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Finite Element Method
Finite Element Method
Physics and Solution Methods

Sinan Müftü
Professor, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Northeastern University, Boston, United States
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier

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and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional
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Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described
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editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a
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This book is dedicated to my family

Lynne, Serra, and Emre

Yunus, Gülgün, and Ali
Contents

Preface xv
Acknowledgment xix

1. Introduction 1
1.1 Modeling and simulation 1
1.1.1 Boundary and initial value problems 1
1.1.2 Boundary value problems 3
1.2 Solution methods 5

2. Mathematical modeling of physical systems 9

2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Governing equations of structural mechanics 9
2.2.1 External forces, internal forces, and stress 9
2.2.2 Stress transformations 12
2.2.3 Deformation and strain 17
2.2.4 Strain compatibility conditions 21
2.2.5 Generalized Hooke’s law 22
2.2.6 Two-dimensional problems 27
2.2.7 Balance laws 30
2.2.8 Boundary conditions 32
2.2.9 Total potential energy of conservative systems 36
2.3 Mechanics of a flexible beam 41
2.3.1 Equation of motion of a beam 43
2.3.2 Kinematics of the Euler–Bernoulli beam 45
2.3.3 Stresses in an Euler-Bernoulli beam 46
2.3.4 Kinematics of the Timoshenko beam 47
2.3.5 Stresses in a Timoshenko Beam 48
2.3.6 Governing equations of the Euler–Bernoulli beam
theory 48
2.3.7 Governing equations of the Timoshenko beam theory 49
2.4 Heat transfer 50
2.4.1 Conduction heat transfer 50
2.4.2 Convection heat transfer 51
2.4.3 Radiation heat transfer 51
2.4.4 Heat transfer equation in a one-dimensional solid 53
2.4.5 Heat transfer in a three-dimensional solid 56

vii
viii Contents

2.5 Problems 58
References 59

3. Integral formulations and variational methods 61

3.1 Introduction 61
3.2 Mathematical background 63
3.2.1 Divergence theorem 63
3.2.2 Green-Gauss theorem 63
3.2.3 Integration by parts 64
3.2.4 Fundamental lemma of calculus of variations 64
3.2.5 Adjoint and self-adjoint operators 64
3.3 Calculus of variations 65
3.3.1 Variation of a functional 66
3.3.2 Functional derivative 67
3.3.3 Properties of functionals 68
3.3.4 Properties of the variational derivative 69
3.3.5 Euler–Lagrange equations and boundary conditions 69
3.4 Weighted residual integral and the weak form of the
boundary value problems 74
3.4.1 Weighted residual integral 74
3.4.2 Boundary conditions 75
3.4.3 The weak form 76
3.4.4 Relationship between the weak form and functionals 77
3.5 Method of weighted residuals 85
3.5.1 Rayleigh–Ritz method 86
3.5.2 Galerkin method 87
3.5.3 Polynomials as basis functions for Rayleigh–Ritz
and Galerkin methods 87
3.6 Problems 104
References 109

4. Finite element formulation of one-dimensional

boundary value problems 111
4.1 Introduction 111
4.1.1 Boundary value problem 111
4.1.2 Spatial discretization 112
4.2 A second order, nonconstant coefficient ordinary
differential equation over an element 113
4.2.1 Deflection of a one-dimensional bar 113
4.2.2 Heat transfer in a one-dimensional domain 114
4.3 One-dimensional interpolation for finite element method
and shape functions 114
4.3.1 C0 continuous, linear shape functions 115
4.3.2 C0 continuous, quadratic shape functions 117
 Contents ix

4.3.3 General form of C0 shape functions 118

4.3.4 One-dimensional, Lagrange interpolation functions 119
4.4 Equilibrium equations in finite element form 120
4.4.1 Element stiffness matrix for constant problem
parameters 123
4.4.2 Element stiffness matrix for linearly varying problem
parameters a, p, and q 124
4.5 Recovering specific physics from the general finite
element form 124
4.6 Element assembly 125
4.7 Boundary conditions 128
4.7.1 Natural boundary conditions 128
4.7.2 Essential boundary conditions 129
4.8 Computer implementation 130
4.8.1 Main-code 130
4.8.2 Element connectivity table 130
4.8.3 Element assembly 130
4.8.4 Boundary conditions 131
4.9 Example problem 131
4.10 Problems 133

5. Finite element analysis of planar bars and trusses 139

5.1 Introduction 139
5.2 Element equilibrium equation for a planar bar 141
5.2.1 Problem definition 141
5.2.2 Weak form of the boundary value problem 141
5.2.3 Total potential energy of the system 142
5.2.4 Finite element form of the equilibrium equations
of an elastic bar 143
5.3 Finite element equations for torsion of a bar 147
5.4 Coordinate transformations 148
5.4.1 Transformation of unit vectors between orthogonal
coordinate systems 148
5.4.2 Transformation of equilibrium equations for the
one-dimensional bar element 149
5.5 Assembly of elements 151
5.6 Boundary conditions 155
5.6.1 A formal definition 156
5.6.2 Direct assembly of the active degrees of freedom 158
5.6.3 Numerical implementation of the boundary
conditions 158
5.7 Effects of initial stress or initial strain 165
5.7.1 Thermal stresses 165
5.7.2 Initial stresses 166
5.8 Postprocessing: Computation of stresses and reaction forces 166
5.8.1 Computation of stresses in members 166
x Contents

