Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates

Chapter 2
 Chapter Objectives
 Gain a basic understanding of postulates used to form
algebraic structures.
 Understand the Huntington Postulates.
 Understand the basic theorems and postulates of
Boolean algebra.
 Know how to develop a logic diagram from a Boolean
function; Know how to derive a Boolean function from a
logic diagram.
 Know how to apply DeMorgan’s theorems.
 Know how to express a Boolean function as a truth table;
know how to derive a Boolean function from a truth table.

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-2

 Chapter Objectives
 Know how to express a Boolean function as a sum of
minterms and as a product of maxterms.
 Be able to convert from a sum of minterms to a product
of maxterms, and vise versa.
 Be able to form a two-level gate structure from a
Boolean function in sum of products form; know how to
form a two-level gate structure from a Boolean function
in product of sums form.
 Be able to implement a Boolean function with NAND and
inverter gates; know how to implement a Boolean
function with NOR and inverter gates.

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-3

Basic Definitions
 A binary operator defined on a set S of
elements is a rule that assigns, to each pair of
elements from S, a unique element from S.
 The most common postulates used to
formulate various algebraic structures are as
follows:
1. Closure. A set S is closed with respect to a
binary operator if, for every pair of elements of S,
the binary operator specifies a rule for obtaining
a unique element of S.
2. Associative law. A binary operator * on a set S
is said to be associative whenever
(x * y) * z = x * (y * z) for all x, y, z, ∈ S
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-4
3. Commutative law. A binary operator * on a set S
is said to be commutative whenever
x * y = y * x for all x, y ∈ S
4. Identity element. A set S is said to have an
identity element with respect to a binary
operation * on S if there exists an element e ∈ S
with the property that
e * x = x * e = x for every x ∈ S
Example: The element 0 is an identity element
with respect to the binary operator + on the set of
integers I = {c, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3,c}, since
x + 0 = 0 + x = x for any x ∈ I
The set of natural numbers, N, has no identity
element, since 0 is excluded from the set.
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-5
 5. Inverse. A set S having the identity element e
with respect to a binary operator * is said to have
an inverse whenever, for every x ∈ S, there
exists an element y ∈ S such that
x*y=e
Example: In the set of integers, I, and the
operator +, with e = 0, the inverse of an element
a is (-a), since a + (-a) = 0.
6. Distributive law. If * and • are two binary
operators on a set S, * is said to be distributive
over • whenever
x * (y • z) = (x * y) • (x * z)
 A field is an example of an algebraic
structure.
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-6
 The field of real numbers is the basis for
arithmetic and ordinary algebra.
 The binary operator + defines addition.
 The additive identity is 0.
 The additive inverse defines subtraction.
 The binary operator • defines multiplication.
 The multiplicative identity is 1.
 For a ≠ 0, the multiplicative inverse of a = 1/a
defines division (i.e., a • 1/a = 1).
 The only distributive law applicable is that of • over
+:
a • (b + c) = (a • b) + (a • c)

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Axiomatic Definition of Boolean Algebra
 In 1854, George Boole developed an
algebraic system now called Boolean algebra.
 two binary operators, + and •, (Huntington)
postulates:
1. (a) The structure is closed with respect to the
operator +.
(b) The structure is closed with respect to the
operator •.
2. (a) The element 0 is an identity element with
respect to +; that is, x + 0 = 0 + x = x.
(b) The element 1 is an identity element with
respect to •; that is, x • 1 = 1 • x = x.

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-8

3. (a) The structure is commutative with respect to
+; that is, x + y = y + x.
(b) The structure is commutative with respect to
• ; that is, x • y = y • x.
4. (a) The operator • is distributive over +; that is, x •
(y + z) = (x • y) + (x • z).
(b) The operator + is distributive over •; that is, x
+ (y • z) = (x + y) • (x + z).
5. For every element x ∈ B, there exists an element
x ∈ B (called the complement of x) such that (a) x
+ x = 1 and (b) x • x = 0.
6. There exist at least two elements x, y ∈ B such
that x ≠ y.

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-9

 Comparing Boolean algebra with arithmetic
and ordinary algebra
1. Huntington postulates do not include the
associative law. However, this law holds for
Boolean algebra and can be derived (for both
operators) from the other postulates.
2. The distributive law of + over • (i.e., x + (y • z) =
(x + y) • (x + z) ) is valid for Boolean algebra, but
not for ordinary algebra.
3. Boolean algebra does not have additive or
multiplicative inverses; therefore, there are no
subtraction or division operations.

