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 Contents | vii

22. Sir Thomas Malory, Le Morte Darthur 542

“The Sword in the Stone” and “Arthur’s dream, his battle with Mordred,
and his death”
Dorsey Armstrong

For further reading 553

Index 557
Illustrations

The following figures appear between pages 281 and 282

1. Cadbury-Camelot, also called South Cadbury or Cadbury Castle. Image used by
permission of Collections Picture Library
2. Glastonbury Abbey. Image used by permission of Corbis Images
3. “King Arthur’s Leaden Cross,” from William Camden’s Britannia, © The British
Library Board (576.m.7). Image used by permission of The British Library
4. Map of Arthurian Britain
5. “Lancelot crossing Sword Bridge,” detail from Casket with Scenes of Romance from
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, USA. Image used by permission of the
Scala Archives
6. “Galahad retirant l’épée du perron (Galahad and the Grail),” © BnF (Français 120,
Folio 524v). Image used by permission of the Bibliothèque nationale de France
7. “How Lancelot kissed Guinevere for the first time,” from Le Livre de Messire Lancelot
du Lac, © Bridgeman Art Library (Ms Fr 118 fol. 219v). Image used by permission
of Bridgeman Art Library
8. “Merlin recounting events to Blaise,” © BnF (Français 95, Folio 268). Image used by
permission of the Bibliothèque nationale de France
9. “King Arthur returns to England with a dying Gawain,” © John Rylands University
Library of Manchester (MS 1, fol. 253v). Image used by permission of the John
Rylands University Library of Manchester
10. “Arthur convoking Grail questers,” © John Rylands University Library of Manchester
(French MS 1, fol. 114v). Image used by permission of the John Rylands University
Library of Manchester
11. “King Arthur and attendants” (acc. nos. 32.130.3a and 47.101.4 from the Nine
Heroes Tapestries) from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, USA. Image
used by permission of the Scala Archives
12. The Winchester Round Table, © Shutterstock. Image used by permission of
Shutterstock
13. “Sir Gawain and Green Knight,” © The British Library Board (Cotton Nero A. X.
art.3, f. 94v). Image used by permission of The British Library
Preface to the Second Edition

This volume has its roots in a smaller Romance of Arthur that was published in 1983. The
purpose then was to offer some of the most important works of medieval Arthurian literature
in fresh, new translations that would convey some sense of the development of King Arthur
from Latin chronicles and Celtic mythology into the romantic king of late-medieval
literature. My fellow editors decided to end the work with Sir Thomas Malory’s Morte
D’Arthur and to highlight such works as Chrétien de Troyes’s Lancelot, or The Knight of the
Cart and the anonymous Sir Gawain and the Green Knight.
This work was so enthusiastically received that we followed it with Romance of Arthur II,
an anthology that sought to fill in some of the obvious gaps, such as adding selections from
Wace and Layamon between the seminal history of Geoffrey of Monmouth and Chrétien.
We also added Béroul’s version of the Tristan and Isolde love tragedy, along with Thomas of
Britain, and works that stressed the ever-popular Merlin.
When this work was equally well received, we followed it with Romance of Arthur III,
which stressed lesser-known Arthurian works from Old Norse, Russian, Italian, and Spanish.
In combining the major works from these three volumes, it was often hard to select what
to include and what to omit, but we feel that we have made selections that convey a broad
range of development, including works written in Latin, Welsh, French, Middle English, Old
Norse, Italian, and Provençal. New to this volume are poems of the Provençal troubadours,
along with a few lyrics from Germany, Italy, and Spain. It was felt that we had to supply a
bridge between the earlier histories and chronicles and the sudden blossoming of romantic
narratives in the twelfth century, and it was the lyric writers who filled this gap.
I would like to thank the many colleagues who offered their opinions concerning what
works should be included, as well as those who did the actual translating and wrote the
introductions. Our Garland editor, Gary Kuris, was as helpful here as he was from the very
start. I would also like to thank the now-deceased president of Garland Publishing, Gavin
Borden, who supported us throughout this venture. Gavin was, as Hugh Kenner said, “the
prince of publishers.”
James J. Wilhelm
New York City
1993
Preface to the Third Edition

The success of The Romance of Arthur has been impressive and gratifying; it is an anthology
used in the majority of Arthurian courses offered in Humanities, English, and Comparative
Literature programs. Naturally, many instructors, including those most enthusiastic about
the contents and presentation of the volume, have wished that other texts had been included,
and we have attempted to address their preferences. One of the requests we received most
often concerned the Grail material (entirely lacking from the previous edition), and we have
included the Grail excerpts of three major texts: the two Grail scenes from Chrétien’s Perceval,
a large excerpt of Book IX (the explanation of the Grail and the Grail society) of Wolfram
von Eschenbach’s Parzival, and the concluding section, the Grail liturgy, of the thirteenth-
century French Quest for the Holy Grail.
Contributors were invited but not required to revise their chapters. Most of them did so,
with revisions varying from cosmetic alterations to significant recasting. There is also new
material here, including the Grail texts mentioned above and Marie de France’s Lanval, which
was requested by many who have used the book. We have added an additional episode, the
“marriage soliloquy,” to Thomas’s Tristran.
To accommodate the additional material, we have reduced the excerpts of Sir Thomas
Malory’s Morte Darthur, limiting them to the Sword in the Stone and the conclusion, with
the death of Arthur. Although the Morte Darthur is one of the seminal Arthurian texts of the
Middle Ages—and obviously the most important of all in terms of its influence on later
Arthurian works, especially in English—we made that decision based partly on the fact that
a good many respondents to a survey, and instructors in private conversation, point out that
even with the longer excerpts in the second edition, they order a separate Malory volume
offering either very extensive excerpts or the full Morte Darthur, some in Middle English,
others in modern idiom.
The editor and the publisher of previous iterations of The Romance of Arthur wisely chose
to offer complete texts wherever possible. We retain those uncut works and add the full text
of Lanval, but otherwise we have necessarily had recourse to important excerpts. Without
making this into a two-volume anthology, full Grail (and other) texts obviously could not be
included.
 Preface to the Third Edition | xi

We hope that instructors and students alike will welcome these additions. However, there
are some alterations that some may consider heretical. We have made one other major change:
besides reducing the Malory material, we chose to include excerpts from the Winchester
manuscript, translated by Dorsey Armstrong, instead of the Caxton version used in the
previous edition.
The second edition printed one work, The Wedding of Sir Gawain and Dame Ragnelle in
Middle English. Aided by marginal glosses, readers could manage that work without excessive
difficulty, but it was most often slow going and, for many students, more frustrating than
rewarding. For the new edition we have preferred translations into modern English. Alan
Lupack ably provided a new translation of The Wedding of Sir Gawain and Dame Ragnelle
into modern idiom.
Joan Tasker Grimbert retranslated the death scene in Thomas’s Tristran but also included
an English version of the hero’s Marriage Soliloquy. Her prose translation replaces the earlier
line-for-line version, thus establishing a formal congruity with the preceding work, Béroul’s
Tristran. Marie’s lais, however, are translated line by line, to give an idea of the original form
of these French texts, which were composed in octosyllabic verse.
These additions and expansions—despite one reduction—will, we hope, increase the
utility and appeal of The Romance of Arthur. In offering it to students, instructors, and anyone
fascinated by the remarkable legend of King Arthur, we wish to thank Boydell & Brewer,
Ltd., for permission to reprint the excerpt of Wolfram’s Parzival, and to Dorsey Armstrong
and to the Parlor Press for granting us permission to use portions of Armstrong’s Malory. We
are grateful to the several Routledge editors who provided advice and assistance at every turn.
And finally, we wish to express our gratitude to Brandy N. Brown, for her invaluable
assistance with the bibliography and with other editorial matters.
Norris J. Lacy
18 June 2012
Acknowledgements

Le Morte Darthur reprinted from Sir Thomas Malory’s Morte Darthur: A New Modern English
Translation Based on the Winchester Manuscript, translated by Dorsey Armstrong. ©2009 by
Parlor Press, www.parlorpress.com. Used by permission.

Parzival, With Titurel and the Love Lyrics by Wolfram von Eschenbach, translated by Cyril
Edwards (D.S.Brewer, 2002). Used by permission.