5.8.2 Reaction forces 167

5.9 Error and convergence in finite element analysis 172
Problems 177
Reference 185

6. Euler–Bernoulli beam element 187

6.1 Introduction 187
6.2 C1 -Continuous interpolation function 187
6.3 Element equilibrium equation 189
6.3.1 Problem definition 189
6.3.2 Weak form of the boundary value problem 189
6.3.3 Total potential energy of a beam element 191
6.3.4 Finite element form of the equilibrium equations
of an Euler–Bernoulli beam 192
6.4 General beam element with membrane and bending
capabilities 195
6.5 Coordinate transformations 196
6.5.1 Vector transformation between orthogonal
coordinate systems in a two-dimensional plane 196
6.5.2 Transformation of equilibrium equations for the
Euler-Bernoulli beam element with axial deformation 197
6.6 Assembly, boundary conditions, and reaction forces 198
6.7 Postprocessing and computation of stresses in members 198
Problems 206
Reference 209

7. Isoparametric elements for two-dimensional

elastic solids 211
7.1 Introduction 211
7.2 Solution domain and its boundary 213
7.2.1 Outward unit normal and tangent vectors along
the boundary 213
7.3 Equations of equilibrium for two-dimensional elastic solids 215
7.4 General finite element form of equilibrium equations for
a two-dimensional element 216
7.4.1 Variational form of the equation of equilibrium 217
7.4.2 Finite element form of the equation of equilibrium 218
7.5 Interpolation across a two-dimensional domain 221
7.5.1 Two-dimensional polynomials 221
7.5.2 Two-dimensional shape functions 223
7.6 Mapping between general quadrilateral and rectangular
domains 229
7.6.1 Jacobian matrix and Jacobian determinant 230
7.6.2 Differential area in curvilinear coordinates 233
7.7 Mapped isoparametric elements 239
7.7.1 Strain–displacement operator matrix, [B] 238
 Contents xi

7.7.2 Finite element form of the element equilibrium

equations for a Q4-element 240
7.8 Numerical integration using Gauss quadrature 245
7.8.1 Coordinate transformation 245
7.8.2 Derivation of second-order Gauss quadrature 246
7.8.3 Integration of two-dimensional functions by Gauss
quadrature 248
7.9 Numerical evaluation of the element equilibrium equations 250
7.10 Global equilibrium equations and boundary conditions 252
7.10.1 Assembly of global equilibrium equation 252
7.10.2 General treatment of the boundary conditions 253
7.10.3 Numerical implementation of the boundary
conditions 254
7.11 Postprocessing of the solution 254
References 255

8. Rectangular and triangular elements for two-dimensional

elastic solids 257
8.1 Introduction 257
8.1.1 Total potential energy of an element for a
two-dimensional elasticity problem 259
8.1.2 High-level derivation of the element equilibrium
equations 260
8.2 Two-dimensional interpolation functions 262
8.2.1 Interpolation and shape functions in plane
quadrilateral elements 262
8.2.2 Interpolation and shape functions in plane
triangular elements 263
8.3 Bilinear rectangular element (Q4) 264
8.3.1 Element stiffness matrix 264
8.3.2 Consistent nodal force vector 267
8.4 Constant strain triangle (CST) element 273
8.5 Element defects 275
8.5.1 Constant strain triangle element 275
8.5.2 Bilinear rectangle (Q4) 277
8.6 Higher order elements 277
8.6.1 Quadratic triangle (linear strain triangle) 277
8.6.2 Q8 quadratic rectangle 278
8.6.3 Q9 quadratic rectangle 279
8.6.4 Q6 quadratic rectangle 280
8.7 Assembly, boundary conditions, solution, and postprocessing 282
References 290

9. Finite element analysis of one-dimensional heat

transfer problems 291
9.1 Introduction 291
9.2 One-dimensional heat transfer 291
xii Contents

9.2.1 Boundary conditions for one-dimensional heat

transfer 292
9.3 Finite element formulation of the one-dimensional,
steady state, heat transfer problem 293
9.3.1 Element equilibrium equations for a generic
one-dimensional element 294
9.3.2 Finite element form with linear interpolation 299
9.4 Element equilibrium equations: general ordinary
differential equation 300
9.5 Element assembly 302
9.6 Boundary conditions 305
9.6.1 Natural boundary conditions 305
9.6.2 Essential boundary conditions 306
9.7 Computer implementation 307
Problems 309

10. Heat transfer problems in two-dimensions 313

10.1 Introduction 313
10.2 Solution domain and its boundary 313
10.3 The heat equation and its boundary conditions 315
10.3.1 Boundary conditions for heat transfer in
two-dimensional domain 315
10.4 The weak form of heat transfer equation in two dimensions 316
10.5 The finite element form of the two-dimensional heat transfer
problem 318
10.5.1 Finite element form with linear, quadrilateral
(Q4) element 320
10.6 Natural boundary conditions 323
10.6.1 Internal edges 324
10.6.2 External edges subjected to prescribed heat flux 324
10.6.3 External edges subjected to convection 326
10.6.4 External edges subjected to radiation 327
10.7 Summary of finite element form of the heat equation and
natural boundary conditions 328
10.8 Numerical integration of element equilibrium equations 329
10.9 Element assembly 331
10.10 Imposing the essential boundary conditions 332
10.10.1 Symbolic representation of essential boundary
conditions 333
10.10.2 Numerical implementation of essential boundary
conditions 333
Problems 340
Reference 341

