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INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
IN CONTEXTS
This page intentionally left blank
INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
IN CONTEXTS
SEVENTH EDITION

Judith N. Martin
Arizona State University
Thomas K. Nakayama
Northeastern University
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXTS, SEVENTH EDITION

Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2018 by McGraw-Hill
Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2013, 2010, and 2006.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or
retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any
network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

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ISBN 978-0-07-352393-4
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Martin, Judith N., author. | Nakayama, Thomas K., author.

Interculturalcommunication in contexts / Judith N. Martin, Arizona
State University, Thomas K. Nakayama, Northeastern University.
Seventh edition. | New York, NY : McGraw-Hill Education, [2018]
LCCN 2016052759 | ISBN 9780073523934 (alk. paper)
LCSH: Intercultural communication. | Cultural awareness. | Multiculturalism.
LCC HM1211 .M373 2018 | DDC 303.48/2—dc23
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 About the Authors

The two authors of this book come to intercultural communication from very dif-
ferent backgrounds and very different research traditions. Yet we believe that these
differences offer a unique approach to thinking about intercultural communication.
We briefly introduce ourselves here, but we hope that by the end of the book you will
have a much more complete understanding of who we are.
Judith Martin grew up in Mennonite communities, primarily in Delaware and
Pennsylvania. She has studied at the Université de Grenoble in France and has
taught in Algeria. She received her doctorate at the Penn-
sylvania State University. By background and training,
she is a social scientist who has focused on intercultural
communication on an interpersonal level and has studied
how people’s communication is affected as they move or
sojourn between international locations. More recently,
she has studied how people’s cultural backgrounds influ-
ence their online communication. She has taught at the
State University of New York at Oswego, the Univer-
sity of Minnesota, the University of New Mexico, and
Arizona State University. She enjoys gardening, hiking in
the Arizona desert, traveling, and Netflix.
Tom Nakayama grew up mainly in Georgia, at a time
when the Asian American presence was much less than
it is now. He has studied at the Université de Paris and
various universities in the United States. He received his
doctorate from the University of Iowa. By background
and training, he is a critical rhetorician who views inter-
cultural communication in a social context. He has taught
at the California State University at San Bernardino and
Arizona State University. He has done a Fulbright at the
Université de Mons in Belgium. He is now professor of
communication studies at Northeastern University in
Boston. He lives in Providence, Rhode Island and loves
taking the train to campus. He loves the change of seasons in New England, espe-
cially autumn.
The authors’ very different life stories and research programs came together at
Arizona State University. We have each learned much about intercultural commu-
nication through our own experiences, as well as through our i­ntellectual pursuits.
Judith has a well-established record of social science approaches to intercultural
v
vi About the Authors

communication. Tom, in contrast, has taken a nontraditional approach to understand-

ing intercultural communication by emphasizing critical perspectives. We believe
that these differences in our lives and in our research offer complementary ways of
understanding intercultural communication.
For more than 20 years, we have engaged in many different dialogues about
intercultural communication—focusing on our experiences, thoughts, ideas, and
analyses—which led us to think about writing this textbook. But our interest was not
primarily sparked by these dialogues; rather, it was our overall interest in improving
intercultural relations that motivated us. We believe that communication is an impor-
tant arena for improving those relations. By helping people become more aware as
intercultural communicators, we hope to make this a better world for all of us.
 Brief Contents

PART I FOUNDATIONS OF INTERCULTURAL

COMMUNICATION 1
Chapter 1 Why Study Intercultural Communication? 2
Chapter 2 The History of the Study of Intercultural
Communication 43
Chapter 3 Culture, Communication, Context, and Power 82
Chapter 4 History and Intercultural Communication 121

PART II INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

PROCESSES 165
Chapter 5 Identity and Intercultural Communication 166
Chapter 6 Language and Intercultural Communication 223
Chapter 7 Nonverbal Codes and Cultural Space 273

PART III INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

APPLICATIONS 315
Chapter 8 Understanding Intercultural Transitions 316
Chapter 9 Popular Culture and Intercultural
Communication 361
Chapter 10 Culture, Communication, and Intercultural
Relationships 395
Chapter 11 Culture, Communication, and Conflict 440
Chapter 12 Striving for Engaged and Effective Intercultural
Communication 478

vii
This page intentionally left blank
Contents

Preface xix
To the Student xxxi

PART I FOUNDATIONS OF INTERCULTURAL

COMMUNICATION 1

Chapter 1 Why Study Intercultural Communication? 2

The Self-Awareness Imperative 3

The Demographic Imperative 5

Changing U.S. Demographics 5
Changing Immigration Patterns 6

The Economic Imperative 15

The Technological Imperative 19

Technology and Human Communication 19
Access to Communication Technology 24

The Peace Imperative 25

The Ethical Imperative 29
Relativity versus Universality 29
Being Ethical Students of Culture 32

Internet Resources 35

Summary 36
Discussion Questions 37
Activities 37
Key Words 38
References 38
Credits 41
ix
x Contents

Chapter 2 The History of the Study of Intercultural

Communication 43
The Early Development of the Discipline 44
Nonverbal Communication 45
Application of Theory 45
An Emphasis on International Settings 45
An Interdisciplinary Focus 46
Perception and Worldview of the Researcher 48

Three Approaches to Studying

Intercultural Communication 49
The Social Science Approach 51
The Interpretive Approach 57
The Critical Approach 64

A Dialectical Approach to Understanding Culture

and Communication 69
Combining the Three Traditional Paradigms:
The Dialectical Approach 69
Six Dialectics of Intercultural Communication 72
Keeping a Dialectical Perspective 74

Internet Resources 75

Summary 75
Discussion Questions 76
Activities 76
Key words 76
References 77
Credits 80

Chapter 3  ulture, Communication, Context,

C
and Power 82
What Is Culture? 83
Social Science Definitions: Culture as Learned,
Group-Related Perceptions 86
Interpretive Definitions: Culture as Contextual Symbolic
Patterns of Meaning, Involving Emotions 87
 Contents xi

Critical Definitions: Culture as Heterogeneous,

Dynamic, and a Contested Zone 89

What Is Communication? 91

The Relationship Between Culture

and Communication 92
How Culture Influences Communication 94
How Communication Reinforces Culture 106
Communication as Resistance to the Dominant
Cultural System 109

The Relationship Between Communication

and Context 110
The Relationship Between Communication and Power 111
Internet Resources 116

Summary 117
Discussion Questions 117
Activities 118
Key Words 118
References 118
Credits 120

Chapter 4 History and Intercultural Communication 121

From History to Histories 123
Political, Intellectual, and Social Histories 124
Family Histories 125
National Histories 126
Cultural-Group Histories 128

History, Power, and Intercultural Communication 129

The Power of Texts 130
The Power of Other Histories 132
Power in Intercultural Interactions 134

