Switched Mode Power Conversion

Prof. Ramanarayanan. V
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Lecture - 9
Energy storage-Capacitor

Good afternoon to you all. In this session today, we will continue with the problems which
we had seen in the last session. We have a set of few problems in this session which are
relating to the devices used for power conversion. In the last problem session, we looked
at the electronic switches which are used in power conversion, namely transistors, diodes,
their conduction models, switching models, power loss and so on. We will continue in this
session on the reactive devices or energy storage devices and see a few problems related
to the energy storage devices namely capacitors, inductors and transformers.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:15)

(Refer Slide Time: 01:27)

For example, we had seen that for storing energy we use capacitors or inductors in power
converters and many times these capacitors also have parasitic resistances. In this
particular example, we have a capacitor whose value is 10 microfarad which is what you
see here, 10 microfarad capacitance. But, it also has a parasitic resistance of 0.2 ohm which
is in series with the device as shown here and this capacitor has at time t equal to 0; initially,
a voltage of 0 voltage across the terminals of the capacitor. And what you see here, as the
current waveform Ic(t) is shown here as a function of time. It is a periodic function whose
period is from here to here, which is a total of 30 microsecond is a period of this waveform
and it has a positive half of current and the negative half of current.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:24)

So, what you see here is a positive half consisting of a flat 15 amperes and on top of that
a half sinusoid totaling upto 65 amperes. And in the negative half, we do not know the
magnitude I* but, it is for duration of 10 microseconds. The first exercise here is to find
out what is I*? What is the value of the negative current I* flowing through this capacitor?
To solve this problem, we invoke the condition that in a capacitor under steady state
condition, the charge balance exists. That is over one period the charge that is given to the
capacitor is the same as the charge that is taken from the capacitor. So, this is the principle
that is used in order to solve the value of the negative current I *.

So, the strategy is to find out, what is the total charge here which is the area of this area
under this curve in the positive half, find out the area under this curve in the negative half,
equate both of them and we will get I *. This is the strategy of solving this problem. So,
let us solve that and see.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:23)

So, there is one section of current which is 15 amperes and 10 micro second. So, this area
is 150 micro coulomb, 15 *10 micro second into ampere is micro coulomb. So, this is the
first area. Then, we have a negative area which is - I * and for a gain 10 micro second. So,
this area can be written as - I * * 10 microcoulomb.

So, this is the third part. This is the first part. In the second part that we have here is the 50
amperes half sinusoid. And this area can be found out by finding out what is the average
value multiplied by the time duration, time is 10 micro second multiplied by average of a
half sinusoid is 50 * 2 / π.

So, for a sinusoidal waveform the average is given by for half sinusoid peak multiplied by
2 / π. So, this area is our second area, this can be written as 1000 / π micro coulomb. So,
if we add the positive areas and equated to the negative areas you will be able to get I *.

So, these positive areas add up to 150 micro coulomb plus 1000 / π is 318.3 micro coulomb
and that total is 468.3 micro coulomb the negative area is I * × 10 micro coulomb. So,
these two are equal.

So, we can write that I * is 46.83 amperes. So, what we have seen right now is that in a
capacitor under steady state condition the positive charge that flows into the capacitor is
the same as the negative charge that flows out of the capacitor. Using that principle, we
equate the charging coulomb equal to the discharging coulomb and find out the unknown
quantity of I * here.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:06)

In the same problem, if we go, we might also like to find out what is the voltage across the
capacitor under the steady state condition. We know that during the positive charging
capacitor voltage will build up and during the negative charging capacitor voltage will
decay. We start with an initial voltage of zero volts so it is possible to find out how this
voltage will πck up.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:40)

For example, if we see the current waveform. So, if we draw these we can see that initially
the voltage across the capacitor is 0. So, during this time the capacitor will charge up
because we are applying coulomb into the capacitor so it would charge up following a
waveform which is integral of this.