11. Transient thermal analysis 343

11.1 Introduction 343
11.2 Transient heat transfer equation 344
 Contents xiii

11.2.1 Boundary/initial value problem 344

11.2.2 Element equilibrium equation of one-dimensional,
transient heat transfer 345
11.2.3 Global equilibrium equation of one-dimensional,
transient heat transfer 348
11.2.4 Global boundary conditions 348
11.3 Finite difference approximations to derivatives 348
11.3.1 Temporal discretization of a continuous function 348
11.3.2 Taylor series expansion 349
11.3.3 Approximations to the first derivative of a function 349
11.4 Direct time integration of the heat transfer equation 351
11.4.1 Forward difference or Euler method 351
11.4.2 Backward difference method 352
11.4.3 Central difference or Crank–Nicholson method 353
11.4.4 Generalized trapezoidal method 353
11.5 Solution algorithm 355
11.5.1 Explicit and implicit time integration methods 356
11.6 Convergence, stability, and accuracy of time integration
methods 358
11.6.1 Modal expansion of the semidiscrete first-order
equation 359
11.6.2 Stability of the semidiscretized first-order equation 360
11.6.3 Modal expansion of the generalized trapezoidal
algorithm 361
11.6.4 Stability of the generalized trapezoidal algorithm 361
11.6.5 Fourier–von Neumann stability analysis of the
generalized trapezoidal method 362
11.6.6 Consistency and rate of convergence 366
References 376

12. Transient analysis of solids and structures 377

12.1 Introduction 377
12.2 Vibration of single degree of freedom systems 378
12.2.1 Free vibrations: complementary solution 379
12.2.2 Response to harmonic excitations: particular
solution 382
12.2.3 Combined response: complimentary and
particular solutions 384
12.2.4 Transient vibration 385
12.3 Initial/boundary value problems for deformable solids 386
12.3.1 Two-dimensional deformable solid 386
12.3.2 One-dimensional bar 387
12.3.3 Euler–Bernoulli beam 387
12.4 Vibration response of an Euler–Bernoulli beam 388
12.4.1 Eigenvalue problem 389
12.4.2 Free vibration problem 391
12.5 Semidiscrete equations of motion 394
xiv Contents

12.5.1 Two-dimensional deformable element 394

12.5.2 One-dimensional elastic bar element 396
12.5.3 Euler–Bernoulli beam element 398
12.6 Mass matrix 400
12.6.1 Consistent mass matrices 400
12.6.2 Lumped mass matrix 402
12.7 Damping matrix 403
12.8 Global equation of motion 405
12.9 Analytical analysis of vibration of semidiscrete systems 405
12.9.1 Eigenvalue problem for the semidiscrete equation
of motion 406
12.9.2 Orthogonality of the eigenvectors 414
12.9.3 Response to initial excitations by modal analysis 415
12.10 Direct time integration of the equation of motion of a solid 421
12.10.1 Central finite difference approximations:
explicit time integration 423
12.10.2 Linear and average acceleration methods:
implicit time integration 424
12.10.3 Newmark’s method for direct time integration 426
12.10.4 α-Method for direct time integration 428
12.10.5 Initial conditions 430
12.10.6 Solution algorithm 430
12.11 Convergence, stability, and accuracy of time integration
methods 431
12.11.1 Stability of the explicit method 431
12.11.2 Stability and consistency of the Newmark and
α-methods 435
Problems 440
References 444

Appendix A MATLAB 445

Appendix B Guidelines for writing a finite element code in MATLAB 459
Appendix C Finite element analysis with ANSYS 475
Appendix D ANSYS tutorial: beam and bar elements 483
Appendix E ANSYS tutorial: two-dimensional linear elastic analysis 499
Appendix F ANSYS tutorial: thermomechanical deformation 503
Index 515
Preface

This book comes out of teaching graduate level finite element method and
applied mechanics courses over the last two decades at Northeastern University.
One of the major goals in writing this book is to convey to the reader that the
physical models, the solution methods, and the results are inseparable parts of
analysis. The knowledge in these areas is spread over many excellent textbooks
including references [1–9] in the finite element literature, [10–18] in the mechan-
ics literature, [19–23] in the engineering mathematics literature, and [24–25] in
the heat transfer literature, among others. I have drawn upon these textbooks and
my own derivations in preparing this book which aims for a unified presentation
between the two covers.
Having a good grasp of the underlying physics of a problem, its mathematical
representation, and the capabilities and the limitations of the solution methods
is necessary to setup the problems and to interpret the results effectively. I
hope that this book will help guide the users of the finite element codes to
have a holistic view in their analysis. This book also aims to provide detailed
background information on the development of the finite element method with
a target audience who is interested to develop their own codes for engineering
research.
All physical systems in the realm addressed by finite element analysis can be
represented by boundary/initial value problems. In this book, we primarily focus
on the solution of one- and two-dimensional linear elasticity and heat transfer
problems. Extension of these solution techniques to three-dimensional analysis
is straight forward, therefore it is not addressed here to preserve the clarity of
presentation and avoid repetition. A chapter is dedicated at the beginning to the
detailed derivation of the boundary/initial value problems in heat transfer and
elasticity. Chapter 2 is intended to serve as a reference for not only this book,
but also for those who want a concise review of these topics.
The finite element method falls under the general umbrella of variational
methods. The connections between the classical variational techniques and
the finite element method are introduced in Chapters 3 and 4. The former is
dedicated to a brief introduction to variational calculus followed by two classical
variational methods: the Rayleigh–Ritz and Galerkin. In Chapter 4, we develop
the Rayleigh–Ritz-based finite element method for the solution of the boundary
value problems governed by self-adjoint ordinary differential equations. Here,
and in the rest of the book, the finite element method is developed as a natural