History and Identity 134

Histories as Stories 135
Nonmainstream Histories 136
xii Contents

Intercultural Communication and History 147

Antecedents of Contact 148
The Contact Hypothesis 149
Negotiating Histories Dialectically in Interaction 155

Internet Resources 156

Summary 157
Discussion Questions 158
Activities 158
Key words 159
References 159
Credits 162

PART II INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

PROCESSES 165

Chapter 5 Identity and Intercultural

Communication 166
Thinking Dialectically About Identity 167
The Social Science Perspective 168
The Interpretive Perspective 171
The Critical Perspective 172

Identity Development Issues 176

Minority Identity Development 178
Majority Identity Development 180

Social and Cultural Identities 183

Gender Identity 183
Sexual Identity 186
Age Identity 186
Racial and Ethnic Identities 188
Characteristics of Whiteness 191
Religious Identity 195
Class Identity 197
National Identity 199
Regional Identity 201
 Contents xiii

Personal Identity 202

Multicultural People 202

Identity, Stereotypes, and Prejudice 208

Identity and Communication 212

Internet Resources 214

Summary 215
Discussion Questions 215
Activities 216
Key words 216
References 217
Credits 221

Chapter 6 Language and Intercultural

Communication 223
Social Science Perspective on Language 225
Language and Perception 226
Language and Thought: Metaphor 229
Cultural Variations in Communication Style 230
Influence of Interactive Media Use on Language
and Communication Style 234
Slang and Humor in Language Use 235

Interpretive Perspective on Language 238

Variations in Contextual Rules 238

Critical Perspective on Language 240

Co-Cultural Communication 240
Discourse and Social Structure 244
The “Power” Effects of Labels 244

Moving Between Languages 247

Multilingualism 247
Translation and Interpretation 251

Language and Identity 255

Language and Cultural Group Identity 255
Code Switching 257
xiv Contents

Language Politics and Policies 260

Language and Globalization 263

Internet Resources 266

Summary 267
Discussion Questions 268
Activities 268
Key words 269
References 269
Credits 271

Chapter 7 Nonverbal Codes and Cultural

Space 273
Thinking Dialectically About Nonverbal Communication:
Defining Nonverbal Communication 275
Comparing Verbal and Nonverbal Communication 276
What Nonverbal Behavior Communicates 277

The Universality of Nonverbal Behavior 279

Recent Research Findings 279
Nonverbal Codes 281
Stereotype, Prejudice, and Discrimination 292
Semiotics and Nonverbal Communication 295

Defining Cultural Space 297

Cultural Identity and Cultural Space 298
Changing Cultural Space 303
Postmodern Cultural Spaces 304

Internet Resources 308

Summary 308
Discussion Questions 309
Activities 309
Key Words 309
References 310
Credits 313
 Contents xv

PART III INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

APPLICATIONS 315

Chapter 8 Understanding Intercultural

Transitions 316
Thinking Dialectically About Intercultural
Transitions 319
Types of Migrant Groups 321
Voluntary Migrants 321
Involuntary Migrants 323

Migrant–Host Relationships 325

Assimilation 326
Separation 327
Integration 330
Cultural Hybridity 331

Cultural Adaptation 332

Social Science Approach 333
Interpretive Approach 338
Critical Approach: Contextual Influences 347

Internet Resources 353

Summary 353
Discussion Questions 354
Activities 354
Key words 354
References 355
Credits 358

Chapter 9 Popular Culture and Intercultural

Communication 361
Learning About Cultures Without Personal
Experience 363
The Power of Popular Culture 363
What Is Popular Culture? 364
xvi Contents

Consuming and Resisting Popular Culture 369

Consuming Popular Culture 369
Resisting Popular Culture 371

Representing Cultural Groups 374

Migrants’ Perceptions of Mainstream Culture 376
Popular Culture and Stereotyping 377

U.S. Popular Culture and Power 380

Global Circulation of Images and Commodities 381
Cultural Imperialism 384

Internet Resources 388

Summary 388
Discussion Questions 389
Activities 389
Key Words 390
References 390
Credits 392

Chapter 10 Culture, Communication, and Intercultural

Relationships 395
Benefits and Challenges of Intercultural
Relationships 397
Benefits 397
Challenges 399

Thinking Dialectically About Intercultural

Relationships 403
Personal–Contextual Dialectic 404
Differences–Similarities Dialectic 405
Cultural–Individual Dialectic 405
Privilege–Disadvantage Dialectic 406
Static–Dynamic Dialectic 406
History/Past–Present/Future Dialectic 406

Intercultural Relationships 407

Social Science Approach: Cross-Cultural Differences 407
 Contents xvii

Interpretive Approach: Communicating in Intercultural

Relationships 413
Critical Approach: Contextual Influences 428

Internet Resources 432

Summary 432
Discussion Questions 433
Activities 433
Key Words 434
References 434
Credits 437

Chapter 11 Culture, Communication,

and Conflict 440
Characteristics of Intercultural Conflict 443
Ambiguity 443
Language 444
Contradictory Conflict Styles 444

The Social Science Approach to Conflict 446

Cultural Values and Conflict 447
Religion and Conflict 447
Family Influences 449
Intercultural Conflict Styles 451
Gender, Ethnicity, and Conflict Styles 454

Interpretive and Critical Approaches

to Social Conflict 455
Social Movements 457
Historical and Political Contexts 458

Managing Intercultural Conflict 461

Dealing with Interpersonal Conflict 461
Mediation 468
Peacebuilding 471

Internet Resources 472

Summary 473
xviii Contents

Discussion Questions 474

Activities 474
Key Words 474
References 474
Credits 477

Chapter 12 Striving for Engaged and Effective

Intercultural Communication 478
The Components of Competence 479
Social Science Perspective: Individual Components 479
Interpretive Perspective: Competence in Contexts 488
Critical Perspective: Competence for Whom? 490

Applying Knowledge About

Intercultural Communication 491
Entering into Dialogue 492
Becoming Interpersonal Allies 494
Building Coalitions 496
Social Justice and Transformation 497
Forgiveness 501

What the Future Holds 503

Internet Resources 507

Summary 508
Discussion Questions 508
Activities 509
Key Words 509
References 509
Credits 512