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-10

4. Postulate 5 defines an operator called the
complement that is not available in ordinary
algebra.
5. Ordinary algebra deals with the real numbers,
which constitute an infinite set of elements.
Boolean algebra deals with the as yet undefined
set of elements, B, but in the two‐valued Boolean
algebra defined next (and of interest in our
subsequent use of that algebra), B is defined as
a set with only two elements, 0 and 1.

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-11

Two-valued Boolean Algebra

 B = {0,1}
 The rules of operations
x y x⋅y x y x+y x x′
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

 Closure
 The identity elements
(1) +: 0
(2)‧: 1

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-12

 The commutative laws
 The distributive laws

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-13

 Complement
 x+x'=1: 0+0'=0+1=1; 1+1'=1+0=1
 x‧x'=0: 0‧0'=0‧1=0; 1‧1'=1‧0=0
 Has two distinct elements 1 and 0, with 0 ≠ 1
 Note
 a set of two elements
 + : OR operation; ‧ : AND operation
 a complement operator: NOT operation
 Binary logic is a two-valued Boolean algebra

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-14

 Basic Theorems and Properties of Boolean
Algebra
 Duality
 the binary operators are interchanged; AND ⇔ OR
 the identity elements are interchanged; 1 ⇔ 0

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• Theorem 1(a): x+x = x
– x+x = (x+x) 1 by postulate: 2(b)
= (x+x) (x+x') 5(a)
= x+xx' 4(b)
= x+0 5(b)
=x 2(a)
– Theorem 1(b): x • x = x
– x•x=xx+0
= xx + xx'
= x (x + x')
=x•1
=x

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-16

 Theorem 2
 x + 1 = 1 • (x + 1)
= (x + x')(x + 1)
= x + x' 1
= x + x'
=1
 x • 0 = 0 by duality
 Theorem 3: (x')' = x
 Postulate 5 defines the complement of x, x + x' = 1
and x • x' = 0
 The complement of x' is x is also (x')'

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-17

 Theorem 6
 x + xy = x • 1 + xy
= x (1 +y)
=x•1
=x
 x (x + y) = x by duality
 By means of truth table
x y xy x + xy
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-18
 DeMorgan's Theorems
 (x+y)' = x' y'
 (x y)' = x' + y'

x y x+y (x+y)′ x′ y′ x′y′

0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-19

• Operator Precedence
– parentheses
– NOT
– AND
– OR
– examples
– x y' + z
– (x y + z)'

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-20

Boolean Functions
 A Boolean function
 binary variables
 binary operators OR and AND
 unary operator NOT
 parentheses
 Examples
 F1= x + y z‘
 F2 = x' y' z + x' y z + x y’

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 The truth table for F1 and F2

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-22

• Implementation with logic gates

Figure 2.1
Logic diagram for the Boolean function F1 = x + y’z

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-23

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-24
Algebraic Manipulation

 To minimize Boolean expressions

 literal: a primed or unprimed variable (an input to a
gate)
 term: an implementation with a gate
 The minimization of the number of literals and the
number of terms => a circuit with less equipment

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-25

Complement of a Function

 an interchange of 0's for 1's and 1's for 0's in the

value of F
 by DeMorgan's theorem
 (A+B+C)' = (A+X)' let B+C = X
= A'X' by DeMorgan's
= A'(B+C)'
= A'(B'C') by DeMorgan's
= A'B'C' associative
 generalizations
 (A+B+C+ ... +F)' = A'B'C' ... F'
 (ABC ... F)' = A'+ B'+C'+ ... +F'

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-26

Canonical and Standard Forms

 Minterms and Maxterms

 A minterm: an AND term consists of all literals in
their normal form or in their complement form
 For example, two binary variables x and y,
 xy, xy', x'y, x'y'
 It is also called a standard product
 n variables con be combined to form 2n minterms
 A maxterm: an OR term
 It is also call a standard sum
 2n maxterms

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-27

 each maxterm is the complement of its
corresponding minterm, and vice versa

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-28

 An Boolean function can be expressed by
 a truth table
 sum of minterms
 f1 = x'y'z + xy'z' + xyz = m1 + m4 +m7
 f2 = x'yz+ xy'z + xyz'+xyz = m3 + m5 +m6 + m7

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-29

 The complement of a Boolean function
 the minterms that produce a 0
 f1' = m0 + m2 +m3 + m5 + m6
= x'y'z'+x'yz'+x'yz+xy'z+xyz'
 f1 = (f1')'
= (x+y+z)(x+y'+z) (x+y'+z') (x'+y+z')(x'+y'+z)
= M0 M2 M3 M5 M6
 f2 = (x+y+z)(x+y+z)(x+y+z)(x+y+z)
= M 0M 1M 2M 4
 Any Boolean function can be expressed as
 a sum of minterms
 a product of maxterms
 canonical form
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-30
 Product of maxterms
 Each of the 22n functions of n binary variables
can be also expressed as a product of
maxterms.

