more information than radio waves and micro
waves, because of its high frequency.
Due to atmospheric conditions like rain, fog etc... the efficient
communication is disturbed. Hence to have an efficient communication system the light
which carries the information requires a guiding media known as optical fiber.
Optical fiber deals the transmission and receiving of light waves. The optical fibers
working based on the principle of total internal reflection.

If we compered any two medium which has more density in two is

called denser medium other called rarer medium. If the light rays traveling one medium
to another its velocity is changed when enter into second medium wavelength also
changed but frequency is not changed.
The ratio of velocity of light in two different medium is always constant.
V1
 = Constant, so this constant is called refractive index of medium two with respect
V2
V1 1 sin i
medium one. And is denoted by 1  2 . This also equal to 1  2 = = = .
V2  2 sin r
i. Total Internal Reflection

Let us consider light ray are traveling from denser to rarer and XY is
the surface that separate the two mediums. If light ray is incident on XY surface with
incident angle i then some part of the light is reflected and reaming refracted. If further
angle of incidence I is increased the angle of refraction also increased. At particular
angle of incidence the refracted ray fallow the XY surface, that is either not reflected
and nor refracted. It moves towards XY surface. This angle of incident is called critical
angle. Now the light rays are incident on the surface more than Critical angle all the

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rays are reflected back in to the denser medium. This phenomenon is called total
internal reflection.
Conditions for Total Internal Reflection
If any light undergoes total internal reflection it must be satisfies the
following conditions.
i. Light should travel from denser to rarer medium.
ii. Angle of incidence should be greater than critical angle of the medium.
ii. Critical angle
The angle of incidence in denser medium for which angle of refraction
is 900 in rarer medium is called Critical angle.

iii. Structure of Optical Fiber

An optical fiber is a flexible thin and transparent plastic or glass.
Optical fiber consists three parts. They are i) Core ii) Cladding iii) buffer coating and
they are shown below.

An optical fiber consists of an inner cylinder which is made of glass

called the Core. The core carries light. The core is surrounded by another cylindrical
shell of lower refractive index than core is called the Cladding. The cladding helps to
keep the light within the core through the phenomenon of total internal reflection. For
greater strength and protection of the fiber, a soft plastic coating is done [Primary buffer
coating]. This is often followed by another layer of coating known as Secondary buffer
coating.
iv. Principle and Propagation of Light in Optical Fiber
The principle of optical fiber communication is total internal reflection.
When light is incident on one end of the fiber with small angle, it passes through the
fiber as explained below.

Let i be the angle incidence of the light ray with the axis and r is the
angle of refraction. If  is the angle at which the ray is incident on the boundary, If 
c (critical angle), then the ray is totally internally reflected. In this way, the ray
undergoes repeated total internal reflections until it emerges out from the other end of
the fiber, even if the fiber is bent. Thus the light ray is guided through the fiber from
one end to other end without any loss of energy.

2. Numerical Aperture of Optical Fiber

Engineering physics 6Unit- III
 Numerical aperture represents a measure of light gathering power of the
fiber.

Consider a cylindrical fiber. It consists of core of refractive index n1

cladding of refractive index n2 and n0 be the refractive index of the medium in which the
optical fiber is placed.
The incident ray travels along AO and enters the core at an angle of
incidence  to the fiber axis and r be the angle of refraction. It further proceeds to fall
on boundary of core and cladding interface at critical angle of incidence then the ray
just moves along BC. The angle of incidence [C = 90-r] at the interface of core and
cladding will be more than critical angle. Hence the ray is totally internally reflected.
i. Applying Snell’s law at point of entry of ray AO we have n 1/n0 = sin max/sin r
 n1 
sin max =   sin r
 0
n
 n1 
sin max =   1 − cos r − − − − − − − (1)
2

 0
n
n2 sin  c sin  c
ii. Applying Snell’s law at point B = = 1
n1 sin r sin 90
But C = 90 – r  sin C = sin (90 -r) = cos r
n2
= cos r − − − − − − − (2)
n1
2
n2
sin r = 1 − cos r = 1 −
2
2
n1

 n1   n1  n2
2

Substituting equ 2 in eqa (1)  sin max =   sin r =   1 − 2

 n0   n0  n1

 n1  n1 2 − n2 2 n1 − n2
2 2

=  2
=
 n0  n1 n0

n1 − n2
2 2

NA = sin max =
n0
Here no = 1 if fiber is placed in air.
 NA = sin max = n1 − n2
2 2

Acceptance Angle (max)

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 It is the maximum value of the angle of incidence at the entrance
end of the fiber at which the angle of incidence at the core-cladding interface is equal
to critical angle of the core medium.

3. TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBER

Optical fibers are classified in to three categories based on i. material
ii. Number of modes and iii. Refractive index profile.

i. Based on materials in which the fiber made is classified in to two types.

a. Glass fiber: - if the fibers are made up of mixture of metal oxides and silica glasses.
b. Plastic fibers: - if the fibers are made up plastics which can be handled without
any care due to its toughness and durability it is called plastic fibers.

ii. Based on modes of propagation the fibers are classified in to two types.

a) One mode [Single mode] fibers: - it has a very small core diameter so that it can
allow only one mode of propagation and hence called single-mode fibers.
b) Many modes [Multi mode] fibers: - Here the core diameter is very large compared
to single mode fibers, so it can allow many modes to propagate through it and
hence called Multi mode fibers.

iii. Based on the variation in the refractive index of the core and the cladding the fibers
are classified in to two types.

a) Step index optical fiber: -

In this optical fiber, the core and cladding both have uniform refractive
indices n1 and n2, but n1  n2. Here the refractive index of air, cladding and core varies
step by step. And hence it is called step index fiber.
Let a, b are the radii of core and cladding respectively. Fig. shows the paths of
rays in step index fiber. Here, two rays entering at different angles of incidence with the
axis of the fiber. They travel different path and emerge out at different times. Hence, an
input pulse gets winded as it travels along the fiber.

b) Graded index optical fiber: -

Here the refractive index of the core varies radically [non uniform] from the
axis of the fiber. The refractive index of the core is maximum along the fiber axis and
is gradually decrease. Thus it is called as graded index fiber. Here refractive index
becomes minimum at the core cladding interference.

In this fiber, a ray is continuously bent and travels a periodic path along the axis.
The rays entering at different angles follow different paths with the same period, both
in space and time. Thus, there is a periodic focusing of the rays. Pulse dispersion is
less.
Engineering physics 8Unit- III
 Multimode Graded index optical fiber

4. Fiber Optic Communication Systems

An optical communication system consists of three important parts.
They are 1. Transmitter 2. Optical fiber 3. Receiver

The Information signal source

The Information signal source may be voice, music, video signals etc.
which is in the analog from to be transmitted is converted from analog signal to
electrical signal.

Transmitter
The transmitter consists of a drive circuit and a source. The drive circuit
transfers the electrical input signal into digital pulses and the light source converts that
in to optical pulses. The light source usually used is LED. Here the electric pulse
modulate the intensity of the light source and are focused on to the optical fiber.

Optical fiber
It acts as a waveguide and transmits the optical pulses towards the receiver
by the principle of total internal reflection.
Receiver

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 The photo detector is a receiver which receives the optical pulses and converts
it into electrical pulses. Further the signals are amplified by an amplifier. These
electrical signals are decoded. i.e converted from digital to analog signals. Thus the
original electrical signal is obtained, in analog form, with the same information.
In this way information is transmitted from one to other end.

5 a). Advantages of Optic Fiber Communication

i. It is the light in weight.

ii. It is smaller in size and is flexible, so that it can bend to any position.
iii. Abundant availability of raw material.
iv. It is non conductive, non radioactive, and non inductive.
v. No leakage of signal during transmission, no interference with signals in other
fibers.
vi. No short circuiting with other cables.
vii. They offer high degree of security and privacy.
viii. They can withstand extreme temperatures.
ix. Corrosion due to water or chemicals is less.
x. Longer life span, easy maintenance.

b. Applications of Optical Fiber

i. In communications due to larger bandwidth.

ii. In defense services due to high privacy.
iii. In Military applications.
iv. It is used for signaling purposes.
v. Fiber sensors are used to measure temperature and pressure.
vi. It is used in cable Television and space vehicles.
vii. To study interior of lungs and other parts of the body using endoscopy.
viii. Suitable for transmission of digital data generated by computers.

Engineering physics 10Unit- III