Name Index I-1

Subject Index I-9
 Preface

THE INCREASING IMPORTANCE OF INTERCULTURAL

COMMUNICATION IN A RAPIDLY CHANGING WORLD

While the rise of digital mobile technology has provided instant connectivity to
people and cultures that were once distant and isolated, worldwide political and
economic uncertainties highlight the increasing importance of intercultural com-
munication. There are now more people displaced from their homelands than ever
before—65 million or 34,000 people per day fleeing war, droughts, and other calam-
ities (UNHCR Global Trends, 2016). Increasing ethnic and religious tensions and
the weak world economy lead us to question the ability of humanity to live peace-
fully and to doubt the benefits of globalization. How will the expansion of globaliza-
tion be affected? If the euro fails, what happens to Europe’s economy, and what kind
of impact will there be on the exchange of products and movement of people around
the world? How will economic changes influence where tourists, businesspeople,
students, immigrants, and refugees come from and where they go? What languages
will be studied, and what is the future role of English in the world? Changes such as
these are likely to influence the shape of intercultural communication.
When we look back upon the international and intercultural situation at the time
we first began writing this book, we recognize how rapidly the world has changed
and how, as a result, these changes have raised even more pressing issues for inter-
cultural communication scholars and practitioners. We could not have predicted that
people in the United Kingdom would vote to leave the European Union nor that
the United States would still be involved in conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan after
25 years. The world will continue to change in ways that we cannot predict, but we
must face this dynamic world open to new challenges, rather than retreating to ways
of life that are rapidly disappearing.
In this climate, the study of intercultural communication takes on special sig-
nificance, because it offers tools to help us as we grapple with questions about reli-
gious and ethnic differences, hate crimes, environmental disasters, and many other
related issues. Those who study, teach, and conduct research in intercultural com-
munication face an increasing number of challenges and difficult questions: Are we
actually reinforcing stereotypes in discussing cultural differences? Is there a way to
understand the dynamics of intercultural communication without resorting to lists
of instructions? How do we understand the broader social, political, and historical
contexts when we teach intercultural communication? How can we use our inter-
cultural communication skills to help enrich our lives and the lives of those around
us? Can intercultural communication scholars promote a better world for all?
xix
xx Preface

Such questions are driven by rapidly changing cultural dynamics—both within

the United States and abroad. On the one hand, natural disasters like earthquakes in
Chile, Indonesia, Nepal, and elsewhere, flooding in Europe and Sri Lanka and else-
where, deadly Ebola outbreak in West Africa, and the spread of the Zika virus have
elicited a variety of positive responses, including tremendous caring and compas-
sion across intercultural and international divide. On the other hand, the increasing
number of terrorist attacks in many countries, the tightening of national borders in
response to global migration, conflicts between police and communities of color in
the United states, and the racist and hateful content posted on social media exem-
plify continuing intergroup conflict. These extremes demonstrate the dynamic nature
of culture and communication.
We initially wrote this book in part to address questions and issues such as
these. Although the foundation of intercultural communication theory and research
has always been interdisciplinary, the field is now informed by three identifiable and
competing paradigms, or “ways of thinking.” In this book, we attempt to integrate
three different research approaches: (1) the traditional social-psychological approach
that emphasizes cultural differences and how these differences influence communi-
cation, (2) the interpretive approach that emphasizes understanding communication
in context, and (3) the more recent critical approach that underscores the impor-
tance of power and historical ­context to understanding intercultural communication,
including postcolonial approaches.
We believe that each of these approaches has important contributions to
make to the understanding of intercultural communication and that they oper-
ate in interconnected and sometimes contradictory ways. In this seventh edition,
we have further strengthened our dialectical approach, which encourages stu-
dents to think critically about intercultural phenomena as seen from these v­ arious
perspectives.
Throughout this book, we acknowledge that there are no easy solutions to
the difficult challenges of intercultural communication. Sometimes our discus-
sions raise more questions than they answer. We believe that this is perfectly
reasonable. The field of intercultural communication is changing, but the rela-
tionship between culture and communication is as well—because that relation-
ship is, and probably always will be, complex and dynamic. We live in a rapidly
changing world where intercultural contact will continue to increase, creating
an increased potential for both conflict and cooperation. We hope that this book
provides the tools needed to think about intercultural communication, as a way
of understanding the challenges and recognizing the advantages of living in a
multicultural world.

References
UNHCR Global Trends (2016, June 16). Retrieved June 29, 2016, from https://
s3.amazonaws.com/unhcrsharedmedia/2016/2016-06-20-global-trends/2016-06-14
-Global-Trends-2015.pdf.
 Preface xxi

SIGNATURE FEATURES OF THE BOOK

Students usually come to the field of intercultural communication with some knowl-
edge about many different cultural groups, including their own. Their understanding
often is based on observations drawn from the Internet, social media, television,
movies, books, personal experiences, news media, and other sources. In this book,
we hope to move students gradually to the notion of a dialectical framework for
thinking about cultural issues. That is, we show that knowledge can be acquired in
many different ways—through social scientific studies, experience, media reports,
and so on—but these differing forms of knowledge need to be seen dynamically and
in relation to each other. We offer students a number of ways to begin thinking criti-
cally about intercultural communication in a dialectical manner. These include:
⬛⬛ An explicit discussion of differing research approaches to intercultural commu-
nication, focusing on both the strengths and limitations of each
⬛⬛ Ongoing attention to history, popular culture, and identity as important factors
in understanding intercultural communication
⬛⬛ Student Voices boxes in which students relate their own experiences and share
their thoughts about various intercultural communication issues
⬛⬛ Point of View boxes in which diverse viewpoints from news media, research
studies, and other public forums are presented
⬛⬛ Incorporation of the authors’ own personal experiences to highlight ­particular
aspects of intercultural communication

NEW TO THE SEVENTH EDITION

⬛⬛ To reflect the increasing doubts about the benefits of globalization, we

continue to emphasize its importance to intercultural communication. For
example, in Chapter 1, we discuss how globalization and related economic
­recessions influence intercultural communication. In Chapter 8, we provide
new examples of the impact of war and terrorism on the continuing worldwide
migration and the resulting intercultural encounters.
⬛⬛ The continuing and expanding influence of communication technology in our
daily lives is addressed by new material in Chapter 1 acknowledging the increas-
ing (and dialectic) role, negative and positive, of social media in intercultural
encounters, and social media examples are interwoven throughout the book.
⬛⬛ Our expanded discussion of the implications of religious identity and belief
systems in ­Chapters 1 and 11 is prompted by continued awareness of the
important role religion plays in intercultural communication.
⬛⬛ We continue to emphasize the important roles that institutions play in intercultural
contact. In Chapter 8, we address the role of institutions in supporting or discour-
aging refugees, as well as immigrants and other kinds of intercultural transitions.
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The seventh edition of Intercultural Communication in Contexts is now available online

with Connect, McGraw-Hill Education’s integrated assignment and assessment platform.
Connect also offers SmartBook for the new edition, which is the first adaptive reading
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questions, and discussion topics