Norse Romance I: The Tristan Legend, translated by Marianne E. Kalinke (D.S.Brewer, 1999).
Used by permission.
Chapter I

Arthur in the Latin Chronicles

James J. Wilhelm

The romantic legend of King Arthur and his knights of the Round Table seems more and
more to have had some foundation in history. A man named Artorius in Latin or Arthur in
Welsh and English is mentioned in the Latin histories that describe the collapse of the
christianized Roman Empire in Great Britain and the invasions of the Angles, Saxons, and
Jutes from the lowlands of northern Germany.
After the Romans’ conquest of Britain, begun in A.D. 43, they extended their advanced
culture into the faraway Celtic island and later promoted the spread of Christianity there.
Eventually the Roman Empire was weakened in the west by barbarian invasions. Denuded
of troops, Britain passed from imperial control in 410, and the Britons were thrown back
on their own resources. They still preserved something of Roman civilization, regarding
themselves as Roman citizens who were superior to their insular barbaric enemies, the Irish,
Scots, and the Picts from the never-Romanized northern region, and to the Germanic peoples
of Holland, Germany, and Scandinavia, who were often marauding.
The first important writer to speak of these events was Gildas, a monk who around the
year 547 composed his polemical treatise On the Downfall and Conquest of Britain (De excidio
et conquestu Britanniae). In Chapter 23 he tells how a “proud tyrant,” whom we usually
associate with the British chieftain Vortigern, and his counselors asked “the most ferocious
Saxons of cursed name” to come over from Germany to help them fight against their insular
enemies. This was a most impolitic move. Seeing that the island was relatively defenseless,
the Saxons probably inflicted some losses on the British enemies, but then turned on their
hosts themselves. They drove the Britons into the hills of Wales and Cornwall, where their
descendants live even today, speaking the Celtic tongues of Welsh (or Cymric) and Cornish.
Gildas speaks of these dispersed people in this way:

Chapter 25. And so many of the miserable survivors, who were trapped in the mountains,
were slain in droves. Others, driven by hunger, stretched their hands to the enemy, offering
themselves into endless servitude—if they were not cut down at once in an act that was
2 | James J. Wilhelm

kinder. Others ran off to overseas regions with loud wailings of grief. . . . Still others trusted
their lives to the mountainous highlands, the menacing cliffs and crags, the dense forests,
and the rugged sea caves, remaining, however timorously, in their homelands.
Then some time passed, and the cruel invaders retreated to their home bases. . . . The
survivors collected their strength under the leadership of Ambrosius Aurelianus, a most
temperate [modestus] man, who by chance was the only person of Roman parentage to
have come through the catastrophe in which his parents, who had once worn the royal
purple toga, had been killed, and whose present-day descendants have far degenerated
from their former virtue. He and his men challenged their previous conquerors to battle,
and by the grace of God, victory was theirs.
Chapter 26. From that time, now the native citizens and now the enemy have triumphed
. . . up to the year of the siege of Mount Badon [Badonici montis], when the last but
certainly not the least slaughter of these lowly scoundrels occurred, which, I know, makes
forty-four years and one month, and which was also the time of my birth.
[Text in Chambers, Arthur, pp. 236–37]

Gildas seems to offer us many details, but his language is overdramatized and ambiguous,
especially with reference to “forty-four years.” Is that the span of time from the arrival of the
Saxons or from the leadership of Ambrosius? Also, we do not know the date of Gildas’s birth;
his death is listed as 572 in the highly suspect Annals of Cambria, below. And who was
Ambrosius Aurelianus? He is also mentioned by the other important chronicler, Nennius,
and William of Malmesbury links him with Arthur, whom Gildas ignores. Yet despite his
omissions and ambiguities, Gildas clearly establishes the milieu from which the legend
springs: a downtrodden people finds salvation in a great military leader who is connected
with the civilization of Rome and the Holy Church. As for the intriguing Mount Badon, it
has been identified as Bath, Badbury, and Baddington, although many authorities today
connect it with Liddington Castle near Swindon.
The next Latin writer, the Venerable Bede (673?–735), tends largely to repeat Gildas in
his Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation (731):

Book 1, Chapter 15. In the year of Our Lord 449. . . . At that time the races of the Angles
or the Saxons were invited by the previously mentioned king [Vortigern] to come to
Britain in three long ships. . . . After the enemy had killed or dispersed the natives of the
island, they went home, and the natives gradually recollected their strength and courage,
and they came out of their hiding places and collectively called on heaven for help to avoid
a general disaster. At that time they had as their leader Ambrosius Aurelianus, a temperate
man, who by chance was the only person to have come out of the previously mentioned
catastrophe in which his parents, who had a famous royal name, had been killed. With
him in command the Britons gathered their strength and challenged their previous
conquerors to battle. With the help of God they won the victory. And from that time, now
the native citizens and now the enemy have triumphed, up to the year of the siege of
 Arthur in the Latin Chronicles | 3

Mount Badon, when the Britons inflicted great losses on their enemies, approximately
forty-four years after their arrival in Britain.
[Text in Chambers, pp. 237–38]

The span of forty-four years is clarified, and since the arrival time is dated, the year for the
battle is put at 493. This date is not totally unlikely, although Bede’s indebtedness to Gildas
does not inspire much confidence in his presentation.
The first Latin chronicle to mention the name “Arthur” is The History of the Britons
(Historia Brittonum), which is believed to have been compiled about 800 by a Welshman
named Nennius. (See Chapter 2 for an earlier reference in Welsh.) This work was written in
Latin, but many scholars feel that Nennius based his details about the Twelve Battles of
Arthur upon native Welsh sources. We should remember that the modern Welsh people are
the direct survivors of the ancient Britons. The passage has always led many to believe that
there must be something historically real behind it, despite the sacramental nature of the
number “twelve” and the shadowy geography, yet only the Caledonian Forest of Scotland and
the City of the Legion (almost certainly the Welsh Caerleon) can be identified:

Chapter 56. At that time the Saxons were thriving and increasing in multitudes in Britain.
With [their leader] Hengist dead, his son Octha crossed over from the left side of Britain
to the realm of the Kentishmen, and from him are descended the kings of Kent.
Then Arthur fought against these people along with the kings of the Britons, and he was
the leader in their battles. His first battle was at the mouth of the River Glein. The second
to the fifth took place above the River Dubglas [Douglas or Dark Water], in the region of
Linnuis. The sixth battle occurred at the River Bassas. The seventh was a battle in the
Forest of Celidon, that is: the Battle of the Caledonian Forest. The eighth was at Castle
Guinnion, in which Arthur carried an image of St. Mary, the Perpetual Virgin on his
shoulders, and the pagans were put to flight on that day, and there was a great massacre of
them through the power of Our Lord Jesus Christ and his mother Mary. The ninth battle
was in the City of the Legion. The tenth was fought on the banks of the River Tribruit.
The eleventh occurred on Mount Agned. The twelfth was the Battle of Mount Badon, in
which nine hundred and sixty men fell from a single attack of Arthur, and nobody put
them down except him alone, and in every one of the battles he emerged as victor. But
although the others were overcome in the battles, they sent for help from Germany, and
their forces were ceaselessly reinforced. The Saxons brought over leaders from Germany
to rule the Britons up to the reign of Ida, Son of Eobba, the first king of Beornica.
[Text in Chambers, pp. 238–39]

Later in his history, Nennius includes the following passage, which shows that the legend of
Arthur was already becoming a popular myth:

Chapter 73. There is another wonder in the region known as Buelt—a heap of stones piled
up with the footprint of a dog upon it. While hunting the boar Troynt, Cabal, the hunting
4 | James J. Wilhelm

dog of Arthur the soldier, stepped on a stone, and Arthur later collected a pile beneath this
and called it Carn Cabal. Men come to carry away the stone in their hands for a day and
a night, yet the next day the imprinted stone is back on the pile.
There is another wonder in the region called Ercing. It is a tomb near a brook that is called
the Mound of Anir, for Anir is the man buried there. He was the son of Arthur the soldier,
who killed and buried him there. Men come to measure the mound, which is sometimes
six feet long, sometimes nine or twelve or fifteen. However you measure it again and again,
you will never get the same figure—and I have tried this myself.

The Carn Cabal has been identified as existing in Breconshire in southern Wales, while
Ercing has been placed in Herefordshire. The hunting of the boar figures prominently in the
Welsh Tale of Culhwch and Olwen in Chapter 3.
The next document is called The Annals of Cambria, another name for Wales, which the
Welsh themselves call Cymru. It dates from the 900s, and offers these dates, which nowadays
seem to be a bit late:

A.D. 518 The Battle of Badon, in which Arthur carried the cross of Our Lord Jesus Christ
for three days and three nights on his shoulders, and the Britons were victors. . . .
A.D. 539 The Battle of Camlann, in which Arthur and Medraut both fell; and there was
widespread death in Britain and in Ireland. . . .
A.D. 572 Gildas died. . . .