xv
xvi Preface

extension of the Rayleigh–Ritz method and the boundary value problem is

defined over a subsegment (element) of the solution domain.
Chapters 5 and 6 develop the finite element form of the boundary value
problems that represent the deformation of bars and Euler–Bernoulli beams,
respectively. These chapters are extended to analysis of two-dimensional trusses
and frames, respectively. Chapters 4–6 are foundational in all aspects of solving
an engineering problem by using finite element method, with topics ranging from
the physical model to element derivation, element assembly, imposing boundary
conditions, and postprocessing.
Chapter 7 gives a detailed account of solution of two-dimensional linear
elasticity problems by using isoparametric elements. In Chapter 8, an analysis of
two-dimensional finite element method is provided for rectangular and simple
triangular elements much like in reference [3]. Chapter 9 introduces the finite
element method for the solution of one-dimensional, steady state heat transfer
problems. This is extended to two-dimensional heat transfer problems by using
isoparametric formulation in Chapter 10.
Chapters 4–10 of the book are involved with setup and solution of boundary
value problems at steady state. Solution methods for problems in which transient
effects are significant are introduced in Chapters 11 and 12 for parabolic and
hyperbolic systems for heat transfer and solid mechanics problems, respectively.
Derivation of the finite difference approximations to the derivative operators;
direct time integration methods for the heat transfer (parabolic) problems;
and their convergence, stability, and accuracy characteristics are presented in
Chapter 11. Transient analysis methods for solids and structures are presented in
Chapter 12. In addition to the derivation of the semidiscrete equation of motion
by finite element method, this chapter includes comprehensive treatments of
vibration of single- and multidegree of freedom systems and solution approaches
to the transient problems with modal, as well as direct time integration methods.
This book is written for an audience who wants to write their own finite ele-
ment codes, who wants to use commercially available finite element programs,
and who wants to make informed choices on element types, solution conver-
gence, and in-depth understanding of physical models. The target audience for
the first part of the book is the first-year graduate students. A one semester
course can be delivered by using Chapters 1–6 and 8. The target audience for
the second part of the book is graduate students in their second-year or higher.
A one semester course can be delivered for this group by using Chapters 7
and 9–12.
Examples in the book have been prepared by using Mathematica and by finite
element programs written in MATLAB. Appendix A provides a summary of
the MATLAB functions I find useful to write a finite element program. Two of
the MATLAB-based finite element programs used in the book are provided in
Appendix B. We also provide extensive instructions on using the commercially
available finite element analysis program ANSYS Mechanical APDL for one-
and two-dimensional solid mechanics and heat transfer problems. These include
 Preface xvii

step-by-step instructions to use the program from the graphical user interface and
a summary of how to prepare input macros with the ANSYS Parametric Design
Language (APDL). Several APDL macros are also provided.
Acknowledgments

I would like to take this opportunity to thank the many people who helped me
along the way and who were influential in writing of this book in one fashion or
another. Many of the students who were in ME 5657 and ME 7275 at North-
eastern University asked many deep, penetrating questions to help me focus
on the details and pointed out typos and early mistakes. I had many enjoyable
discussions about the topic and the course with my former graduate students
Dr. Dinçer Bozkaya, Dr. Ernesto Lopez, Dr. Hsuan-Yu Chou, Dr. Qian Sheng,
Dr. Hankang Yang, Dr. Soroush Irandoust, and Dr. Runyang Zhang who were
teaching assistants during different periods. Dr. Tuğçe Kaşıkçı was the one who
pointed out the obvious by asking “why don’t these notes have any examples?”
This book was written during trying times for humanity when the Covid-19
epidemic was raging around the World and for me personally. I would like
to thank the editors at Elsevier, Mr. Brian Guerin and Mr. Rafael Guilherme
Trombaco, for their patience and understanding with the delays. Mr. Sojan
Pazhayattil for the excellent typesetting. Ms. Berin Üçyiğit was my eighth and
ninth grade mathematics teacher at Tevfik Fikret Lisesi in Ankara, Turkey. I am
grateful to her for the love of mathematics and geometry I developed under her
tutelage.
Finally, I would like to thank my family. My father instilled the sense of right
and wrong in me and my mother provided for me and my brother after he passed
away. She showed both of us the value of never giving up. I am grateful to both
for their love and for the opportunities they provided us. Lastly, I would like
to thank my wife Lynne and our children Serra and Emre for the patience and
encouragement they afforded me during this project.

xix
Chapter 1

Introduction

One of the major aims of natural sciences is to identify the cause–effect relation-
ships in nature. Grasping these relationships is not only useful to satisfy inherent
curiosity, but it is also helpful in building and designing systems that improve
our daily lives.
Engineers and scientists interested in developing predictive capabilities for
natural processes are generally involved in two major tasks: modeling and
simulation. Our understanding of the term model refers to developing a math-
ematical representation of a physical process that is observed in nature. To
this end, partial differential equations (PDEs) are typically used to formulate
mathematical representations of physical processes. The term simulation, on the
other hand, refers to solving the mathematical model and analyzing the results
to gain insight into the cause–effects relationships.