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-31

 Conversion between Canonical Forms
 F(A,B,C) = Σ(1,4,5,6,7)
 F‘(A,B,C) = Σ(0,2,3) = m0+m1+m2
 By DeMorgan's theorem
F = (m0 + m2 + m3)’ = m’0 • m’2 • m’3
= M0M2M3 = Π(0, 2, 3)
 mj' = Mj
 sum of minterms = product of maxterms
 interchange the symbols Σ and Π and list those
numbers missing from the original form
 Σ of 1's
 Π of 0's

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-32

 Standard Forms
 Canonical forms are seldom used
 sum of products
F1 = y' + zy+ x'yz'
 product of sums
F2 = x(y'+z)(x'+y+z'+w)
 F3 = AB + C(D + E)
= AB + C(D + E) = AB + CD + CE

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-33

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-34
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-35
Other Logic Operations

 2n rows in the truth table of n binary variables

2 n
 2 functions for n binary variables
 16 functions of two binary variables

 All the new symbols except for the exclusive-OR symbol are not
in common use by digital designers

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-36

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-37
Digital Logic Gates
 Boolean expression: AND, OR and NOT
operations
 Constructing gates of other logic operations
 the feasibility and economy
 the possibility of extending gate's inputs
 the basic properties of the binary operations
 the ability of the gate to implement Boolean
functions

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-38

 Consider the 16 functions
 two are equal to a constant
 four are repeated twice
 inhibition and implication are not commutative or
associative
 the other eight: complement, transfer, AND, OR,
NAND, NOR, XOR, and equivalence are used as
standard gates
 complement: inverter
 transfer: buffer (increasing drive strength)
 equivalence: XNOR

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-39

FIGURE 2.5 Digital logic gates

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-40

FIGURE 2.5 Digital logic gates

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-41

 Extension to multiple inputs
 A gate can be extended to multiple inputs
 if its binary operation is commutative and associative
 AND and OR are commutative and associative
 (x+y)+z = x+(y+z) = x+y+z
 (x y)z = x(y z) = x y z

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-42

 NAND and NOR are commutative but not
associative => they are not extendable

[註：上半圖符號標示錯誤，第三個輸入 y 應修正為 z 。]

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-43

 Multiple NOR = a complement of OR gate Multiple
NAND = a complement of AND
 The cascaded NAND operations = sum of products
 The cascaded NOR operations = product of sums

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-44

 The XOR and XNOR gates are commutative and
associative
 Multiple-input XOR gates are uncommon?
 XOR is an odd function: it is equal to 1 if the inputs
variables have an odd number of 1's

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-45

 Positive and Negative Logic
 two signal values <=> two
logic values
 positive logic: H=1; L=0
 negative logic: H=0; L=1
 Consider a TTL gate
 a positive logic NAND gate
 a negative logic OR gate
 the positive logic is used in
this book

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-46

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-47
Integrated Circuits
 An IC (a chip)
 Examples:
 SSI: < 10 gates
 MSI: 10 ~ 100 gates
 LSI: 100 ~ xk gates
 VLSI: > xk gates
 small size (compact size)
 low cost
 low power consumption
 high reliability
 high speed

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-48

 Digital logic families: circuit technology
 TTL: transistor-transistor logic (dying?)
 ECL: emitter-coupled logic (high speed, high
power consumption)
 MOS: metal-oxide semiconductor (NMOS, high
density)
 CMOS: complementary MOS (low power)

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-49

 The characteristics of digital logic families
 Fan-out: the number of standard loads that the
ouput of a typical gate can drive
 Power dissipation
 Propagation delay: the average transition delay
time for the signal to propagate from input to
output
 Noise margin: the minimum of external noise
voltage that caused an undesirable change in the
circuit output

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-50

 CAD – Computer-Aided Design
 Millions of transistors
 Computer-based representation and aid
 Automatic the design process
 Design entry
 Schematic capture
 HDL – Hardware Description Language
 Verilog, VHDL
 Simulation
 Physical realization
 ASIC, FPGA, PLD

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-51

Web Search Topic
 Algebraic field  Inertial delay
 Boolean algebra  Propagation delay
 Boolean logic  Transport delay
 Boolean gates  TTL logic
 Bipolar transistor
 CMOS logic
 CMOS process
 Emitter-coupled logic
 Field-effect transistor

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 2-52