This source, suspect as it is, nevertheless supplies us with a mention of a final catastrophic
battle in which Arthur will go down, along with a man whose name evolves into Modred or
Mordred. Although this figure will eventually become an adversary, he could here be one of
Arthur’s allies.
The next source is The Legend of St. Goeznovius, a Latin account of the life of the Breton
St. Goeuznou. The work bears the date of 1019. That has been dismissed by J.S.P. Tatlock as
too early, but Léon Fleuriot has since defended it as correct. In any case, an important article
in Speculum by Geoffrey Ashe has shown that the legend must be examined closely. It is
important because it establishes a continental base of operation for Arthur, which figures in
the work of Geoffrey of Monmouth and later writers. It establishes, in short, a historical link
between Britain and Brittany, which we know existed in literature for the transmission of
such tales as those of Tristan and Parsifal. The pertinent section runs as follows:

After the passage of time the usurping King Vortigern, in order to guarantee support for
himself for the defense of the realm of insular Britain, which he was ruling unjustly, invited
some warlike men from the region of Saxony and made them his allies in his kingdom.
Since these were heathenish and devilish men, who from their natures lusted to make
human blood flow, they called down many evils upon the British.
 Arthur in the Latin Chronicles | 5

Shortly afterward their arrogance was checked for a time by the great Arthur, King of the
Britons, who forced them for the most part from the island or into servitude. But after
this same Arthur had brilliantly won many victories in Britain and Gaul, he was finally
called from human life, and the way once again lay open to the Saxons to return to the
island to oppress the British, to overthrow churches, and to persecute saints.
[Text in Chambers, p. 242]

Before this the anonymous author had described how a Briton had emigrated to Gallic
Armorica and founded many colonies, thereby linking the insular and continental Britons
and Bretons.
The next important chronicler is the Englishman William of Malmesbury, who wrote The
Deeds of the English Kings (De rebus gestis regum Anglorum) in about the year 1125. In one
passage from Book 1, Section 8, he verifies the earlier writings and notes that the Bretons (or
Britons or both) now treat the deeds of the heroic Arthur (bellicosi Arturis) as if he were an
earthly Messiah:

But with Vortimer [Guortimer, son of Vortigern] dead, the vigor of the Britons flagged,
and their hopes diminished and flowed away, and indeed would have vanished entirely if
Ambrosius, the lone survivor of the Romans who ruled after Vortigern, had not checked
the unruly barbarians with the exemplary assistance of the heroic Arthur. This is that
Arthur who is raved about even today in the trifles of the Bretons (Britons)—a man who
is surely worthy of being described in true histories rather than dreamed about in fallacious
myths—for he truly sustained his sinking homeland for a long time and aroused the
drooping spirits of his fellow citizens to battle. Finally at the siege of Mt. Badon, relying
on the image of the Lord’s mother, which he had sewn on his armor, looming up alone,
he dashed down nine hundred of the enemy in an incredible massacre.
[Text in Chambers, pp. 249–50]

Then in Book 3, Section 287, William adds more of the kind of information that tends
toward the creation of a myth linking a hero to the land around him:

At that time [1066–87] in the province of Wales known as Ros was found the tomb of
Walwen [Gawain], who was the by no means degenerate nephew of Arthur through his
sister. He ruled in that part of Britain which is still called Walweitha and was a warrior
most famous for his courage; but he was driven from his rule by the brother and the
nephew of Hengist, though he made them pay dearly for his exile. He shared deservedly
in his uncle’s praise, because for several years he postponed the collapse of his tottering
homeland.
However, the tomb of Arthur is nowhere to be found—that man whose second coming
has been hymned in the dirges of old. Yet the sepulcher of Walwen . . . is fourteen feet
long. It is said by some that Walwen’s body was cast up from a shipwreck after he had been
6 | James J. Wilhelm

wounded by his enemies, while others say that he was murdered by his fellow citizens at
a public feast. And so the truth lies in doubt, though neither story would lessen the asser-
tion of his fame.
[Text in Chambers, p. 250]

The passage also marks the entry of the name Walwen (Gawain) into Latin literature,
showing that the future paragon of courtly excellence had already developed a legend of his
own by 1125.
The next important writer is Geoffrey of Monmouth, whose History of the Kings of Britain
combines history with legend in a highly imaginative form. The Arthurian segment of his
work is given at length in Chapter 4. This section will close with a writer later than Geoffrey,
the Norman-Welsh Giraldus Cambrensis, who lived from about 1146 to 1223 and was
patronized by King Henry II of England. In his On the Instruction of Princes (De instructione
principum), written in the 1190s, Giraldus gives a fascinating description of Arthur’s grave
and also mentions Queen Guinevere and the magician Morgan the Fay, who plays an
important role in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight:

Then Arthur’s body, which legends have fancifully treated as being phantom-like at its end
and carried away by spirits to a faroff place where it is immune to death, was discovered
in these days of ours, buried deep in the earth in a hollowed-out oak tree located between
two stone pyramids that had been set up a long time ago in a holy burial ground at
Glastonbury. The body was revealed by strange and almost miraculous signs and was
transported to a church with great honor and fittingly housed in a marble tomb that bore
a lead cross with a stone placed under it. . . . I myself have seen this, and I have traced the
letters engraved on the cross, which do not project forward but rather inwardly toward the
stone: “Here lies buried the famous King Arthur with Guinevere [Wenneveria] his second
wife on the Island of Avalon.”
There are several things to note here, for he did indeed have two wives, of whom the last
was buried with him, and her bones were found at the same time with her husband’s, but
set apart in this way: two-thirds of the tomb toward the head contained the bones of the
man, while the other third held the woman’s remains. A golden handful of woman’s hair
was found there, retaining its fresh wholeness and radiance, but when a certain monk
greedily reached out and grabbed it the hair dissolved into dust.
Now although there had been certain indications in writings that the body would be found
there . . . and visions and revelations were made to many virtuous and holy men, King
Henry II of England revealed everything to the monks, just as he had heard it recited to
him by a Welsh bard who sang of ancient deeds: that they would find the body sixteen
feet deep in the earth in a hollow oak, not in a marble tomb. It had been buried this deeply
so that the Saxons, who took over the island after Arthur’s death, and whom he had
vigorously beaten back while alive and had almost totally destroyed, could not find it; and
that is why the inscription was turned inwardly toward the stone. . . .
 Arthur in the Latin Chronicles | 7

The burial place is now known as Glastonbury, and in ancient times it was called the Island
of Avalon. It is indeed almost an island, being surrounded by marshes; and so in the British
language it was called Inis Avallon or Apple Island, since apples grow there in abundance.
Then too Morgan, the noble matron and lady-ruler of those parts, who was closely related
by blood to King Arthur, transported Arthur after the Battle of Kemelen [Camlan] to this
island, now called Glaston, to heal his wounds. In the British language it was once called
Inis Gutrin (that is, Glass Island), and for that reason the Saxons dubbed it Glastonbury
since Glas means “glass” in their tongue, and bury is “city” or “camp.”
You should also know that Arthur’s bones were huge. . . . His shinbone, when placed on
the ground by a monk next to that of the tallest man there, reached three fingers beyond
the man’s knee. And his skull was so broad and long as to be a wonder or marvel, and the
space between his brows and eyes was the breadth of a full palm. There appeared on him
also ten wounds or more, largely scarred over, except for one, which was larger than the
rest and showed a big cut, which seemed to have been lethal.
[Text in Chambers, pp. 269–71]

These are the most important Latin writings for the question of Arthur’s actual existence.
Work done in the 1980s by Geoffrey Ashe and others has shown that behind the puzzling
traditions we may glimpse the figure of a known British leader who took an army to Gaul in
the final confusion surrounding the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. This man is
documented overseas as “Riothamus,” a name that latinizes a Celtic title meaning “Supreme
King”; and it could have been used as the official epithet of a chieftain whose actual name
was something else—Arthur, for instance. Hints in The Legend of St. Goeznovius do in fact
suggest that its author is referring to the same person when he indicates that Arthur went
over to Gaul, and several other medieval writers give Arthur much the same dating as this
“Supreme King.” If the identification or semi-identification is correct there is an even broader
base for assuming Arthur’s true historical presence.
Similarly, work has been done to try to identify Camelot and other places of Arthurian
interest. Leslie Alcock has made a good case for placing the otherwise mythical Camelot in
Cadbury. There are also possible or probable locations for numerous other sites. Tintagel
Castle has long been known to have existed in Cornwall, while Mt. Badon has been identified
most convincingly as Liddington Castle near Swindon, and the Isle of Avalon probably was,
as the chronicles themselves say, Glastonbury.
But for many readers of Arthurian tales the historical side, while fascinating, is the least
important part of a broad vehicle of legend and myth that has replenished the European
imagination for centuries, from Chrétien de Troyes to T.H. White. The true father of this
mythic material is the pseudo-historian Geoffrey of Monmouth, whose work appears in
Chapter 4. Meanwhile, aside from the chronicles, which were written by men of the church
who were often Germanic rather than Celtic in their sympathies, the myth of Arthur grew
where he properly belonged: among the common people who had been displaced in Wales
and Cornwall and who were looking desperately for a messianic figure of salvation. Their
literature appears in Chapters 2 and 3.
8 | James J. Wilhelm

BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTE

All historical citations are taken from E.K. Chambers’s Arthur of Britain, which, although published in 1927 (reprinted
by Barnes and Noble in 1964), remains a standard source. For Tatlock’s discussion of Goeznovius see Speculum, 14
(1939), 361–65; for Fleuriot’s see Les Origines de la Bretagne (1980), p. 277. Ashe’s consideration of “Riothamus”
appears in Speculum, 56 (1981), 301–23.
Chapter 2