1.1 Modeling and simulation

1.1.1 Boundary and initial value problems
Consider a system with dependent variables u, v, and w defined over a domain ,
which itself occupies a subsection of space (Fig. 1.1). In general, each variable
can take different values at different points in the domain and these values can
also vary in time. Spatial position of a point P in the domain  can be identified
with respect to a spatial reference system (e.g., (x, y, z)). If the position of point P
also varies in time, the position of point P is said to be time dependent. Thus, for
example, if u is a function of space and time u = u(x, y, z, t). In these notes, we
will consider boundary value problems (BVPs) and initial value problems that
are formulated by using PDEs. A very general representation of such a problem
can be given as follows:
L(u, v, w) = f in , for 0 ≤ t ≤ τ (1.1)
where L(·) is a differential operator of independent spatial variables x, y, z and
time t, f = f(x, y, z, t) is typically a function that represents the internal effects
that act on the system, and τ is the duration of interest.
The dependent variables interact with the outside of the domain  through
the boundary  of the domain, and typically experience changes as a result
Finite Element Method: Physics and Solution Methods. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821127-4.00001-3
Copyright c 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 1
2 Finite element method

FIGURE 1.1 A domain  with internal and external boundaries. Note that boundary conditions
can be applied on both internal and boundaries.

of the external effects that are imposed on the boundary. These external effects
are known as the boundary conditions which depend on the physics of the
problem.
The Dirichlet boundary condition represents a prescribed value for a depen-
dent variable,
u = ub (t ) on E (1.2)
Here the variable u of the solution domain is prescribed to ub on a segment of the
boundary  E . In general, this prescribed variable can be a function of time t. The
Dirichlet boundary condition is also known as the essential boundary condition.
The von Neumann boundary condition typically describes the external effects
that cause a change in the system. Such effects include external forces, heat
flow, etc. As we will demonstrate later in the notes, the von Neumann boundary
conditions are typically represented as follows:
B(u, v, w) = g(t ) on N (1.3)
where B(·) is another differential operator, g is a given function, and  N rep-
resents the segment of the boundary over which the von Neumann boundary
condition is applied. The von Neumann boundary condition, also known as the
natural boundary condition or the nonessential boundary condition, can also
vary in time.
The initial states of the dependent variables are also required to describe
the problem properly. For example, the initial values of the variable u and its
temporal rate of change u,t and u,tt can prescribed in the solution domain as
initial conditions as follows:
u (x, y, z, 0) = u(0) , u,t (x, y, z, 0) = u̇(0) , u,tt (x, y, z, 0) = ü(0) in  (1.4)
˙ ,t and (·)
where (·) ˙ indicate differentiation with respect to time. Similar initial
conditions have to be defined for v and w as well. Number of initial conditions
that are sufficient to describe the problem properly depends on the physical
system, and this topic is addressed in later chapters.
 Introduction Chapter | 1 3

FIGURE 1.2 A bar with variable cross-sectional area, subjected to an axially distributed load q(x),
and the free body diagram of a small segment of this bar at position x.

1.1.2 Boundary value problems

In some problems, only the steady state of the dependent variables is of interest
and the temporal variation is neglected (or negligible). Thus, for example, u
becomes only a function of the spatial dimensions u = u(x, y, z). A steady state
boundary value problem can be formulated by dropping the time dependence as
follows:

L (u, v, w) = f in  (1.5)

where for a boundary value problem L(·) is a differential operator of the

independent spatial variables (x, y, z) and f = f(x, y, z). A steady state boundary
value problem is also subject to the Dirichlet and/or von Neumann conditions on
the boundary of the domain.
Example 1.1 Equation of motion of a solid bar

a) Derive the equation of motion of an elastic bar in terms of its deflection u(x,t).
Initially, assume that the bar has a variable cross-sectional area A(x) and
that it is subjected to distributed axial load q(x,t) and a concentrated force
F at its free end as shown in Fig. 1.2. Also assume small deflections, linear
elastic material behavior with constant elastic modulus E, and constant mass
density ρ.
b) Obtain the steady state solution for the case of constant cross-section and
zero distributed force.

Solution 1.1a: The solution domain  for this problem spans 0 < x < L. The
boundaries  of the solution domain are located at x = 0 and x = L. Internal
forces develop in the bar in response to external loading. The internal normal
4 Finite element method

force N(x) at the cross-section x can be defined as follows:

N(x) = σ̄ (x)A(x) (1.6)

where the average normal stress σ̄ is defined as follows:


1
σ̄ (x) = σ dA
A(x)
A(x)

and where σ is the internal normal stress, A is the cross-sectional area of the bar.
The equation of motion of the bar can be obtained by using Newton’s second
law on a small segment of the bar (Fig. 1.2). The balance of internal and inertial
forces gives,
 ∂ 2u
Fx = ρAdx 2 (a)
∂t 
∂N ∂ u 2
−N + q dx + N + dx = ρAdx 2 (b) (1.7)
∂x ∂t
∂N ∂ u 2
= −q + ρA 2 (c)
∂x ∂t
Hooke’s law defines the constitutive relationship between the internal stress
and strain for linear, elastic materials. For a slender bar, the Hooke’s law can be
given as follows:

σ̄ = Eε (1.8)

where E is the elastic (Young’s) modulus of the material. The strain–

displacement, ε–u, relationship is given as follows:
∂u
ε= (1.9)
∂x
Combining Eqs. (1.6–1.9), we find the internal force resultant as follows:
∂u
N = σ̄ A = EA (1.10)
∂x
The equation of motion can then be found by combining Eqs. (1.7c) and
(1.10),
 