CHAPTER-BY-CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Intercultural Communication in Contexts is organized into three parts: Part I, “Foun-

dations of Intercultural Communication”; Part II, “Intercultural Communication
Processes”; and Part III, “Intercultural Communication Applications.”
Part I, “Foundations of Intercultural Communication,” explores the history of the
field and presents various approaches to this area of study, including our own.
We begin Chapter 1 with a focus on the dynamics of social life and global conditions
as a rationale for the study of intercultural communication. We introduce ethics in this
chapter to illustrate its centrality to any discussion of intercultural interaction. In this edi-
tion, we have emphasized the importance of social justice and engagement with commu-
nities including indigenous and homeless and introduced the notion of cultural humility as
an important element in intercultural effectiveness. We have also updated our discussion
of the impact of globalization and immigration policies on intercultural encounters.
In Chapter 2, we introduce the history of intercultural communication as an area
of study as well as the three paradigms that inform our knowledge about intercul-
tural interactions. We establish the notion of a dialectical approach so that students
can begin to make connections and form relationships among the paradigms. We
describe and illustrate these approaches through the very relevant case study of the
current global migration, including the impacts on the various cultural groups who
have left their countries and also on host communities in the destination countries,
including the related short- and long-term political implications.
In Chapter 3, we focus on four basic intercultural communication components—
culture, communication, context, and power. In this edition, we’ve updated the Hofstede
framework to reflect recent research and included a discussion of cyberspace as a cultural
context. We have also provided new examples of interpretive ethnographic research and
extended our discussion of the critical impact of social media on cultural resistance.
Chapter 4 focuses on the importance of historical forces in shaping contemporary
intercultural interaction. We have added the concept of altered histories to discuss the
ways that the past has been retold to serve certain cultural needs and interests. We also
highlight the importance of using careful language when communicating about the past,
by pointing to an error made by President Obama that soured relations with Poland.
 Preface xxv

Part II, “Intercultural Communication Processes,” establishes the factors that

contribute to the dynamics of intercultural communication: identity, language, and
nonverbal codes.
Chapter 5, on identity, has extended coverage of religious identity, multicul-
tural identity, and sexual identity (in addition to gender identity). This chapter now
includes a deeper exploration of cisgender and transgender identity, and its current
status in various cultures. We also introduce the many different terms used to attempt
to capture the diversity of gendered and sexual identities. We also discuss microag-
gression as a communication strategy used to demean another identity in subtle ways.
Chapter 6 addresses language issues, with new examples of slang, the evolu-
tion of new Englishes as well as code switching. There are also new discussions of
the impact of digital translation tools on language learning and the impact of social
media on language and communication styles.
Chapter 7 focuses on nonverbal codes and cultural spaces and includes new
examples of cultural variations in nonverbal behavior, including emojis. There is
also a discussion of recent research questioning the universality of facial expres-
sions, and examples of nonverbal microagressions and the implications for intercul-
tural communication.
Part III, “Intercultural Communication Applications,” helps students apply the
knowledge of intercultural communication presented in the first two parts.
Chapter 8 addresses intercultural transitions. In this edition, we have added more
focus on refugees. We have also added a discussion on the problems of integration
and assimilation, as well as the issues of working overseas for global businesses.
In Chapter 9, we focus on popular and folk culture and their impact on inter-
cultural communication. We have included new updated examples and an enhanced
discussion of how social media is used to shape culture, including Twitter, because
of the power of user-generated content.
Chapter 10 explores intercultural relationships. In this edition, we update the dis-
cussion of sexuality and intimate relationships in multicultural environments, as well
as tensions over these changes, and the implications for intercultural communication.
Chapter 11 emphasizes an integrated approach to intercultural conflict, using the
recent riots in London and Paris, as well as global terrorist attacks as case studies. We have
expanded the discussion on intractable conflicts and important strategies in peacebuilding,
as well as the role of social movements (e.g., Black Lives Matter) in intercultural conflict.
Chapter 12 includes a new discussion of cosmopolitanism as a way to think
about and negotiate cultural differences and continues to emphasize practical experi-
ence in striving for intercultural competence in everyday encounters.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The random convergence of the two authors in time and place led to the creation
of this textbook. We both found ourselves at Arizona State University in the early
1990s. Over the course of several years, we discussed and analyzed the multiple
approaches to intercultural communication. Much of this discussion was facilitated
by the ASU Department of Communication’s “culture and communication” theme.
xxvi Preface

Department faculty met to discuss research and pedagogical issues relevant to the
study of communication and culture; we also reflected on our own notions of what
constituted intercultural communication. This often meant reliving many of our inter-
cultural experiences and sharing them with our colleagues.
Above all, we must recognize the fine work of the staff at McGraw-Hill: Jamie
Laferrera, Brand Manager; Jasmine Stanton, Editorial Coordinator; Meredith Leo,
Marketing Manager; and Lisa Bruflodt, Production Manager and the ansrsource
developmental editing team lead by Anne Sheroff and Poornima H arikumar.
In addition, we want to thank all the reviewers of this and previous editions
of Intercultural Communication in Contexts, whose comments and careful readings
were enormously helpful. They are:

First Edition Reviewers

Rosita D. Albert, University of Minnesota
Carlos G. Aleman, University of Illinois, Chicago
Deborah Cai, University of Maryland
Gail Campbell, University of Colorado, Denver
Ling Chen, University of Oklahoma
Alberto Gonzalez, Bowling Green State University
Bradford “J” Hall, University of New Mexico
Mark Lawrence McPhail, University of Utah
Richard Morris, Northern Illinois University
Catherine T. Motoyama, College of San Mateo
Gordon Nakagawa, California State University, Northridge
Joyce M. Ngoh, Marist College
Nancy L. Street, Bridgewater State College
Erika Vora, St. Cloud State University
Lee B. Winet, State University of New York, Oswego
Gust A. Yep, San Francisco State University

Second Edition Reviewers

Eric Akoi, Colorado State University
Jeanne Barone, Indiana/Purdue University at Fort Wayne
Wendy Chung, Rider University
Ellen Shide Crannell, West Valley College
Patricia Holmes, University of Missouri
Madeline Keaveney, California State University, Chico
Mark Neumann, University of South Florida
Margaret Pryately, St. Cloud State University
Kara Shultz, Bloomsburg University
 Preface xxvii

Third Edition Reviewers

Marguerite Arai, University of Colorado at Colorado Springs
Rona Halualani, San José State University
Piper McNulty, De Anza College
Karla Scott, St. Louis University
Candace Thomas-Maddox, Ohio University, Lancaster
Susan Walsh, Southern Oregon University
Jennifer Willis-Rivera, Southern Illinois State University

Fourth Edition Reviewers

Sara DeTurk, University of Texas, San Antonio
Christopher Hajek, University of Texas, San Antonio
Mary M. Meares, Washington State University
Kimberly Moffitt, DePaul University
James Sauceda, California State University, Long Beach
Kathryn Sorrells, California State University, Northridge
David Zuckerman, Sacramento State University

Fifth Edition Reviewers

Shirene Bell, Salt Lake Community College
Lisa Bradford, University of Milwaukee-Wisconsin
John Chiang, State University of New York Oneonta
Susan DeTurk, University of Texas at San Antonio
Charles Elliott, Cedarville University
Gayle Houser, Northern Arizona University
Tema Oliveira Milstein, University of New Mexico
Marc Rich, California State University, Long Beach