Then, during the time when no current is flowing capacitor voltage will remain constant
and during the time the current is in the opposite direction, the capacitor will discharge all
the way to 0 and then the next cycle will start.

So, the question is what is this peak voltage, Vcpeak? This can be formed out by
integrating this area and dividing by C or integrating this dividing it by C because both are
equal this one is simple and we might say that total quantity of charge that is transferred is
46.83 × 10 micro coulomb divided by the value of C which is 10 microfarad so this micro,
10 and 10. So, what we get is 46.83 volts. So, this peak voltage that is seen on the capacitor
will be 46.83 volts and it will be a linear discharge here.

And cosine as integral of sine is nearly integral of sine + constant, it is cosine + ramp and
that is what you will see here. This pickup in voltage is the same as the drop in voltage
here. So 46.83 volts is a peak voltage that is obtained across the capacitor.

So, we might go further and then see what will be the loss in the resistor in this particular
capacitor. For that the current that is flowing in the capacitor will produce loss in the
resistor and I 2 R is the resistive loss. So, you have to find out the RMS current of this and
multiplied by this R C the square of the RMS current.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:45)

We again see through some, the current consists of three parts and so, we might call this
current as A and this current as B and this current as C. So, we can find out the RMS
current by finding out what is the period 0 to T, A which is this part plus B ,which is the
sinusoidal part plus C ,which is the constant part whole square d t and when we expand
this. This will have because A exists only from 0 to T 1 to T 2. C exists only from T 3 to
𝑇2 𝑇2
T 4. We might say that ∫𝑇1 (𝐴 + 𝐵)2 + ∫𝑇1 (𝐶)2 𝑑𝑡.

The other products like A C, B etcetera will be 0 because A, B and C do not simultaneously
exist. So, these are 2 sections. This portion is a very simple square wave so, we might
simply say that this would be 46.832 multiplied by the period 10 microsecond for that
2
micro divided by total period is 30 micro. So, if we find out I rms on account of the C
component, that will be 46.832/ 3 so, this is the first part of this portion of the RMS current.
The next portion of RMS which has A and B so, we might probably re*t again, erase and
re*t this part.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:38)

This is 50 and this is 15. This duration is 10 micro and total is 30 micro so, we are now
interested in (𝐴 + 𝐵)2 . So, that can be found out A2is very simple which is 152 and that
exists for a time of 10 micro and total time is 30 micro. So, this portion is because of A
alone. B portion is a half sine. So, the RMS of half sine is peak divided by √ 2. So, if you
square it, it is 50 2 / 2 and here also it exists for 10 micro and total period is 30 micro. So,
this is the portion which is because of B alone and then there is a third term which is
2 ∫(𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑑𝑡.

So, that portion will give you A,B in constant 2 times 15 and integral of the sine so, this
portion can be written as 2 * 15 * average of sine is 50 * (2 / π )on its own base multiplied
by 10 micro second divided by 30 microsecond to get the total value so, this is the third
part which is the 2AB part.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:59)

1
So, now we can put all these things together to have a first term which is 152 × 3 second
502 1 100 1
term is × 3+ a third term is 30 × × 3 the portion corresponding to this which is
2 𝜋

46.83 / 3 so, this is I rms so, this turns out to be 1533.7 2 so, the loss is I rms 2 RC which
2 2

is 1533.7 ×0.02 which is 30.67 watts.

So, what we have in this capacitor what we have seen there is a parasitic resistor and on
this resistor on account of the current that is flowing, we have a total loss of 30.67 watts.