Arthur in the
Early Welsh Tradition
John K. Bollard

The texts in this chapter include most of the early Welsh Arthurian poems that precede or
are independent of Geoffrey of Monmouth’s History of the Kings of Britain. While they are
too often obscure or fragmentary, these Welsh materials—many considerably earlier than the
twelfth century—demonstrate clearly the deepest roots of Arthurian narrative in Welsh
tradition. In the poems and allusions below, two differing aspects of Arthur are revealed. He
appears in the earliest source as an ideal warrior against whom others are measured, and this
is perhaps the basic Arthurian assumption at the core of all later developments. From this
legendary beginning, possibly stemming from an historical figure, Arthur had developed by
the ninth century into a hero of folk tales and tales of wonder, contending with monsters,
witches, and giants. Other heroes were gradually drawn into his sphere of influence, thus
establishing Llys Arthur, Arthur’s Court, which from the twelfth century on became the arena
in which, throughout Europe, the tenets of chivalry were refined and where questions of
courtly conduct predominate.
Unlike early French, English, and other authors, the medieval Welsh told their tales in
prose. Medieval Welsh poetry, on the other hand, uses frequent allusions to characters, events,
and stories to make a comment on or point about something or someone else. The original
audiences must have recognized these references, though they are often obscure to the
modern reader. Some, of course, are familiar to us today because the names or tales have
survived elsewhere, but because narrative traditions develop and change over time, we can
rarely be absolutely certain that a tale known to us is the same as that intended in the earlier
poetry. Similarly, thirteenth- and fourteenth-century scribes may have imperfectly under-
stood the older manuscripts they were copying, thus generating errors or inconsistencies that
are left for us to puzzle over, not to mention our own difficulties interpreting language from
a period spanning nine hundred years and ending about five hundred years ago. Thus there
10 | John K. Bollard

is much that is tentative in these translations of early Welsh texts. (See the note concerning
Welsh pronunciation, at the end of this chapter.)
In what may be the earliest surviving reference to him, Arthur appears as a standard of
comparison as a powerful warrior. Sometime in the late sixth century Mynyddog the Wealthy,
a ruler of the Gododdin, in what is now southern Scotland, assembled a war-band from all
Celtic Britain. For a year they feasted at his expense before attacking and suffering a disastrous
defeat from a much larger English force at Catraeth, probably the modern Catterick in
Yorkshire. All but one (or three) of the three hundred warriors were killed. The poet Aneirin,
named as Neirin in Chapter 62 of the Historia Brittonum (The History of the Britons), claims
to have witnessed the battle and to have been captured and rescued, though these details may
be later additions to his original poem, called The Gododdin, surviving only in a thirteenth-
century copy of two earlier versions. The poet was contemporary with the fallen warriors,
and his poem is a long series of elegiac stanzas lamenting their deaths. Aneirin himself may
have been born during Arthur’s lifetime—or at least during the period that tradition assigned
to Arthur.
In the following stanza praising a certain Gwawrddur there is nothing that would exclude it
from the earliest stage of composition (though it might be a later interpolation). We can perhaps
see here the beginnings of the long-lasting practice by which other heroes were glorified and
their reputations enhanced simply by coupling them with the name of Arthur:

He pierced over three hundred of the finest.

He struck at both the center and the flank.
He was worthy in the front of a most generous army.
1240 He gave out gifts from his herd of steeds in the winter.
He fed black ravens [i.e., by killing many enemies] on the wall
of a fortress, though he was not Arthur.
Among the powerful in battle,
in the van, an alder shield-wall – Gwawrddur.

Owain son of Urien was an historical sixth-century lord of Rheged in northern Britain. In
the early fourteenth-century Book of Taliesin there is a short elegy praising him. A dozen of
the sixty-one poems in this manuscript are generally considered (though not with absolute
certainty) to be compositions of the historical sixth-century poet, Taliesin, who is also named
in the Historia Brittonum and who was active in North Wales and the Old North. The elegy
for Owain is one of these twelve, and though it contains no mention of Arthur, it is included
here as the earliest surviving poem on a prominent Arthurian character. Owain, known in
French, German, and English romance as Yvain, Iwein, and Ywayne, was drawn into Arthur’s
court and achieved considerable literary prominence as the eponymous hero of his own
Arthurian tale. Owain son of Urien is, indeed, the only Welsh figure whose name and
patronymic have survived intact. As much as it fits the boasting pattern of heroic elegy,
Taliesin’s poem also reveals the poet’s personal sense of loss of his lord, patron, and perhaps
friend.
 Arthur in the Early Welsh Tradition | 11

Elegy for Owain son of Urien

The soul of Owain son of Urien,
may the Lord consider its need.
The lord of Rheged whom the heavy greensward covers,
it was not shallow to praise him.
5 The grave of a companion renowned in song, of great fame.
His whetted spears were like the dawn’s rays,
for no equal will be found
to the resplendent lord of Llwyfenydd,
reaper of enemies, captor,
10 with the nature of his father and his forebears.
When Owain killed Fflamddwyn [= “Flamebearer”],
it was no harder than sleeping.
The broad host of Lloegr [= England] sleep
With the light in their eyes,
15 and those who did not retreat
were bolder than necessary.
Owain punished them severely,
like a pack of wolves attacking sheep.
A worthy man above his many-colored arms,
20 who gave horses to suitors.
Though he hoarded them like a fierce one,
they were shared for the sake of his soul.
The soul of Owain son of Urien,
may the Lord consider its need.

As the Anglo-Saxons gained sway over what is now England, many displaced British
traditions from the kingdoms of the “Old North” of southern Scotland and northern
England were relocated in Wales. Considerable evidence for this can be seen in a series of
seventy-three stanzas known as “The Stanzas of the Graves,” composed during the ninth or
tenth century and recorded in the mid-thirteenth-century manuscript known as The Black
Book of Carmarthen, the oldest manuscript collection of Welsh poetry, with twenty-four
variant or additional stanzas found in later manuscripts. Here are listed the traditional
gravesites of legendary Welsh heroes, a number of whom are known to have been rulers or
warriors from other parts of Britain. At many of the identifiable locations in Wales we find
prehistoric Bronze- or Iron-Age burial mounds, cairns, cromlechs, or standing stones.
Most important for Arthurian studies is a much-discussed line naming Arthur: anoeth bit
bet y Arthur. The troublesome word in this line is anoeth. It has been variously interpreted,
but a likely sense in this context is “a thing difficult to find or obtain; a wonder.” Arthur
himself uses the plural, anoethau, four times in Culhwch and Olwen, translated in the next
chapter as “rare and difficult things.” A tradition that Arthur’s grave was unknown may reflect
12 | John K. Bollard

(or may even have given rise to) a belief that Arthur was not dead and that he would return
as a deliverer. Such a belief was current among Bretons by the early twelfth century. William
of Malmesbury’s comments, quoted in Chapter 1, on the grave of Walwen and on the
unknown site of Arthur’s grave strongly suggest that William had some knowledge of Welsh
traditions about the graves of heroes similar to what is found in these stanzas. A number of
other names in these stanzas also appear frequently in Arthurian tradition: Gwalchmai is
known outside Wales as Gawain, Gauvain, Walwen, etc.; Bedwyr, frequently partnered with
Cai (Sir Kay) in early Welsh Arthurian tradition, is Bedivere in French and English; March
is the King Mark of the Tristan legend. There seem to be competing claims for Owain’s grave.

from The Stanzas of the Graves

The grave of Gwalchmai in Peryddon [8]
as a reproach to men;
in Llanbadarn, the grave of Cynon.
The grave of the son of Osfran at Camlan [12]
after many a slaughter;
the grave of Bedwyr on Tryfan hill.
The grave of Owain son of Urien in a square grave [13]
under the earth of Llanforfael;
in Abererch, Rhydderch the Generous.
After blue and red and fair [things], [14]
and great strong-necked steeds,
at Llanheledd, the grave of Owain.
A grave for March, a grave for Gwythur, [44]
a grave for Gwgawn Red-Sword;
hard to find in the world, a grave for Arthur.