Sixth Edition Reviewers

Nader Chaaban, Northern Virginia Community College
Jenny Gardner, Bay Path College
Rachel Alicia Griffin, Southern Illinois University-Carbondale
Julia Hagemann, Drexel University
Amy N. Heuman, PhD, Texas Tech University
Kumi Ishii, Western Kentucky University
Meina Lui, University of Maryland
Dr. Nina-Jo Moore, Appalachian State University
xxviii Preface

Craig VanGeison, Saint Charles County Community College

Nadene Vevea, North Dakota State University
MJ Woeste, University of Cincinnati

Seventh Edition Reviewers

Julie Chekroun, Santa Monica College & Cal State University
Becky DeGreeff, Kansas State University Polytechnic Campus
Thomas Green, Cape Fear Community College
Rebecca Hall-Cary, Florida State University
Kristine Knutson, University of Wisconsin Eau Claire
Jerome Kreitzer, Community College of Vermont
Grace Leinbach Coggio, University of Wisconsin-River Falls
Ines Meyer-Hoess, The Pennsylvania State University

Our colleagues and students have provided invaluable assistance. Thanks to

our colleagues for their ongoing moral support and intellectual challenges to our
thinking. Thanks to our editorial assistants, Dr. Gladys Muasya at Arizona State
University and Maggie Williams at Northeastern University. They found relevant
scholarship and interesting examples to support and liven up our writing. They were
also always cooperative and responsive even when they had their own research proj-
ects to complete and academic deadlines to meet. And as always, we owe thanks to
our undergraduate students, who continue to challenge us to think about intercultural
communication in ways that make sense to their lives.
We thank our families and friends for once again allowing us absences and
silences as we directed our energies toward the completion of this revision. We want
to acknowledge both Ronald Chaldu and David L. Karbonski, who continue to be
supportive of our academic writing projects.
Our international experiences have enriched our understanding of intercultural
communication theories and concepts. We thank all of the following people for helping
us with these experiences: Tommy and Kazuko Nakayama; Michel Dion and Eliana
Sampaïo of Strasbourg, France; Jean-Louis Sauvage and Pol Thiry of the Université
de Mons-Hainaut, Belgium; Christina K ­ alinowska and the Café “Le Ropieur” in
Mons, Belgium; Scott and the others at Le BXL in Brussels, Belgium; Emilio, Vince,
Jimmy, Gene and the others at the Westbury Bar in Philadelphia; Jerzy, Alicja,
Marek, and Jolanta Drzewieccy of Bedzin, Poland; as well as Margaret Nicholson
of the Commission for Educational Exchange between Belgium, Luxembourg, and
the United States; and Liudmila Markina from Minsk, Belarus. Some research in this
book was made possible by a scholarship from the Fulbright Commission and the
Fonds National de la Recherche Scientifique in Brussels. We also thank Dr. Melissa
Steyn and her students at the Centre for Diversity Studies at the University of the
Witswatersrand in Johannesburg, South Africa for their insightful discussions. In
addition, we thank the countless others we have met in cafés, train stations, bars, and
conferences, if only for a moment of international intercultural interaction.
 Preface xxix

Other people helped us understand intercultural communication closer to home,

especially the staff and students at the Guadalupe Center at South ­Mountain Commu-
nity College, and also Dr. Amalia Villegas, Cruzita Mori, and Lucia Madril and family.
In spirit and conceptualization, our book spans the centuries and crosses many
continents. It has been shaped by the many people we have read about and encoun-
tered. It is to these guiding and inspiring individuals—some of whom we had the
good fortune to meet and some of whom we will never encounter—that we dedicate
this book. It is our hope that their spirit of curiosity, openness, and understanding
will be reflected in the pages that follow.
Discovering Diverse Content Through
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 the valve discs, thus compensating for the
expansion and contraction of the metal and
insuring a perfectly tight valve, regardless of the
temperature of the steam.
The Holyoke Improved Speed Governor for
water wheels is shown in Figs. 574 and 575. The
following is a description of the two figures where
the same letters are used to designate the parts
appearing in both illustrations:
The pulley, A, is the receiving pulley, and is
Fig. 573. designed to run at 400 revolutions per minute,
receiving its power from the water-wheel shaft,
or countershaft belted from the same.
Contained in the pulley, A, are the two governing weights, BB, of
which the centrifugal forces are overcome by the springs, CC. The
varying motions of the governing weights, BB, are transmitted
through racks and pinions in the hub of pulley, A, to levers, K and L,
which operate the valve, N, admitting water under a light pressure to
the cylinder, O. The water is admitted to the cylinder, O, through
ports at either end, causing the piston to move forward or backward,
governed by the movement of the governing weights, BB.
Fig. 574.
 Fig. 575.

The pulley, A, is keyed to the main shaft, and at the opposite end
is keyed a bevel pinion running in mesh with a bevel gear on either
side, all of which are contained in the gear-case, P. These gears
cause the clutch discs, D, to run in opposite directions. In each disc
is a clutch, E, keyed to a shaft, transmitting power to the pinion, S,
running in mesh with the spur gear, R, which is loose on the shaft, J,
and transmits its power through the pin clutch, T, to gate shaft, J.
The gate shaft, J, is connected by a pair of bevel gears to the shaft
and hand wheel, Q.
The motion of the piston rod, I, caused by the movement of
piston in cylinder, O, is carried by the lever, G, to the clutch shaft, F,
by means of the pivoted nut at V. The clutch shaft, F, operates either
clutch, E, corresponding to the movement of the governing weights,
BB, caused by the variation in speed. From the clutch thus engaged,
the power is carried by the clutch shaft, F, through the gears, S and
R, and the pin clutch, T, to the gate shaft, J.

Fig. 576.