If we try to find out what is the peak volt ampere of this capacitor because for any reactive
element, the product of peak current and peak voltage is what is known as the reactive
power. In this particular case, the peak current is 50 + 15=65 amperes and we had seen the
voltage was 46.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:32)

So, we can roughly say that the volt ampere, peak volt ampere of this capacitor is 65 *46.
Approximately is about 3000 VA. So, the power loss in the resistor is about 1 percent of
the VA rating of the capacitor. So, this parasitic resistor is not a very significant resistor.
The VA is the product of volt and current in the capacitor. I 2 R is the loss in the capacitor.
We notice in this problem the total loss is about 1 percent of the VA rating of the capacitor
which is not a very significant quantity.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:27)

We will move on to understand the capacitive circuit elements in a little more detail. What
we see here is a capacitor whose value is as before, 10 microfarad and this capacitor also
has a parasitic inductance of 75 nano henry and parasitic resistance of 30 milliohm and in
a circuit schematic it is shown as the capacitor that is desired and the parasitic value of
inductance which is part of this capacitor and the parasitic value of resistor which is part
of this capacitor.

So, in order to understand the significance of the unwanted parasitic inductor or resistor in
a capacitance or a parasitic capacitance and resistance in a desired inductor, it is good to
plot the impedance diagram of the capacitor and try to get some insight into the unwanted
components. For example, in this particular example, we have a capacitance which is 10
microfarad.

1
So, it will have an impedance of 𝑍𝐶 = 𝐶𝜔and it has a parasitic inductance of 75 nano henry.

So, there will be a 𝑍𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿, where ω is the frequency that is being considered and L is the
parasitic value and the impedance of the resistance is 30 milli ohm. The resistive
component is independent of the frequency, this portion is independent of the frequency
1
but, the capacitive component 𝐶𝜔 and the parasitic inductance ω L these are functions of

impedances, functions of frequencies so, what we try to do is to plot the total impedance
𝑍 = 𝑍𝐶 + 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑅 in the series combination in the form of an impedance as a function of
frequency.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:03)

1
For example, if we try to find out 𝑍𝐶 = 𝐶𝜔, magnitude of this this can be plotted as a

function of ω in a logarithmic ω scale we see that every time ω increases by a factor of 10

the capacitive impedance as drops by a factor of 10. This can be shown on a dB ohm scale,
an impedance which is a straight line dropπng at 20 dB ohm per decade and this will cross
0 dB line or 1 ohm line at a frequency which is 1 / C for a C equal to 10 microfarad this
will be 100,000 radian per second.

So, we would say that this is the magnitude of 𝑍𝐶 as a function of ω. It is a straight line
1
which has a slope of - 20 d B per decade and it is crossing 0 dB ohm line at 𝐶, which is

100,000 radian per second for a value of 10 microfarad.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:38)

In the same way it is possible to find out the impedance for L. Z L magnitude is ωL. So,
we will see that the impedance will increase with frequency. So, this impedance will be, if
we plot it as d B ohm and log of frequency with 0 dB line here 0 dB ohm line here it will
have a + 20 d B ohm per decade. What this means is, every time the frequency increases
by a factor of 10 on this scale, the impedance will increase by a factor of 20 dB and the
cross over the frequency at which the impedance is 1 ohm or 0 dB ohm is 1 / L and in this
particular case for an L of 75 nano henry, this will be 13.33 mega radian per second. So,
this would be the impedance of L as a function of frequency.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:54)

Next we may plot the resistance R as a function of frequency. R is independent of the

frequency whose value is 30 milli ohm. So, if we represent this in dB ohm this will be at -
30.5 d B ohm, this is 20log10 , 30 milliohm is .03ohm. So, if you evaluate this it turns out
to be - 30.5 d B ohm. So, we see that our capacitance has really three behaviors. At very
low frequency it behaves like a capacitance. At very high frequency, it behaves like an
inductance. And it also has at all frequencies, a resistance value of thirty milliohm.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:17)

So, if we put all three and try to find out the overall behavior R, C, L, C this is 100,000
radian per second, this is 13.33 mega radian per second and this is 30 milliohm or - 30.5
d B ohm and because this is a series circuit R, C and L at any frequency whichever
component is the highest value will dominate.

So, you will find that the actual impedance will follow the capacitance at the low frequency
because it is the highest of the three and it will follow the inductance because it is a highest
1
of the three and at the resonant frequency which is 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶. In this particular case it is 1.154

mega radian per second at the resonant frequency, the capacitive impedance and inductive
impedance cancel.