Another character originally independent of any connection with Arthur is Geraint, son
of Erbin. Like Owain, he too became the hero of a widely known Arthurian tale, though in
the French Erec et Enide, by Chrétien de Troyes, he is given the Breton name, Erec. Geraint
is frequently connected with southwestern Britain and south Wales and may in part be based
on or conflated with the Geraint who was king of Cornwall in the eighth century. He may
perhaps also be the Geraint mentioned in The Gododdin: “[For] Geraint before [the men of ]
the South, a battle-cry was given. /. . . / I know Geraint. You were a generous lord.” Note the
echo of the battle-cry both here and below.
A tenth- to twelfth-century poem in praise of Geraint is found in several manuscripts; ten
of the eighteen stanzas found in the earliest version in The Black Book of Carmarthen are
translated here. The three-line stanzas or englynion (singular englyn) achieve much of their
effect through the use of incremental repetition with some variation in each englyn, especially
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
doctors, should be ignored by coroners. The remedy is plain,—to
have educated midwives, as in Germany.
Dr. J. Clarence Webster, of the Rush Medical College, Chicago, says:
The midwives are, as a class, uneducated and untrained. They are
responsible for the great majority of maternal deaths. Every
gynecologist who works in a large charity hospital can give evidence
of the morbidity among poor women resulting from infection where
the attendant was a midwife. The splendid results obtained by the
lying-in hospitals and dispensaries, where women are attended by
skilled physicians and trained nurses, are chiefly due to a rigid
technique, the essential feature of which is cleanliness. It is a
disgrace to every city that the benefits of such institutions cannot be
extended to all poor women. Any surgeon who would dare to operate
under the conditions observed by midwives would be denounced not
only by the medical profession, but also by the enlightened laity. Yet
the latter are apparently indifferent to the work of the midwife, and
allow her to carry on her dangerous career uncensured. The
extension of the benefits of scientific obstetrics is chiefly due to the
persistence and self-sacrifice of the medical profession, but the
doctors are unable, unaided, to do what remains to be done.
Dr. Francis Quinlin, President of the New York County Medical
Association, says: All reputable physicians who have given the matter
the slightest consideration are of one mind in regard to the menace
to life in the ignorant work of the great majority of midwives. The
New York County Medical Association has let slip no opportunity to
throw the weight of its influence on the side of remedial measures.
That little has been accomplished so far is due to the fact that the
midwife, as she exists to-day, is a time-honored institution, difficult
to uproot. Most midwives have apparently no conception of the
scientific cleanliness which is rightly regarded by physicians as being
of prime importance. The most ordinary antiseptic precautions are
ignored, with the result that, every day, women who have been
attended by midwives are brought to hospitals suffering from blood-
poisoning. In their habits of carelessness the midwives also carry
from one house to another the germs of infectious diseases. In the
interest of a host of poor mothers and of children whose lives are
valuable to the nation, I say that the practice of midwifery should
come under a much closer scrutiny of the law than is now the case.
Dr. Eleanor B. Kilham, Head of the Maternity Department of the
Women’s Infirmary, New York City, says: That much injury results to
mothers and children from the unrestrained practice of midwives
there can be no doubt in the mind of any physician who has been
brought in contact with the conditions. There is an opportunity here
for an important reform, and I am very glad to know that something
is being done in this direction.
(These letters are quoted from Success, April, 1905.)
 IV
MUNICIPALIZATION OF THE MILK SUPPLY
AND THE DANGERS OF STERILIZATION
“The real solution of the milk problem is not the supply of sterilized
milk of doubtful purity, but rather the supply of clean milk from
sources above all suspicion. The transport of milk from long
distances under present conditions, as to cooling, transit, etc., may
render sterilization all important, but the necessity for sterilization
indicates the presence of avoidable organic impurity, and to obtain a
naturally pure milk supply is the really important thing....
“If we municipalize water because the public health aspect is of such
vital importance, then from the same standpoint we should
municipalize the milk supply. We nearly all need milk—many live on
it exclusively; its supply is as regular as the water supply, and its
distribution demands even greater care for a longer time. The
milkman calls more regularly than the postman and the milk bill
comes in as regularly as the rate card. Like the liquor trade, the milk
trade is a simple one, and the dividends of modern dairy companies
show that it is profitable....
“We should bear in mind that, although under present conditions of
supply any stringent enforcement of the most thorough sanitary
regulations on farmers, or any distinct raising of the legal minimum
of fat in milk, would certainly tend to raise the price of milk to the
consumer, and any rise in price would be most unfortunate, yet a
high standard of production and distribution is essential. The only
way to get both low price and a better article is by means of the
enormous economies in distribution, cartage, etc., which would at
once result from municipal ownership....
“Finally, it has been shown that all successful attempts to solve the
question have been those in which the aim has been other than the
ordinary commercial one, and those organizing the supply have been
interested in the public health, and in which there has been thorough
organization on a large scale both in supply and distribution. These
facts alone show that the only solution possible under modern
conditions is that suggested by the municipal ownership and control
of the milk supply.”—F. Lawson Dodd, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., L.D.S.,
Eng., D.P.H., London, in The Problem of the Milk Supply.
Sir Richard Douglas Powell, in his lecture to the Congress of the
Sanitary Institute at Glasgow, in July, 1904, said: “There can be no
doubt that scientifically conducted dairy farms on a large scale, with
urban depots for the reception and dispensing of pure milk in clean
bottles at a fair price to the poor, would pay, and would be a most
laudable employment of the municipal enterprise that is often
devoted to matters of much less urgent public interest and
importance. Apart from the primary benefit of affording a pure milk
supply at a fair price, the object lesson to mothers and families in
food cleanliness would be beyond price.”
Mrs. Watt Smith, an expert employed by the British Medical
Journal, author of The Milk Supply in Large Towns, in her evidence
before the Interdepartmental Committee on Physical Deterioration,
condemned the policy of the English Infants’ Milk Depots, saying:
“The milk comes from an uninspected source; they get it from a local
dealer.... Then they sterilize that milk to make it safe. It is like
purifying sewage to make it into clean water. It is not right.” Dr.
Ralph M. Vincent also condemned the sterilization process for the
same reason, and, in addition, insisted that sterilization impaired the
nutritive value of the milk, causing at least one specific disease,
scorbutus.—Report of the Committee, Vol. II, Minutes of Evidence.
Dr. George W. Goler, whose work in Rochester has been so much
referred to, says: “For two more years the milk was Pasteurized,
though considerable trouble was had with sour milk and in finding a
man to furnish reasonably clean milk. After the first year four
stations in all were required for the needs of four quarters of the city.
Then, in 1899, we established our central station on a farm, and
instead of Pasteurizing milk, with all its contained filth and
bacteria, we strove to keep dirt and germs out of the milk, and
began to sterilize all of the utensils, bottles, etc., and to put out milk
that was clean. Clean milk, or milk approximately clean, having no
more than 20,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter needs no
application of heat to render it fit food for babies. Heat applied to
milk alters it, makes its curd tougher and more difficult to digest,
often gives rise to indigestion, diarrhœa, or constipation in the
infant, and, further, the application of heat to milk in the operation
of Pasteurizing or sterilizing leads people to think they may cure a
condition that is more easily prevented by care in the handling of
milk used for food.”—“But a Thousand a Year,” reprinted from
Charities, August 5, 1905.
 V
A COMMISSIONER OF CHARITIES ON
CHILD LABOR
“The objection that is offered most frequently, and perhaps with
most effect, to further restriction of child labor, is the alleged fact
that in a great many instances the earnings of these little children
are needed to supplement the incomes of widows, of families in
which the husband and wage-earner may be either temporarily or
permanently or partially disabled, and that without the small
addition which the earnings of these little boys and girls can bring in,
there would be suffering and distress. It would be easy, I think, to
overestimate the extent to which that is true.... So we should not
admit that that side is more serious than it is, but do let us cheerfully,
frankly, gladly add that there would be many cases in which the
proposed legislation (for the restriction of child labor) would deprive
many families of earnings from their children, and that we propose
ourselves to step into the breach and provide that relief in good
hard cash that passes in the market.... If larger means are necessary
to support these children so that they need not depend on their own
labor, by all means let us put up the money and not push the children
for a part of their support before the time when they should naturally
furnish a part of their support.... In the long run it is never cheap to
be cruel or hard. It is never wise to drive a hard bargain with
childhood.”—Extract from an address by Homer Folks,
Commissioner of Charities, New York.
NOTES AND AUTHORITIES
 I. The Blighting of the Babies
1. The Theory and Practice of Infant Feeding, by Henry Dwight
Chapin, A.M., M.D.

2. Registrar General’s Report, 1886, pp. 32–126.

3. Population Française, Levasseur, vol. ii, p. 403.

4. Tenement Conditions in Chicago, by Robert Hunter, pp. 154–

157.

5. Poverty, by Robert Hunter, p. 144.

6. The Diseases of Children, by Henry Ashby, M.D., Lond., and G.

A. Wright, B.A., M.B., Oxon., p. 12.

7. Transactions of the National Association for the Promotion of

Social Science, 1882, p. 388.

8. Mulhall’s Dictionary of Statistics, p. 133.

9. Report of the Interdepartmental Committee on Physical

Deterioration. Evidence.

10. Idem. Evidence of Dr. Eichholz and Others.

11. Parliamentary Paper [Cd. 1501] containing a Memorandum by

Sir William Taylor, the Director-General, Army Medical
Service.
See also a letter to the London Times, February 2, 1903, by
General F. Maurice.

12. Tenement Conditions in Chicago, p. 157.

13. Information received from the Commissioner of Health.

14. Trans. Nat. Ass’n for the Promotion of Social Science, 1882, p.
387.

15. The Nutrition of the Infant, by Ralph M. Vincent, M.D., p. 246.

16. Diseases of Children, Ashby and Wright, p. 228.

17. Idem., pp. 44–45.

18. Figures quoted from a newspaper report of an interview with

Mr. Straus.