The makers of the machine here described, say: “In the year 1902 our
attention was called to a new governor invented by Nathaniel Lombard,
and after finding by actual tests that this governor possessed advantages
over all others then in use, we were induced to make arrangements for its
manufacture and sale. Two years have been spent in improving and
perfecting this machine, hence the name ‘The Improved Governor.’”
The governor is provided with a steadying device operated by the
chain, H. The gate shaft, J, is designed to make four, six or eight
turns to open the gate, four being the regular number.
 The receiving pulley and governor gate shaft may revolve in either
direction, as desired.
The receiving pulley is designed to run at 400 revolutions per
minute, and is driven by a 4-inch double belt.
The governor gate shaft may be arranged to open the gates in
four, six or eight turns, and may be extended on either or both sides
of the governor to meet the necessary requirements.
The governor is capable of exerting a pressure ranging from
25,000 to 50,000 foot pounds on the governor gate shaft.
The advantages claimed for this improvement on the Lombard
governor are thus stated:
1. It requires only a light water pressure to handle the heaviest
gates.
2. It is simple in construction. All parts are easy of access.
3. There are no pumps working under high pressure.
4. There are no dash pots to get out of adjustment, due to the
change in temperature of oil, etc.
5. There is but one belt on this machine.
6. All parts which are constantly in motion are equipped with ring-
oiling bearings.
Fig. 576 is an illustration of the mechanism necessary to raise and
lower the head gates which are used to admit and regulate, also to
shut off the water supply from pond or lake to the flume conveying it
to the wheel. In this case there are two head gates having racks
upon the upright timbers connecting with the gates. Two shrouded
pinions engage these racks, which are keyed upon a shaft having a
large spur wheel at its end, as represented. A pinion upon a second
shaft engages this spur wheel which in turn has also a spur wheel
which engages a pinion upon the crank shaft having two cranks
opposite one another. By means of these cranks with two to four
men upon each crank the gates are operated very satisfactorily.
These shafts and gears are mounted upon heavy cast iron brackets
bolted to the floor. Altogether it forms a very massive piece of
mechanism.
The Utility combination pump governor is shown in the figure
below. This mechanism may be bolted on any tank or receiver where
the water level is to be automatically maintained. It consists of a
closed pocket containing a float, A, which rises and falls with the
water level inside the tank.
When the water rises above the desired level the float opens the
throttle valve and starts the pump, and when it subsides the float
falls and shuts off the steam.
CONDENSING
APPARATUS

Fig. 577.
 CONDENSING APPARATUS.
A condenser is an apparatus, separate from the cylinder, in which
exhaust steam is condensed by the action of cold water;
condensation is the act or process of reducing, by depression of
temperature or increase of pressure, etc., to another and denser
form, as gas to the condition of a liquid or steam to water. There is
an electrical device called “a condenser” which must not be
confounded with the hydraulic apparatus of the same name; there is
also an optical instrument designated by the same term, which
belongs to still another division of practical science.
A vacuum is defined very properly as an empty space; a space in
which there is neither steam, water or air—the absolute absence of
everything. The condenser is the apparatus by which, through the
cooling of the steam by means of cold water, a vacuum is obtained.
The steam after expelling the air from the condenser fills it with its
own volume which is at atmospheric pressure nearly 1700 times that
of the same weight of water.
Now when a vessel is filled with steam at atmospheric pressure,
and this steam is cooled by external application of cold water, it will
immediately give up its heat, which will pass off in the cooling water,
and the steam will again appear in a liquid state, occupying only
1⁄
1700 part of its original volume.

But if the vessel be perfectly tight and none of the outside air can
enter, the space in the vessel not occupied by the water contains
nothing, as before stated. The air exerting a pressure of nearly 15
pounds to the square inch of the surface of the vessel tries to
collapse it; now if we take a cylinder fitted with a piston and connect
its closed end to this vessel by means of a pipe, the atmospheric
pressure will push this piston down. The old low pressure engines
were operated almost entirely upon this principle, the steam only
served to push the piston up and exhaust the air from the cylinder.
 In Fig. 578 is exhibited the effect of jets of water from a spray
nozzle meeting a jet of steam; the latter instead of filling the space
with steam is returned to its original condition of water and the
space as shown becomes a vacuum.
Briefly stated condensation and the production of a vacuum may
be used to advantage in the following ways:
1. By increasing the power without increasing the fuel
consumption.
2. By saving fuel without reducing the output of power.
3. By saving the boiler feed water required in proportion to the
saving of fuel.
4. By furnishing boiler feed water free from lime and other scaling
impurities.
5. By preventing the noise of the escaping exhaust steam.
6. By permitting the boiler pressure to be lowered ten to twenty
pounds without reducing the power or the economy of the engine.
The discovery of the advantages arising from the condensation of
steam by direct contact with water was accidental.
In the earliest construction of steam-engines the desired vacuum
was produced by the circulation of water through a jacket around
the cylinder. This was a slow and tedious process, the engine making
only seven or eight strokes per minute. “An accidental unusual
circumstance pointed out the remedy, and greatly increased the
effect. As the engine was at work, the attendants were one day
surprised to see it make several strokes much quicker than usual;
and upon searching for the cause, they found, says Desaguliers, ‘a
hole through the piston which let the cold water (kept upon the
piston to prevent the entrance of air at the packing) into the space
underneath.’ The water falling through the steam condensed it
almost instantaneously, and produced a vacuum with far less water
than when applied to the exterior of the cylinder. This led Newcomen
to remove the outer cylinder, and to insert the lower end of the
water pipe into the bottom of
the cylinder, so that on opening
a cock a jet of cold water was
projected through the vapor.
This beautiful device is the
origin of the injection pipe with
a spray nozzle still used in low-
pressure engines.”
The apparatus described
above is called the jet-condenser
and is in use up to the present
day in various forms. In the Fig.
577, page 298, the jet is shown
at C. It will be understood that
steam enters through the cock D
and comes in contact with a
spray of cold water at the
bottom, where it is condensed Fig. 578.
and passes into the air pump
through which it is discharged.
By this diagram, Fig. 577, may be understood in a simple yet
accurate manner the course of steam from the time it leaves the
boiler until it is discharged from the condenser.
Referring to the upper section of the plate, a sectional view of a
steam cylinder, jet condenser, air pump and exhaust piping is shown.
The high pressure steam “aa” is represented by dark shading, and
the low pressure or expanded steam “bb” by lighter shading.
The steam enters the side “aa,” is cut off, and expansion takes
place moving the piston in the direction of the arrow to the end of
the stroke. The exhaust valve now opens and the piston starts to
return. The low pressure steam instead of passing direct to the
atmosphere, as is the case of a high pressure engine, flows into a
chamber “C,” and is brought in contact with a spray of cold water.
The heat being absorbed by the water, the steam is condensed and
reduced in volume, thus forming a vacuum. It is, however, necessary
to remove the water formed by the condensed steam together with
the water admitted to condense the steam, also a small amount of
air and vapor. For this purpose, a pump is required, which is called
the air pump.

Fig. 579.

Condensers are classified into surface condensers and jet

condensers, both again being divided into direct connected and
indirect connected condensers.
The surface condenser (see Fig. 579) is mainly used in marine
practice because it gives a better vacuum, and keeps the condensed
steam separate from the cooling water; it consists of a vessel, of
varied shapes, having a number of brass tubes passing from head to
head. The ends of this vessel are closed by double heads, the tubes
are expanded into the inner one on one end, while their other ends
pass through stuffing-boxes in the other inner head.
The “admiralty” or rectangular surface condenser is represented in
Fig. 579. This form occupies less floor space than the round shell,
 and is preferred upon
steam yachts and small
vessels.
Steam is condensed on
its introduction at the top
of the apparatus where it
comes in contact with the
cool surfaces of the tubes.
Through these water is
circulated by a centrifugal
pump driven usually by a
separate engine.