So, you have what is left is only resistance so, what you will find is the impedance will
follow a curve like this, which is a standard resonance curve that, at this frequency this
circuit has a resonant frequency at 1.154, the capacitance behaves like a good capacitance
in this range, but this capacitor behaves almost like an inductance in this range and in this
range it is almost like a resistance.

So, this capacitor can be used satisfactorily in this frequency range which is probably one
or two decades less than the 1.154 mega radian per second. So, probably upto about
100,000 radian per second. This capacitor is a good capacitor beyond that there is a
resonance and even beyond that it is pure inductance. So, this type of impedance diagrams
are very useful in evaluating circuit elements along with all its parasitic quantities.

So, from this it is possible to identify which is the frequency range in which the circuit
element behaves close to the ideal and which are the frequency regions where this circuit
element is dominated by the parasitics and it is better to avoid those areas where the
parasitics dominate the overall performance.
(Refer Slide Time: 32:32)

Now, we will move on to one or two more problems we had seen in the theory of inductors,
transformers etcetera. Mostly we were using square wave type of voltage for excitation to
a transformer or square wave for excitation of inductor and so on.

But a lot of applications are there where the transformers are excited with the sinusoidal
voltage and in such situations the relationship between the voltage across the winding of
the transformer and the size of the transformer or a little different from what we had seen
before.

For example, what you see here is the voltage applied to the winding of a transformer and
this voltage because V is related to the rate of change of flux through the number of turns,
𝑡1
the flux is really ∫0 𝑁 𝑉𝑑𝑡 from whatever ∅0.

So, what we see here is the flux waveform is an integral of the voltage waveform or
alternately the voltage waveform is the derivative of the flux waveform with the scaling
factor of N.

For example, in this case where the flux has 0 slope, the voltage is 0 and where the flux
has a maximum slope, voltage is maximum and where the flux again reaches the maximum
value, positive, the voltage has come to 0. The flux is a negative cosine waveform and the
voltage is a positive voltage waveform. See in such situations we would like to know, what
is the relationship for the design of such transformers? Let us look at the situation here.
(Refer Slide Time: 34:54)

We can say that the flux as a function of time, in the previous example is a - cosine
waveform with some peak which is a ∅ M. You can see from the previous curve there is a
∅ M and it is a cosine waveform and you can see a time t equal to 0, flux is - ∅ and at when
𝑑∅
t = π flux becomes = 5 so, if we find out what is 𝑉(𝑡) = 𝑁 𝑑𝑡 , which is N multiplied by

the derivative of this which is ∅ M ω sin (ω t). This is V ( t). This can be written as 2 π f ∅
MN sin ω t. See if the flux is a sinusoidal waveform, the voltage is also a sinusoidal
waveform but, with a phase difference.

Flux is a cosine- cosine waveform and voltage is a sin waveform. So, if we write the RMS
value of the voltage that is equal to 2 π / √ 2, f, ∅ can be written as maximum flux density
multiplied by the area of the cross section because in the magnetic circuit of the
transformer, the maximum flux density multiplied by the area of cross section of the core
will be the maximum flux multiplied by N because we are talking about RMS.RMS is
nothing but, the peak divided by √ 2 this can be written as V rms is 4.44. This first term 2 π
/ √ 2 is 4.44 f B m A c and number of turns. This is the famous voltage equation for a
transformer when we excite the transformer with sinusoidal voltage.

The RMS voltage of the winding is a related to the winding number of turns, the core area
of cross section, the maximum flux density and the frequency of excitation. The RMS
voltage is directly proportional to every one of these quantities and the constant of
proportionality is 4.44. So, this is one of the relationships that we will use in order to find
out what is the size of the transformer.

(Refer Slide Time: 37:42)

In this particular example, we can go a little further to see supposing if the transformer has
a core and the winding primary and secondary are arranged like that. So, the area of the
window in which the winding is organized is the window area and that has the primary
multiplied by the area of cross section of the primary conductors plus secondary multiplied
by the area of cross section of the secondary conductors. This is the total copper area, but
only a fraction of the window is utilized for this.