19. See the Article, But a Thousand a Year, in Charities, August 5,

1905; Infants’ Milk Depots and Infant Mortality, by Dr. G. F.
McCleary; The Problem of the Milk Supply, by Dr. Lawson
Dodd, etc.

20. Report Interdepartmental Committee, vol. ii, p. 442; Vincent,

op. cit., pp. 268 et seq.

21. Report of the Health of the City of Birmingham, 1902, by Dr.

Alfred Hill. Quoted by Vincent, op. cit., p. 272.

22. Vincent, op. cit. Also Testimony before the Interdepartmental

Committee contained in the Report Evidence.

23. Mass and Class, by W. J. Ghent, p. 182.

24. From the newspaper report of an interview referred to above.

25. A Noviciate for Marriage, by Mrs. H. Ellis.

26. Twentieth Annual Report of the N. Y. Bureau of Labor

Statistics, p. 61.

27. Charities, April 1, 1905.

28. See, e.g., the Fortnightly Review for 1876, the Contemporary
Review for 1882, and the various Transactions of the National
Society for the Promotion of Social Science.
29. Methods of Social Reform, by W. S. Jevons.

30. Report of the Proceedings of the Third International Congress

for the Welfare and Protection of Children,—Speech of Mr.
Hartley, B. N. Mothersole, M.A., LL.D., p. 166.

31. Idem.
Also the Transactions of the Nat. Soc. for the Promotion of
Social Science, p. 384.

32. Primitive Folk, by Élie Reclus, p. 35.

33. See the Comparative Summary of Legislation upon this Subject

in Dangerous Trades, edited by Prof. T. Oliver, pp. 53, 54.

34. Vide Report of the Interdepartmental Committee on Physical

Deterioration and the frequent discussions in the British Press.

35. Transactions of the National Society for the Promotion of

Social Science, 1882, p. 363.

36. Idem., p. 382.

37. Statistisches Jahrbuch für das Deutsche Reich, 1904.

38. Diseases of Children, by Ashby and Wright, pp. 14 et seq.

39. See, e.g., Infants’ Milk Depots and Infant Mortality, by G. F.

McCleary.

40. Report on Les Crèches, by Dr. Eugène Deschamps, Congrès

International d’Hygiene et de Démographie à Paris, 1900.
Other works consulted include: How the Other Half Lives, by
Jacob A. Riis; The Battle with the Slum, by the same author;
The Diseases of Infancy and Childhood, by L. Emmet Holt,
M.D., LL.D.
System of Medicine, edited by Clifford Allbutt.
Antenatal Pathology, by J. W. Ballantyne, M.D.
The Study of Children, by Francis Warner, M.D., London,
F.R.C.S., F.R.C.P.
The Nervous System of the Child, by the same author.
In the preparation of the text free use has also been made of the
files of the following journals: British Journal of Children’s
Diseases; British Medical Journal; New York Medical Journal,
Archives of Pediatrics; Lancet, Journal of the American
Medical Association, etc.
 II. The School Child
41. The Handwriting on the Wall, by J. C. Cooper, p. 222.

42. Education and the Larger Life, by C. Hanford Henderson, p.

85.

43. Poverty, by Robert Hunter, p. 11.

44. Hunter, op. cit., p. 216.

See also Mr. Hunter’s article, The Heritage of the Hungry, in
the Reader Magazine, September, 1905.

45. Address to the National Educational Association, September

24, 1904, as reported in the newspapers.

46. See Dr. Warner’s excellent little books, Mental Faculty; The
Study of Children; The Nervous System of the Child, for a
discussion of nervous signs and the whole subject of child
health.

47. The tendency of children to give such answers has been

frequently noted and pointed out by foreign investigators. In
general, I think it can safely be said that children are prone to
hide their poverty and to exaggerate in an opposite direction.

48. Report to State Board of Charities. R. Hunter, The Heritage of

the Hungry.

49. The Hunger Problem in the Public Schools—What the Canvass

of Six Big Cities Reveals. Special correspondence in the
Philadelphia North American, May 21, 1905.

50. Idem.

51. Idem.
52. Idem.

53. Testimony before the Interdepartmental Committee on

Physical Deterioration, the Royal Commission on Physical
Training (Scotland), Reports of the London School Board on
Underfed Children, etc.

54. Quoted by G. Stanley Hall, in Adolescence.

55. Idem.

56. Final Report (1882–1883) of the Anthropometric Committee

appointed by the British Association in 1875.

57. The figures quoted are taken from an excellent little pamphlet,
The Cost of Child Labor,—A Study of Diseased and Disabled
Children, published by the Child Labor Committee of
Pennsylvania.

58. Poverty,—A Town Study, by B. S. Rowntree.

59. In the pamphlet, The Cost of Child Labor, above referred to.

60. Annual Report of the Massachusetts State Board of Health,

1877.

61. Growth of St. Louis School Children, by William T. Porter.

Report of the Academy of Science of St. Louis, vol. vi, pp. 263–
380.

62. Special Report of Anthropological Investigation of 1000 white

and colored Children of the New York Juvenile Asylum, by Dr.
Hrdlicka.

63. Report of the Royal Commission on Physical Training

(Scotland), p. 30.

64. State Maintenance, by J. Hunter Watts, p. 10.

65. Adolescence, by G. Stanley Hall.

66. Feeble-minded Children in the Public Schools, by Will S.
Monroe.

67. The Cost of Child Labor, pamphlet quoted above.

68. G. Stanley Hall, op. cit., vol. i, p. 401.

69. A Study in Youthful Degeneracy, by George E. Dawson, in the

Pedagogical Seminary, iv, 2.

70. American Journal of Psychology, October, 1898.

71. Dr. Eichholz, Evidence before the Interdepartmental

Committee on Physical Deterioration.

72. Reported in the New York Times, May 10, 1905.

73. Overpressure in Elementary Schools, by James Crichton-

Browne, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., printed by Order of the House of
Commons.

74. See Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, February, 1893.

75. Hansard’s Debates, 1883.

76. Justice, Organ of the Social Democratic Federation, vol. i, No.

35, September 13, 1884.

77. Letter to the London Times, September 26, 1901.

78. Report of the Committee; Evidence, p. 484.

79. Idem.

80. Beretning om Kristiania folkeskolevæsen,—various yearly

reports.

81. School Luncheons in the Special Classes of the Public Schools—

A Suggestive Experiment, by Elizabeth Farrell, in Charities,
March 11, 1905.
 Undernourished School Children, by Lillian Wald, a letter in
Charities, March 25, 1905.

82. Hungry Children in New York Public Schools, by E. Stagg

Whitin, in the Commons, May, 1905.
Hungry Children are Poor Scholars, an unsigned article in the
Official Journal of the Brotherhood of Painters, Decorators,
and Paperhangers of America, May, 1905.

83. See American Charities, by Professor Warner, for a careful

statement of this point.

84. Sixth Biennial Report of the Board of Control and

Superintendent of the Minnesota State Public School for
Dependent and Neglected Children.
Other works consulted include: Mentally Deficient Children:
Their Care and Training, by George E. Shuttleworth; The
History of the Treatment of the Feeble-minded, by Walter E.
Fernald; After Bread, Education, by Hubert Bland, 1905;
Official Report of the National Labor Conference on the State
Maintenance of Children, held at the Guildhall, London,
Friday, January 20, 1905, Sir John Gorst, M.P., Presiding;
Report of Investigations into Social Conditions in Dundee,
Scotland—The Medical Inspection of School Children; Report
to the Municipal Council of Paris on the Annual Expenditures
in Connection with the Cantines Scolaires; Various Reports of
the U. S. Commissioner of Education; Reports of the
Department of Education in many American and Foreign
Cities.
The Pedagogical Seminary.
Special Reports on Educational Subjects, issued by the Board of
Education (England).
 III. The Working Child
85. Politics, by Aristotle, A. IV, 4.

86. Architecture, Industry, and Wealth, by William Morris, p. 138.

87. Idem.

88. Farfolloni de gli Antichi Historici, by Abb. Lancellotti (Venice,

1636), quoted by Karl Marx in Capital, English edition, p. 427.

89. Marx, op. cit., p. 428.

90. A Description of the Country from Thirty to Forty Miles round

Manchester, by Dr. Aikin. Quoted by R. W. Cooke-Taylor, The
Factory System and the Factory Acts, p. 17.

91. Cooke-Taylor, op. cit., gives the real name of “Alfred” as

Samuel Kydd, a barrister-at-law.

92. Memoirs of Robert Blincoe, N.D.

Cooke-Taylor, Modern Factory System, pp. 189–198.
Annals of Toil, by J. Morrison Davidson, p. 262.
Industrial History of England, H. de B. Gibbins.

93. H. de B. Gibbins, op. cit., pp. 178–181.

94. Life of Robert Owen, Written by Himself, vol. i, xxvi, pp. 57 et

seq.

95. H. de B. Gibbins, op. cit., p. 181.

96. Cooke-Taylor, The Factory System and the Factory Acts, p. 55.

97. Idem.
 98. H. de B. Gibbins, op. cit., p. 181.

99. Hansard, 1832.

100. The whole poem is given in Mr. H. S. Salt’s little anthology,

Songs of Freedom, p. 81.