Fig. 581.

Fig. 580.
 Fig. 582.

The water of condensation leaves the condenser at the bottom

and is drawn off by the vacuum pump. The water from the
circulating pump enters at the bottom right-hand end; following the
direction indicated by the arrows, it flows through the lower half of
the tubes towards the left whence it returns through the upper half
of the tubes towards the right and escapes overboard through the
water outlet pipe.
It will be observed that the coolest water encounters the lowest
temperature of steam at the bottom, hence the best results are
reached. There is also a baffle plate just above the upper row of
tubes to compel a uniform distribution of exhaust steam among the
tubes, as shown in the engraving.
These tubes are usually small—1⁄2″ outside diameter—of brass
and coated with tin inside and outside to prevent galvanic action
which is liable to attack the brass tubes and cause them to corrode.
Fig. 581 shows an end view of the right-hand head of the surface
condenser here described.
A single tube is shown in
detail in Fig. 580. One end of
the tube is drawn sufficiently
thick to chase upon it deep
screw threads, while a slot
facilitates its removal by a
screw-driving tool. The other
end is packed and held in place
by a screw gland, which is also
provided with a slot. In this way
the tube is firmly held in one
head, and, though tightly fitted
in the other, is free to move
Fig. 583. longitudinally under the
influence of expansion or
contraction, due to the varying heat.
In some cases engineers prefer the ordinary arrangement of screw
glands at both ends of the tubes, with the usual wick packing.
The mechanism illustrated in Figs. 582 and 583 shows a combined
condenser and feed-water heater. A compact and efficient method of
heating the feed-water from the hot well is of great importance; this
is the case in cold weather when the circulating water is at a low
temperature.
The Volz apparatus is a combined condenser and feed-water
heater; the shell or exhaust steam chamber contains a set of tubes,
through which the feed-water passes, while the lower part contains
the condensing tubes, both parts being in proper communication
with their respective water chambers. The heater tubes being
located immediately adjacent to the exhaust inlet, are exposed to
the hottest steam, and the feed-water becomes nearly as high
temperature as that of the vacuum. Pages 304 and 305 show the
sectional and outside views. The enclosing shell containing the
combined heater and condenser is a well ribbed cylindrical iron
casting; free and independent access is provided to either set of
tubes by removing corresponding heads.
The illustration, Fig. 584, is a longitudinal section of one side of
the condenser pump, and also a section of the condenser cone,
spray pipe, exhaust elbow and injection elbow. “A” is the exhaust to
which is connected the pipe that conducts to the apparatus the
steam or vapor that is to be condensed. The injection water is
conveyed by a pipe attached to the injection opening at “B.” “C” is
the spray pipe, and has, at its lower extremity, a number of vertical
slits through which the injection water passes and spreads out into
thin sheets.
The spray cone “D” scatters the water passing over it, and thus
ensures a rapid intermixture with the steam. This spray cone is
adjustable by means of a stem passing through a stuffing-box at the
top of the condenser, and is operated by the handle “E.” The cone
should be left far enough down to pass the quantity of water needed
for condensation.
All regulation of the injection water must be done by an injection
valve placed in the injection pipe at a convenient point.
Note.—The surface condensers, Figs. 579-581, are made by the
Wheeler Condenser and Engineering Co., New York, as are also the Volz
combined surface condenser and feed water heater, shown in Figs. 582
and 583.

The operation of this condensing apparatus is as follows: steam

being admitted to the cylinders “K,” so as to set the pump in motion,
a vacuum is formed in the condenser, the engine cylinder, the
connecting exhaust pipe, and the injection pipe. This causes the
injection water to enter through the injection pipe attached at “B”
and spray pipe “C” into the condenser cone “F.” The main engine
being started, the exhaust steam enters through the exhaust pipe at
“A,” and, coming in contact with the cold water, is rapidly condensed.
The velocity of the steam is communicated to the water, and the
whole passes through the cone “F” into the pump “G” at a high
velocity, carrying with it, in a comingled condition the air or
uncondensable vapor which enters the condenser with the steam.
The mingled air and water is discharged by the pump through the
valves and pipe at “J” before sufficient time or space has been
allowed for separation to occur.

Fig. 584.
 The exhaust steam induction condenser is based upon the same
principle heretofore explained under the section relating to injectors.
See Fig. 585.
The exhaust steam enters through the
nozzle, A. The injection water surrounds
this nozzle and issues downward through
the annular space between the nozzle and
the main casting. The steam meeting the
water is condensed, and by virtue of its
weight and of the momentum which it has
acquired in flowing into the vacuum the
resulting water continues downward, its
velocity being further increased, and the
column solidified by the contraction of the
nozzle shown. The air is in this way carried
along with the water and it is impossible for
it to get back against the rapidly flowing
steam in the contracted neck. The
condenser will lift its own water twenty feet
or so. When water can be had under
sufficient head to thus feed itself into the
system, and the hot-well can at the same
Fig. 585. time be so situated as to drain itself, it
makes a remarkably simple and efficient
arrangement. In case the elevation is so great that a pump has to be
used to force the injection, the pump has to do less work than the
ordinary air pump, and its exhaust can be used to heat the feed
water.
The Bulkley “Injector” condenser is shown in Fig. 586, arranged so
that the condensing water is supplied by a pump. The condenser is
connected to a vertical exhaust pipe from the engine, at a height of
about 34 feet above the level of the “hot-well.” An air-tight discharge
pipe extends from the condenser nearly to the bottom of the “hot-
well,” as shown in the engraving.
 The condenser is supplied by a pump as shown, or from a tank, or
from a natural “head” of water; the action is continuous, the water
being delivered into the “hot-well” below. The area of the contracted
“neck” of the condenser is greater than that of the annular water
inlet described above, and the height of the water column
overcomes the pressure of the atmosphere without.

Fig. 586.
 The supply pump delivers cool water only, and is therefore but
one-third of the size of the air-pump. The pressure of the
atmosphere elevates the water about 26 feet to the condenser.
The accompanying diagrams, Figs. 587 and 588, are worthy of
study. They represent a condenser plant designed by the Schutte &
Koerting Co., Philadelphia, and placed on steam-vessels plying on
fresh water. In these drawings the parts are designed by descriptive
lettering instead the ordinary way of reference figures; this adds to
the convenience of the student in considering this novel application
of the condenser-injector, the action of which is described in the
following paragraphs.