∂ ∂u ∂ 2u
EA = −q + ρA 2 (1.11)
∂x ∂x ∂t
This is a PDE that governs the dynamics of axial deflection u(x,t) along the bar.
Its solution requires two boundary conditions and two initial conditions. The
boundaries of this bar are located at x = 0, L. At the x = L boundary, the force
resultant should be equal to the applied load, i.e., N(L) = F. By using Eq. (1.10),
this condition can be expressed in terms of the bar deflection. The boundary
 Introduction Chapter | 1 5

conditions for this problem then become,

Boundary conditions: u(0) = 0 (a)

∂u  F (1.12)
= (b)
∂x x=L EA(L)
The initial conditions represent the state of deflection and velocity of the entire
bar at t = 0. In general, these conditions can be represented as follows:
Initial conditions: u(x, 0) = u(0) (x) (a)

∂u  (1.13)
= u̇(0) (x) (b)
∂t t=0
where u(0) (x) and u̇(0) (x) are known functions.
Solution 1.1b: Let us find the steady state deflection of a bar with constant cross-
sectional area, A0 , subjected only to a concentrated force F at its free end. Eqs.
(1.11) and (1.12) become,
d2u
Governing equation, (in ): EA0 = 0 in 0 < x < L (1.14)
dx2
Boundary conditions, (on ): u(0) = 0 (a)

du  F (1.15)
= (b)
dx x=L EA0
Solution of Eq. (1.14) gives,
C1
u(x) = x + C2 (1.16)
EA0
where C1 and C2 are integration constants that can be found by using the
boundary conditions as follows:
C1 = F and C2 = 0
And the variation of u(x) becomes,
Fx
u(x) = (1.17)
EA0
Note that this relationship shows that the displacement varies linearly for a bar
with cross-section that is fixed on one end and pulled by a force on the other.

1.2 Solution methods

In this work, modeling refers to mathematical formulation of a physical process.
This requires background in the related subjects, certain mathematical tools, and
experimental observations. In Chapter 2, we present the formulation of models
for deformation of elastic solids and transfer and storage of thermal energy in
solids and fluids. Solution of the mathematical model can be a challenging task
6 Finite element method

and forms the general background of this work. Analytical solutions which can
be expressed as relatively straight forward relationships between the dependent
and independent variables exist only for a relatively small number of situations
where the geometry and the physical nature of the problem can be simplified.
Numerical methods are used otherwise. Among the numerical solution meth-
ods for solving PDEs are the finite difference, variational, and finite element
methods.
The finite difference method (FDM) is implemented on the differential form
of the BVP. The derivative operators of the PDE are approximated by finite
difference operators. The solution domain is discretized in to a grid, and the
unknowns are the values of the dependent variable at the nodes. The discretized
version of the PDE is evaluated at each grid point. This results in a set of algebraic
equations which can be represented in matrix form,
[K]{D} = {R} (1.18)
where [K] is the stiffness matrix representing the discretized form of the partial
derivatives, {D} is the vector of unknown nodal values of the dependent variable,
and {R} is the loading vector representing the external effects. The boundary
conditions often require specialized treatment of the finite difference operators
and modify the [K] matrix. The FDM is effective over relatively simple shapes
such as rectangular and cylindrical domains in two-dimensional problems and
parallelepiped or spherical domains in three-dimensional problems.
Solution of PDEs by variational methods involves use of a weighted-residual
integral, e.g.,

w(A(u) − f )d = 0 (1.19)


where w is a weight function. One way to distinguish the well-known techniques

such as the Rayleigh–Ritz, Galerkin, and collocation methods, which fall under
the umbrella of the variational methods, is the choice of the weight functions.
Nevertheless, in these traditional methods, an approximation function is chosen
for the dependent variable over the entire solution domain. Therefore, traditional
variational approaches can be impractical when the shape of the domain is not
one of the simple shapes mentioned above. A more complete discussion of the
variational methods is given in Chapter 3.
The finite element method (FEM) is based on the variational methods.
However, the approximation function for the dependent variable is developed
for small regions, known as elements, with regular shapes such as rectangles,
triangles, tetrahedra, and hexahedra. As most irregular solution domains can be
approximated as a collection of smaller regions (Figs. 1.3 and 1.4) the finite
element method presents a powerful technique to solve BVPs over very complex
shapes. In the FEM, the domain over which the problem is defined is divided into
elements interconnected at nodal points and along edges. An element can take
 Introduction Chapter | 1 7

FIGURE 1.3 Definitions of domain and boundary on a two-dimensional object subjected to

distributed external forces, f. Finite element analysis requires discretization of the solution domain
to subdomains called elements.