101. Report on the Ten Hours Bill. J. Morrison Davidson, op. cit., p.
268.

102. Robert Hunter, Child Labor in New York, Being a Report to the
Governor of New York.

103. Child Labor Legislation—A Requisite for Industrial Efficiency,

by Jane Addams, in the Annals of the American Academy, May,
1905, p. 131.

104. Problems of the Present South, by Edgar Gardner Murphy, p.

313.

105. Quoted in Charities, August 26, 1905.

106. Illiteracy Promoted by Perjury. A pamphlet issued by the

Pennsylvania Child Labor Committee.

107. U. S. Census, vol. ii.

108. Illiteracy Promoted by Perjury, p. 3.

109. U. S. Census, Occupations.

110. E. G. Murphy, op. cit., p. 110.

111. Annals of the American Academy, May, 1905, p. 21.

112. Jane Addams, op. cit., p. 131.

113. E. G. Murphy, op. cit., p. 143.

114. Idem., p. 103.

115. An address to the Manufacturers of Cotton, delivered at
Glasgow, by Robert Owen, 1815.

116. U. S. Census, vol. ix.

117. Idem.

118. Report (unpublished) to the Child Labor Committee, by Owen

R. Lovejoy.

119. Child Labor Legislation. Schedules of Existing Legislation.

Handbook of National Consumers’ League, compiled by J. C.
Goldmark and Madeline Wallin Sikes.

120. The Needless Destruction of Boys, by Florence Kelley,

Charities, June 3, 1905.

121. Boys in the Glass Industry, by Harriet M. Van Der Vaart, the
Churchman, May 6, 1905.

122. Owen R. Lovejoy, report quoted.

123. Florence Kelley, op. cit.

124. The Anthracite Coal Communities, by Peter Roberts, Ph.D., p.

177.
Poverty, by Robert Hunter, p. 237.

125. Working Children in Pennsylvania—Pamphlet issued by the

Child Labor Committee of Pennsylvania.

126. Child Labor in New York, by Robert Hunter, p. 5.

127. Idem.

128. U. S. Census, vol. viii, Manufactures, Part II.

129. From a press report of a lecture at Plymouth Church, Brooklyn,

N.Y., by Margaret Dreier (Mrs. Raymond Robins).
130. From an address by Mrs. Florence Kelley, delivered at the
Annual Meeting of the Consumers’ League, January, 1904.
Published in the Report of the Consumers’ League of New York
for the year ending December, 1903.

131. Transactions Illinois Child Study Association, vol. i, No. 1.

132. Labor Problems, by Thomas Sewall Adams, Ph.D., and Helen L.

Sumner, A.B., pp. 62 et seq.

133. “In a recent investigation made by the Minnesota Bureau of

Labor, it was found that, of the few wage-earners considered,
the boys under sixteen had twice as many accidents as the
adults, and the girls under sixteen thirty-three times as many
accidents as the women.”—Adams and Sumner, op. cit., p. 63.

134. The Cost of Child Labor—pamphlet issued by the Child Labor

Committee of Pennsylvania, p. 31.

135. Children in American Street Trades, by Myron E. Adams, in the

Annals of the American Academy, May, 1905.

136. Child Labor—The Street, by Ernest Poole.

Child Labor—Factories and Stores, by Ernest Poole.
Myron E. Adams, op. cit.

137. Ernest Poole, op. cit.

138. Idem.

139. Unprotected Children—pamphlet issued by the Child Labor

Committee of Pennsylvania.

140. See also Child Labor in New Jersey, by Hugh F. Fox, in Annals
of the American Academy, July, 1902.

141. Jane Addams, op. cit., p. 131.

142. The Minotola Strike, by the Hon. John W. Westcott, in
Wilshire’s Magazine, September, 1903.

143. Hannah R. Sewall, op. cit., p. 491.

144. Child Labor in Southern Industry, by A. J. McKelway, in

Annals of the American Academy, May, 1905, p. 433.

145. The Economics of Socialism, by Henry M. Hyndman, p. 80.

146. See, for instance, Poverty, by Robert Hunter, p. 244; Mrs.

Sidney Webb, in The Case for the Factory Acts, etc.

147. History of Coöperation, by George Jacob Holyoake, vol. i, p.

213.

148. Mrs. Sidney Webb, op. cit.

149. Report of the Consumers’ League of the City of New York,

1903, p. 21.

150. The Children of the Coal Shadow, McClure’s Magazine, 1902.

151. The Churchman, August 5, 1905.

152. The Operation of the New Child Labor Law in New Jersey, by
Hugh F. Fox, in Annals of the American Academy, May, 1905.
Other works consulted include:—
Report of the Royal Commission on Labor (England); Report of
the Interdepartmental Committee on Physical Deterioration.
Hull House Maps and Papers.
Reports of the Industrial Commission (especially vol. xix).
Dangerous Trades, edited by Professor T. Oliver.
The Effects of the Factory System, by Allen Clarke.
Various Reports of the Different Bureaus of Labor, etc.
 IV. Remedial Measures
153. The Diseases of Children, by Henry Ashby, M.D., and G. A.
Wright, B.A., pp. 14 et seq.

154. Idem.
See also the article on The Shameful Misuse of Wealth, by
Cleveland Moffett, in Success, March, 1905.

155. See, e.g., the letters from several leading physicians on this
subject in Success, April, 1905 (Appendix C).

156. Cleveland Moffett, op. cit.

157. Idem.

158. Hygiène de la Femme Enceinte. De la Puericulture

Intrauterine, par Dr. A. Pinard. Xe Congrès International
d’Hygiène, etc., Paris, 1900, p. 417.
Factory Employment and Childbirth, by Adelaide M. Anderson,
in Dangerous Trades, edited by Professor Thomas Oliver.
Is the High Infantile Death-rate due to the Occupation of
Married Women? by Mrs. F. J. Greenwood, Sanitary Inspector
for Sheffield. Reprinted from the Englishwoman’s Review,
1901.
In Germany, it is worth remembering, the working woman who
is compelled to cease work owing to the birth of a child receives
a sum equal to half her weekly wage.—See Infant Mortality and
Factory Labor, by Dr. George Reid, in Dangerous Trades, p. 89.

159. Report of the Interdepartmental Committee on Physical

Deterioration.

160. The Social Unrest, by John Graham Brooks, p. 292.

161. Vide leaflet issued by the Child Labor Committee of New York.

162. How to Save the Babies of the Tenements, by Virginia M.

Walker, in Charities, August 5, 1905.

163. Report of the Interdepartmental Committee on Physical

Deterioration, vol. ii, pp. 442–450.
The Nutrition of the Infant, by Ralph M. Vincent, M.D.
The Problem of the Milk Supply, by F. Lawson Dodd, M.R.C.S.
Infantile Mortality and Infants’ Milk Depots, by G. F. McCleary,
M.D.

164. Projet pour le Contrôle Hygiènique de l’Approvisionnement du

Lait Municipal, by George W. Goler, M.D.
But a Thousand a Year, by George W. Goler, M.D., reprinted
from Charities.

165. The School Child, the School Nurse, and the Local School
Board, by Elsie Clews Parsons, Charities, September 23, 1905.

166. Report of the Interdepartmental Committee on Physical

Deterioration, vol. i, p. 47.

167. Idem.

168. The figures are quoted from a speech by Mr. Homer Folks, at
the first annual meeting of the Association for the Study and
Prevention of Tuberculosis, held at Washington, D.C., May 18–
19, 1905.

169. Virginia M. Walker, op. cit.

170. Idem.

171. Ralph M. Vincent, M.D., op. cit., also evidence given before the
Interdepartmental Committee on Physical Deterioration.
Virginia M. Walker, op. cit.
172. This paragraph is taken, with slight changes, from my paper on
The Problem of the Underfed Children in our Public Schools, in
the Independent, May 11, 1905.

173. See the Official Report of the National Labor Conference on the
State Maintenance of Children, Held at the Guildhall, London,
etc.

174. See, for instance, the evidence given by Mr. John Tweedy,
F.R.C.S. and L.R.C.P., President of the Royal College of
Surgeons and of the Ophthalmological Society of the United
Kingdom, before the Interdepartmental Committee.

175. Physical Efficiency in Children, by Sir James Crichton Browne,

in the Report of the International Congress for the Welfare and
Protection of Children, London, 1902.
See also the Reports of the Interdepartmental Committee and
the Royal Commission on Physical Training (Scotland), for
descriptions of the systems adopted in various European cities.
The Medical Inspection of School Children, by W. L.
Mackenzie, M.A., M.D.
For a very suggestive, but technical, account of a system of
medical inspection adopted in Dundee, Scotland, see the
Report of Investigation into Social Conditions, published by the
Dundee Social Union,—Part I, The Medical Inspection of
School Children.