Fig. 587.
 For steamers plying on fresh water lakes, bays and rivers it is
unnecessary to go to the expense of installing surface condensers
such as are used in salt water; keel condensers, however, are used
in both cases.
The keel condenser
consists of two copper or
brass pipes running
parallel and close to the
keel, one on each side
united by a return bend at
the stern post. The
forward ends are
connected, one to the
exhaust pipe of the engine
while the other end is
attached to the suction of
the air pump.
In other cases both
forward ends are attached
to the exhaust pipe of the
steam engine while the
Fig. 588. water of condensation is
drawn through a smaller
pipe connected with the return bend at the stern post which is the
lowest part of the keel condenser.
Fig. 587 is much used for vessels running in fresh water. The
illustration is a two-thirds midship section of a vessel with pipe
connections to the bilge—bottom injection—side injection into the
centrifugal pump, thence upward through suction pipe into the
ejector condenser where it meets and condenses the exhaust steam
from the engine and so on through the discharge pipe overboard.
The plan of piping with valves, drain pipes and heater are shown in
Fig. 588.
 In case of the failure of any of the details of this mechanism to
perform their respective functions a free exhaust valve and pipe is
provided which may be brought instantly into use. The discharge
pipe has a “kink” in it to form a water seal, as represented with a
plug underneath to drain in case of frost, or in laying up the vessel
in winter. A pipe leads from globe valve (under discharge elbow) to
feed pump for hot water.
Condensing Surface Required. In the early days of the surface
condenser it was thought necessary to provide a cooling surface in
the condenser equal to the heating surface in the boilers, the idea
being that it would take as much surface to transfer the heat from a
pound of steam to the cooling water and condense the steam as it
would to transfer the heat from the hot gases to the water in the
boiler and convert it into steam. The difference in temperature, too,
between the hot gases and the water in the boiler is considerably
greater than that between the steam in the condenser and the
cooling water.
 Note.—The following list gives the numbers with the corresponding
names of the parts of the surface condenser, shown in the above outline
sketch: 1, condenser shell; 2, outside heads; 3, exhaust inlet; 4, exhaust
outlet; 5, water inlet; 6, water outlet; 7, peep holes; 8, tube heads; 9,
partition; 10, rib; 11, tubes; 12, stuffing-boxes.
 Note.—The numbers and names of parts in the above figure,
representing in outline a jet condenser, are as follows: 1, condenser body;
2, exhaust inlet; 3, discharge; 4, injection valve; 5, spray pipe; 6, spraying
device.
Steam, however, gives up its heat to a relatively cool surface much
more readily than do the hot furnace gases, and the positively
circulated cooling water takes up that heat and keeps the
temperature of the surface down, while in a boiler the absorption
depends in a great measure upon the ability of the water by natural
circulation to get into contact with the surface and take up the heat
by evaporization. It has been found, therefore, that a much smaller
surface will suffice in a condenser than in the boilers which it serves.
The Wheeler Condenser and Engineering Company, who make a
specialty of surface condensers, say that one square foot of cooling
surface is usually allowed to each 10 pounds of steam to be
condensed per hour, with the condensing water at a normal
temperature not exceeding 75°. This figure seems to be generally
used for average conditions. Special cases require special treatment.
 For service in the tropics the cooling surface should be at least ten
per cent. greater than this estimate. Where there is an abundance of
circulating water the surface may be much less, as with a keel
condenser, where 50 pounds of steam is sometimes condensed per
hour per square foot of surface; or a water works engine, where all
the water pumped is discharged through the condenser and not
appreciably raised in temperature, probably condensing 20 to 40
pounds of steam per hour per square foot of surface.
Under the division of this volume devoted to “air and vacuum
pumps,” much information has been given relating to the principles
of the condensation of steam and also some illustrations of working
machines. Still it may be well to say this, in addition, that—
All questions in regard to a vacuum become plain when we
consider that the atmosphere itself exerts a pressure of nearly 15
pounds, and measure everything from an absolute zero, 15 pounds
below the atmospheric pressure. We live at the bottom of an ocean
of air. The winds are its currents; we can heat it, cool it, breathe and
handle it, weigh it, and pump it as we would water. The depth of this
atmospheric ocean cannot be determined as positively as could one
of liquid, for the air is elastic and expands as the pressure decreases
in the upper layers. Its depth is variously estimated at from 20 to
212 miles. We can, however, determine very simply how much
pressure it exerts per square inch.
 UTILITIES AND
ATTACHMENTS

Working Ship Pumps by Ropes.

 UTILITIES AND ATTACHMENTS.
Utility is a Latin word meaning the same as the Saxon word
usefulness, hence a utility is something to be used to advantage.
An attachment is that by which one thing is connected to another;
some adjunct attached to a machine or instrument to enable it to do
a special work; these are too numerous to be described in this work;
moreover their number is being so constantly added to that it would
be vain to make the attempt. A few examples only follow.
The Receiver is one of the most important and useful parts or
connections of a steam pump.
This apparatus, frequently called “Pump and Governor,” and
illustrated in Figs. 589, 590 and 591, is designed to automatically
drain heating systems and machines or appliances used in
manufacturing which depend upon a free circulation of steam for
their efficiency. It furthermore is arranged to automatically pump the
water of condensation drained from such systems back to the boilers
without loss of heat.
By this operation it serves a double purpose: first to automatically
relieve the system of the water of condensation constantly collecting
therein, thus insuring a free and unobstructed circulation, and,
incidentally, preventing snapping and hammering in the piping,
which in many cases is due to entrained water; and second, to
automatically deliver this water, which in many cases is at the boiling
point, directly to the boilers without the intervention of tanks or
other devices commonly used. Not only does it relieve the system of
a troublesome factor, but it introduces a supply of feed water to the
boiler at a temperature impossible otherwise without the use of a
special water heater.
The economy resulting from its use is unquestionable, and the
satisfactory and increasing use of this machine leaves no doubt as to
its efficiency.
 As will be seen by the illustrations, the apparatus consists of a
cylinder or oval closed receiver, which, together with the pump, is
mounted upon and secured to a substantial base, making the whole
machine compact and self-contained.
The automatic action of the pump and its speed are controlled by
a float in the receiver operating directly, without the use of
intervening levers, cranks and stuffing boxes, to open or close a
governor valve in the steam supply pipe to the pump, thus making
the action of the pump conditional upon the rise and fall of the float
in the receiver.

Fig. 589.

In each of the three receivers shown there is a ball float which

appears through the side of the receiver, Fig. 590; these depend
upon the principle of specific gravity for their operation. The lever
fastened to the ball float operates the throttle valve of the pump; as
the vessel fills with water the float rises opens the throttle valve, and
starts the pump.
 In Fig. 589 is shown the Deane automatic duplex steam pump and
receiver fitted with valves for hot water; it is also provided with three
separate inlets for convenience in connecting the returns.
In placing the apparatus, it is only necessary to so locate it that all
returns will drain naturally towards receiver and that there are no
pockets in the piping.
When it is desired to use the automatic receiver as the sole means
of feeding the boilers, it will be necessary to introduce a small supply
of water from some outside source to equalize the loss which occurs.
It is desirable that this water should flow into receiver rather than
into discharge pipe.

Fig. 590.