FIGURE 1.4 Elements communicate with the other elements on their boundaries. A line element
with three nodes and a 2D element with four nodes are shown in this figure.

various shapes and can have a number of nodes associated with it. The dependent
variable (i.e., the unknown quantity) is determined at the nodes.
FEM overcomes the disadvantage of the traditional variational methods
by providing a systematic procedure for the derivation of the approximation
functions over subregions of the domain. As the solution domain is represented
by a collection of elements, it is relatively straight forward to implement nonho-
mogeneous, and or discontinuous material properties.
As problems with complex geometry, material properties and boundary
conditions cannot be effectively solved with analytical techniques, use of FEM
provides must be accompanied with experimental verification. In addition, if
possible, analytical forms of the problems should also be sought for simplified
conditions as a check to the finite element solution. Finally, the importance of a
systematic mesh convergence study for the solution cannot be understated.
Chapter 2

Mathematical modeling of
physical systems

2.1 Introduction
The goal of this chapter is to give brief descriptions to modeling of deformation
of linear elastic solids and thermal energy transfer and storage in physical
systems. More detailed discussion of these topics can be found in the specialized
references provided at the end of this chapter. Our goal is to demonstrate how
to obtain mathematical models (representations) of physical systems by using
the fundamental laws of physics. Thus, we will show that deformation of elastic
solids can be described by using Newton’s laws of motion. This will result in
equations of motion represented as partial differential equations. Vibration of
a long and slender bar (Section 2.1), deflection of a general deformable body
(Section 2.2), and deflection of beams (Section 2.3) constitute examples of such
systems. The principle of conservation of energy will be used to describe effects
of heat transfer in a continuum (Section 2.4).

2.2 Governing equations of structural mechanics

When a deformable body is subjected to external effects such as external forces
and/or imposed displacements on its boundary, its shape will change and internal
forces will develop throughout its volume. The level of deformation for given
external effects depends on the material of the deformable body. In this section,
the equations of motion for small deflections of linear, elastic materials are
presented. In particular, we are interested in small deformations of linear, elastic
solids. To this end, following are discussed: i) concepts of external and internal
forces and the concept of stress, ii) elastic deformations and the concept of
small strain, iii) linear elastic constitutive relations, iv) balance laws, and v) total
potential energy of a deformable body.

2.2.1 External forces, internal forces, and stress

External forces acting on continua fall under two categories: body force and
surface traction as depicted in Fig. 2.1.

Finite Element Method: Physics and Solution Methods. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821127-4.00008-6

Copyright c 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 9
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 CHAPTER III.

THE AEROPLANE IN A RACE.