So, we might say that the window area that is utilized for accommodating the copper in
the conductors is a fraction of the window area that is the sum of the primary copper area
plus the secondary copper area. Primary copper area is primary turns multiplied by primary
area of cross section. Secondary copper area is secondary turns multiplied by secondary
cross section area.

We had also seen that the voltage ratio and the current ratio are related to the number of
turns. So, this can be easily seen to be 2 N1 A1 because the cross sectional area of the
secondary will be smaller if the voltage is more, but in which case current will be less and
the number of turns will be more so this N 1 / N 2 is same as V 1 / V 2 is the same as I 2 /
I 1 with that relationship, it is possible to find out that this total areas 2 times the primary
area.
This can be written as 2 times N 1 and primary area is primary current RMS divided by
current density, the maximum current density that can be passed for that. Now the same
steps we had followed for square wave, but the sinusoidal kind of excitation is more
common in distribution type of power supplies.

(Refer Slide Time: 40:33)

And this example can be seen to have V rms = 4.44 f B m A c N 1, it is for primary. And then
we had also seen that 2 N 1 I rms / J = K w A w. So, if you multiply both these equations you
will get V rms I rms, this quantity is the VA rating of the transformer, volt ampere rating of
the transformer. It is related to A c A w, or the product of core area and window area-these
two terms. All the other terms-this N 1 and N 1 will cancel when we multiply both of them.
All these other terms like 2.22 J B m f k w. So, these are the other terms.

Or we might say that the size of the transformer is related to current density, flux density
maximum, frequency of operation, window space factor. In the square wave excitation,
we were getting two here in this place and in sinusoidal excitation that number 2.22. This
is the difference between sinusoidal excitation and square wave excitation. Now using this
relationship it is possible to design transformers for sinusoidal excitation.
(Refer Slide Time: 42:45)

Let us see an example where we want to design a transformer whose VA rating is 150, that
is RMS voltage multiplied by Rms current is 150 and it is a 1 : 1 transformer. That is
primary voltage and secondary voltage are equal. Such transformers are used mainly as
isolation transformers. The purpose is to electrically isolate, but not modify the frequency
or voltage.

Such isolation transformers will have a turns ratio of 1 : 1 and this particular example the
transformer that we want is a 50 hertz transformer and it has a primary rating of 230 volts
and because it is a 1 : 1 transformer secondary voltage is also 230 volts.

So, this transformer is excited with 230 volts RMS, 50 hertz sinusoidal voltage and the
secondary is also 230 volts 50 hertz single phase AC. So, in such a transformer we would
like to know how do you design these transformers? What is the core to be used? How
many turns are to be used for primary? How many turns are to be used for secondary?
What will be the cross section of wire for primary? What will be the cross section of wire
for secondary? This is what we mean by designing a transformer.
(Refer Slide Time: 44:30)

In this particular example, we might go through this process and see that A c A w is the
product which is V rms I rms and that product is 150 VA which is given to us, divided by
2.22 f J B m K w.

And this is, we might take frequency is 50. The current density can be taken as 2.5 * 10 6
ampere per meter square. It is 1 meter square of copper conductor can carry a current as
high as 2.5*10 6 amperes. And the iron used for the core can withstand without saturation,
a magnetic flux density as high as 1.2 tesla and we might say that the window space factor,
we are able to utilize 35 percent of the window effectively in the transformer.

So, we know all the quantities here and this A c A w, we calculate this number. It turns
out to be 1287001 𝑚𝑚 4 , 12 lakhs 87 thousand 1 𝑚𝑚 4 . How do we select a core for this
application?
(Refer Slide Time: 46:34)

For that, we have here a, a table which shows different types of magnetic cores listed for
each. For example, that type L202 core has an iron area of 12.3 mm square and window
area of 27.7 mm square. So, that the product is the product of these two will be the 𝑚𝑚 4 .
In this, these are all organized in increasing area product, increasing values of that.