176. The Heritage of the Hungry, by Robert Hunter.

177. Special Reports on Educational Subjects, issued by the

(English) Board of Education.

178. Royal Commission on Physical Training (Scotland), Report.

179. Idem.

180. Poverty, by Robert Hunter, p. 259.

181. The importance of attending to the teeth of school children has
been sadly overlooked in the United States. In some of our
cities, notably Rochester, N.Y., the attention of the medical
inspectors of the schools has been specially directed to the
teeth, with important results. See, for instance, the paper by
Dr. Goler on Some General Tuberculosis Problems, in the New
York State Journal of Medicine, August, 1905.

182. Bulletin of the U. S. Bureau of Labor, No. 59, p. 309.

183. The Field before the National Child Labor Committee, by

Homer Folks, in Charities, October 1, 1904.
Child Labor and the Schools, by Florence Lucas Sanville, in
Charities, August 26, 1905.
Illiterate Children in the Great Industrial States, by Florence
Kelley, reprinted from Charities.

184. Child Labor.—The Street, by Ernest Poole.

Children in American Street Trades, by Myron E. Adams, in the
Annals of the American Academy, May, 1905.
The Employment of Children, with Special Reference to Street
Trading, by Robert Peacock, Chief Constable of Manchester
(England). A Paper read at the Third International Congress
for the Welfare and Protection of Children, London, 1902.—
Report, pp. 191–202.
See also the evidence given by various witnesses before the
Royal Commission on Physical Training (Scotland).

185. Education and the Larger Life, by C. Hanford Henderson, p.

142.
 INDEX

A
Aberdeen, underfed school children in, 272.
Addams, Jane, 148, 196.
Adenoids, 107, 296.
Adulteration of Food, 85.
Aikin, Dr., 130.
Airy, Dr., H.M.I., 112, 113.
Alabama:
Child Labor Committee, 142.
Child Labor in, 148, 149.
Alcoholzehntel (Switzerland), 254.
“Alfred,” History of the Factory Movement, 131.
Allentown, Pennsylvania, 183, 184.
Anæmia, 5, 83, 294.
Annual Register, 1792, 135.
Apprentices, pauper, 131–140.
Aristotle, 100, 125, 126, 127.
Artificial flower making, 146, 172, 173, 177.
Ashby, Dr. Henry, 18.
Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor, 233.
Asthma, 164.
Asylums:
New York Foundling, 22.
New York Juvenile, 187.
Furnishing Child Labor, 198.
Atrophy, 21.
Augusta, Georgia, 150.
Australia:
Death-rate reduced in, 245, 247.
Women nurse inspectors in, 244.
B
Back Bay, Boston, 7.
Backward Children:
Become child laborers, 103.
Condition traceable to poor nutrition, 108, 278
Experiments in feeding, 115–116.
Improvement of, when properly fed, 276.
Injurious influence of, on other children, 102.
Investigation of, in California, 101–102.
Number of, in United States, estimated, 102.
Poor physique of, 100–101.
Results of feeding in England, 111, 273.
Results of feeding in France, 115.
Results of feeding in Norway, 115, 276.
Special classes for, 101.
Tend to become criminals and paupers, 104, 105.
Baillestre, Dr., 21 n.
Ballantyne, Dr., 9 n.
Beach, Dr. Fletcher, 108.
Beading slippers, 172.
Belgium:
Meals for school children in, 276.
Medical inspection in schools, 253, 276, 277.
(See also Brussels.)
Belgravia, London, 5.
Berlin:
Infant death-rate reduced in, 247.
School meals in, 274.
School sanatoria in, 255.
Still-births registered in, 52.
Bethnal Green, London, 5.
Beyer, Professor, 100.
Biddeford, Maine, 153.
Birmingham, England:
Board of Education, 112.
Feeding of school children in, 112, 113, 272, 273.
Infant mortality in, 26.
Blincoe, Robert, quoted, 132.
Blood poisoning, 223.
Board of Charities, New York, 83.
Board of Education, Birmingham, England, 112, 113.
Board of Education, New York, 65, 66, 73.
Board of Education, Sheffield, England, 110.
Board of Health:
As educational agency, 244.
Lawrence, Massachusetts, 39.
New York City, 299.
Rochester, New York, 28.
Board of Regents, 225.
Bootblacks, 184.
Boston:
Child-labor legislation in, 259.
Death-rate in, 7.
Physical condition of poor children in, 98.
Underfed school children in, 85, 89.
Bowditch, Dr., 98.
Bowel disorders caused by malnutrition, 82.
Brassey, Thomas, 201.
British Anthropometric Committee, 96.
British Interdepartmental Committee:
Continuation classes recommended by, 241.
Dr. Airy’s evidence before, 112–133.
Dr. Vincent’s evidence before, 235.
Heredity considered, 291–294.
Obstetrical statistics, 8–9.
Regulations concerning the employment of married women, 230.
British Medical Association, 108.
Bronchitis:
Candy making predisposing to, 179.
Infant mortality from, 21.
Rachitis predisposing to, 15, 17, 298.
Browning, Mrs., 57.
Brussels:
Medical examination of school children, 253, 254, 277.
School dinners in, 276.
Buffalo, New York:
Child-labor legislation in, 259.
Underfed school children in, 83, 84, 85.
Bumbledom, British, 131, 134, 150.
C
Caisse des écoles, 278–286.
California, backward school children in, 101, 102.
Canning Factories:
In Maine, 170.
Maryland, 169, 170.
New York, 169.
Cantines Scolaires, 115, 249, 277–280, 282–287.
Cartwright’s invention, 126.
Charities, 234 n.
Charity:
Dangers arising from, 236.
Failure of, 54.
Important experimental work done by, 234.
Chicago:
Child-labor investigation in, 208.
Comparative death-rates, 5.
Physical condition of working children, 175.
School meals in, 273.
Still-births in, non-registration of, 12.
Stock yards, child labor in, 189.
Studies of Smedley and Christopher in, 100.
Underfed school children in, 84, 85, 89, 273–274.
Child Labor:
Backward children and, 103.
Census figures of, inadequate, 144.
Cheap goods and, 261.
Cost to society of, 194.
Dangerous conditions surrounding, 168, 175–181.
Domestic industry and, 127–129.
German legislation on, 257.
Immigration and, 214.
In Alabama, 142, 149.
In canning factories, 168, 169, 170.
In cigar and tobacco factories, 167.
In England and Scotland, 130–140.
In Georgia, 150.
In glass factories, 154–162.
In Illinois, 208.
In Indiana, 154, 155, 161.
In laundries, 168.
In Maine, 153.
In Maryland, 169–170.
In Massachusetts, 153.
In mines and quarries, 163, 167.
In New Hampshire, 153.
 In New Jersey, 152, 154, 198.
In New Lanark, 134–135.
In New York, 141, 144.
In Ohio, 154, 159, 160, 162.
In Pennsylvania, 143, 144, 151, 154, 155, 163–164, 165, 166, 167,
168, 183.
In restaurants and hotels, 168.
In South Carolina, 148, 149.
In Southern states, 141, 142, 148, 149, 150, 151, 199.
In stores, 168.
In textile industries, 148–154.
In United States, 142, 143, 145.
In West Virginia, 166.
In wood-working industries, 168.
Industrial revolution and, 130–140.
Introduction of machinery retarded by, 203.
Machine age and, 129.
Machinery and, 202.
Moral ills of, 181–190.
Parental responsibility for, 205, 206.
Reasons for, 195–217, 305–306.
Synonymous with slavery, 127.
Unions opposed to, 193.
Unnecessary, 200.
Wages of adults affected by, 192, 194.
Child Labor Committee:
Alabama Child Labor Committee, 142.
National Child Labor Committee, 163.
New York Child Labor Committee, 169.
Pennsylvania Child Labor Committee, 144.
Cholera infantum, 21.
Cholera morbus, 21.
Christiania, school meals in, 115, 275.
Christopher, Professor, 100.
Cleveland, Ohio, underfed school children in, 85, 89.
Coe, Dr. Henry C., 300.
Colonies Scolaires, 254, 255.
Columbia University, 116.
Committee of House of Commons, 139.
Competition of children with elders, 192.
Consumers’ League of New York, 208.
Consumption:
Among children, 175.
Infantile mortality from, 21.
Leather work predisposing to, 178.
Miners’, 164. (See also Tuberculosis.)
Continuation classes, 241, 242.
Convulsions:
Infantile mortality from, 19, 21.
Rachitis predisposing to, 17, 298.
Cotton manufacture, see Textile industries.
Crèches, 50, 55, 221, 231–233, 242.
Crichton-Browne, Dr., 108.
Cronin, Dr. John, 109, 253.
Croup, infant mortality from, 21.
D
Dale, David, 134.
Dangerous occupations, 175–181.
Daniel, Dr. Annie S., quoted, 34.
Danton, quoted, 247.
Darlington, Dr. Thomas, quoted, 299.
Dawson, Professor, 195.
Death-rates:
Among English pauper apprentices, 134.
Birmingham, England, 26.
Comparative general, 6, 7.