(Refer Slide Time: 47:10)

And the number that we wanted is 12 lakhs 87 thousand, the immediate next size available
here is the T.16 which has 15 lakhs 85 thousand 900 and 13 𝑚𝑚 4 . So, this is a suitable.
The next one is too big and the one before that is too small. So, we might select the size
T.16 for this application.

(Refer Slide Time: 47:43)

So, we say that A c A w tells us T.16 can be used for this particular application. And for
that core, the iron area is 1451 and the window area is 1092. So, we might also write down
that quantity here 1451 and 10 92. A c is 1452 m m square and A w is 10 91, 10 93 mm2.
So, this is the core area that is valid for this type T.16 and this is a window area. Now it is
very easy to select N1 RMS voltage of 230 volts, = 4.44 *frequency which is f, B m is 1.2
tesla, A c is 1452 * 10 - 6 meter square into number of turns. So, from this relationship it is
possible to find out our N1 230 / 4.44 50 1.2 14 52 10 power - 6 and that is 500 and 95
turns. And because this is a 1 : 1 transformer, the primary and secondary are equal. N1 is
equal to N 2 that is 500 and 95 turns.
(Refer Slide Time: 50:18)

We might go to the next step and see, what is the RMS current is 150 VA divided by 230
volts and that number is 0.65 amperes. So, with the current density of 2.5 ampere per
millimeter square, this leads to wire cross section of 0.65 / 2.5 = 0.26 millimeter square.
So how do we select this cross section of the wire? We again go back to the table that we
had here. So, if I open this wire data here which is given.

(Refer Slide Time: 52:13)

So, this is a table which relates the cross section of the wire with the size in standard wire
gauge.
(Refer Slide Time: 52:24)

So, what we need is 0.26 millimeter square. As you come on this table, what you see here
as 0.29 size 23. What you see here is a little more than what we want in terms of cross
sectional area. So, the last column is millimeter square of cross sectional area and the first
column is the standard wire gauge number.

(Refer Slide Time: 52:49)

So, what we can now do is for this, we might say that 23 SWG wire is what is suitable.
(Refer Slide Time: 53:02)

So, if we go back, we might say that the transformer design is with T 16 core which is EI
core which has an A c of 1452 m m square, then Aw of 10 92 millimeter square. In this
we need to put primary a turn of 595 turns and a secondary of 595 turns and then cross
section of primary will be 23 SWG and the secondary cross section also is 23 SWG. That
is because this is a 1 : 1 transformer. So, this transformer is an isolation transformer with
150 VA, 230 volts, 50 hertz with the core of T.16 with 595 turns for primary and secondary
with the 23 gauge wire for the cross section of primary as well as secondary.

(Refer Slide Time: 54:35)

Now, the design of the transformer followed the similar kind of procedures that we had
seen earlier then we were explaining about the transformer, that find out the core product,
select a core, then for that core find out A c. Find out the number of turns N 1, N 2 etcetera
and then find out the currents I 1, I 2 etcetera.

Then, find out the cross sectional area Aw1, Aw2 and then find it out in the standard wire
gauge. So, this is the sequence in which we had seen in theory how the design is done. We
had seen a small example, where we calculated just the basic design the first level design
which is core plus the wire size plus the number of turns. It is also possible to find out the
mean length of a turn, total length of primary, total length of secondary, the parasitic
resistance and so on.

(Refer Slide Time: 55:44)

So, what we will do in the next few, in the next session is to look at one or two more of
these inductor designs where we come across coupled inductor as well as non-linear
inductor. So, right now I will stop with this. But in the next session, we will go into design
of coupled inductors as well as design of non-linear inductors. Many applications you may
have to tailor your inductor in order to meet certain non-linear characteristics as well. So,
we will see in the next session some of these aspects and after that will get back to power
converters.

Thank you very much.