The barograph showed that the aeroplane was more than nine
hundred feet above the earth and the anemometer, or small wind
wheel, indicated that the speed was forty-odd miles an hour, with
the propeller making a thousand revolutions a minute. It was
capable of increasing that rate by twenty per cent. and the aviator
was gradually forcing it to do so.
The youth who sat in front, with the long control lever in his right
hand, was our friend Harvey Hamilton, who, under the instruction of
Professor Ostrom Sperbeck, the German aviator, had become so
expert that he felt equal to any emergency that was likely to occur
during his aerial excursions. The small levers on his left, governed as
we remember the spark and throttle, while the vertical rudders were
operated by the feet. So long as the heavens remained calm or only
moderate breezes were encountered, everything would go as
smoothly as if he were treading firm ground, but there was no
saying what troubles were likely to arise,—some of them with the
suddenness of a bolt from the blue.
Harvey had his back to the tank, which held ten gallons of
gasoline, or petrol as it is called on the other side of the ocean, and
two gallons of oil, one being as indispensable as the other.
In the aluminum seat just in front of the tank was Harvey’s
passenger, the support being adjustable and capable of carrying two
persons without threatening the center of gravity, provided care was
used. This passenger has already been introduced to you under the
name of Bohunkus Johnson, who was the bound boy of a
neighboring farmer, Mr. Cecil Hartley. He was a favorite with his
easy-going master, who sent him to the district school during winter
and let him do about as he pleased at other times. He had picked up
the simplest rudiments of a primary education and with the
expenditure of a good deal of labor could write, though he scorned
to pay any attention to so unimportant a matter as spelling.
Bunk and Harvey being of the same age, were playmates from
earliest childhood. The fact that they were of different races had no
effect upon their mutual regard. Being the son of a wealthy
merchant, the white youth was able to do many favors for his dusky
comrade, who, bigger and stronger, would have risked his life at any
time for him.
Although this particular flight was made on a sultry summer
afternoon, each lad wore thick clothing and a cap specially made for
aviators, as a protection against wind and cold. The first intention of
Harvey was to climb high enough in the sky to establish a record for
himself that would make all other rivals green with envy.
But not yet. There was too much fascination in coddling to the
earth, where the wonderful varied panorama was ever changing,
and always of entrancing novelty and beauty.
Bohunkus having little to do except use his eyes enjoyed the visual
feast to the full. At the beginning he studied the action of Harvey,
seated at his feet, having in view that thrilling hour when he would
be permitted to handle the levers and guide the airship through
space himself.
“I can do it as well as him,” he said to himself; “de machine sets
on its three little wheels wid dere rubber tires, and de propeller am
started so fast dat yo’ can’t see de paddles spin round; den dem dat
am holding de same lets go and it runs ’bout fifty yards, like
lightnin’; den Harvey pulls de big lever back and dat flat rudder out
front am turned upward and de ting springs into de air like a scared
bird and dere yo’ am!”
As Bohunkus sat he grasped a bit of the framework on his right
and a corresponding support on his left. This was not always
necessary, for it was smooth sailing, but, as has been intimated,
there was no saying when a sudden squall or invisible pocket or hole
in the wind would shake things up, and force one to hold on for dear
life. He leaned slightly forward and looked down at the world
sweeping under him. They were skimming over a village, numbering
barely a score of buildings, the only noticeable one being the white
church with its tapering spire pointing toward the realm to which
erring men were directed. Just beyond the dusty winding road
disappeared into a wood a mile in extent, emerging on the other
side and weaving through the open country until it could no longer
be traced.
The river far to the left suggested a ribbon of silver, so small that
several tiny sails creeping over it appeared to be standing still. To
the right and front a large city was coming into clearer view. The
spires, skyscrapers and tall buildings were a vast jumble in which he
could identify nothing. He did not attempt even to guess the name
of the place.
A railway train was just leaving the village below them on its way
to the city in the distance. The youths saw the white puff of steam
from the whistle, which signalled its starting, and the black belchings
of smoke came faster and faster as the engine rapidly gained
headway. Harvey slightly advanced the lever and the aeroplane
began descending a little way in front of the train. The contestants
in this novel race should be nearer each other to prevent any
mistake and make the contest more exhilarating.
Two hundred feet from the ground, Harvey pulled back the lever
and the flat rudder on the front outrigger became horizontal. The
downward dip of the machine ceased and with a graceful curve
glided forward on a level course. No professional could have
executed the maneuver with more precision. Harvey during these
few moments decreased the revolutions of the propeller so as not to
draw away from the locomotive. The race should be a fair one, even
if the result was not in doubt.
This lagging caused the biplane to fall somewhat to the rear and
gave the train time to hit up its pace. The engineer and fireman had
caught sight of the machine some minutes before, and eagerly
accepted the challenge. Both were leaning out of the cab windows
and the engineer waved his hand at the contestant aloft. The
fireman swung his greasy cap and shouted something which of
course the youths were unable to catch. The passengers had learned
what was in the wind, and crowded the platforms and thrust their
heads from the windows, all saluting the aviator and intensely
interested in the struggle for mastery.
Harvey was too occupied with the machine to give much attention
to anything else. He knew he could rely upon Bohunkus for all that
was due in that line. The dusky youth was so wrought up that he
came startlingly near unseating himself more than once. He leaned
far over, circled his cap about his head and shouted and whooped
and kicked out his feet with delight. The laughing passengers who
stared into the sky, saw the black face with its dancing eyes,
bisected by an enormous grin, which displayed the rows of perfect
even teeth, and all learned what a perfectly happy African looks like.
Jim Halpine, the engineer, said grimly to his fireman:
“I’ve heard about their flying faster than anything can travel over
the ground, but I’ll teach that fellow a lesson. Old 39 can make a
mile a minute as easy as rolling off a log; watch me walk away from
him.”
He “linked her up” by drawing the reversing lever back until it
stood nearly on the center and dropped the catch in place. Then the
puffs came faster and faster, and not so loud, and 39 rapidly rose to
her best pace. Having done all he could in that direction, Jim kept
his left hand on the throttle lever, and divided his attention between
peering out at the track in front and glancing upward at the curious
contrivance that was coursing through the air just above him. The
fact that it was creeping up caused no misgiving, for that was
manifestly due to the fact that he himself had not yet acquired full
headway.
Harvey meant to get all the fun possible out of the race. He was
certain he could beat the engine, but to do so “off the reel” would
spoil the enjoyment. He would dally for a time and when defeat
seemed impending, would dart ahead—always provided he should
be able to do so.
The locomotive had a straight away run of seven or eight miles,
when it would have to slow down for the city it was approaching.
The race therefore must be decided within the next ten minutes.
Harvey Hamilton played his part well. The engine and train being
directly under him, his view of them was perfect without detracting
from the necessary attention to his biplane. He was just behind the
last car when he knew from the appearance of things that the
engineer had struck his highest pace. The youth speeded up the
motor so as slightly to add to the propeller’s revolutions, but he
showed no gain in swiftness. He was only holding his place.
The shouting passengers shouted still more, if that could be
possible, and called all sorts of tantalizing cries:
“Throw down your rope and we’ll give you a tow.” “Get out and
run alongside of us!” “You ain’t racing with a cow.” “We’re going
some!”
Such and similar were the good-natured taunts, which produced
no effect upon the aviators for they did not hear them. The most
exasperating gesture was that of Jim Halpine the engineer, who
leaned far out of his cab and gently beckoned to the youths to come
forward and keep him company. The fireman stood between the cab
and tender and imitated his chief.
Harvey Hamilton seemed to see and hear them not. Bending far
over with the lever grasped, he acted as if trying to add to his speed
by the pose, as a person in his situation will sometimes do
unconsciously. His face was drawn, as if with tense anxiety, and
there was not the shadow of a smile upon it. All the same he was
chuckling inwardly.
Bohunkus Johnson was almost beside himself. At first he did not
doubt that a crushing triumph would speedily come to him and his
companion, but as the seconds flew by and there was no gain upon
the train thundering over the rails, a pang of doubt crept over him.
“Go it, Harv! Put on more steam! What’s de matter wid yo’?” he
shouted, swinging his arms and hitching forward as if to add an
impulse to their progress. “If yo’ lose dis race I’ll jump overboard
and swim to land. Dem folks see me blushing now!”
Less than a minute later, the African shouted to unhearing ears:
“Glory be! Dat’s de talk! Now we’ve got ’em!”
 The aeroplane was overtaking the train. Though the gain was slow
it was unmistakable.
 CHAPTER IV.

TRYING FOR ALTITUDE.

Ah, but Harvey Hamilton was sly. He began slowly creeping up

until his machine was directly over the rear passenger coach, there
being three beside the express car. Had he dropped a stone from his
perch, it would have fallen upon the roof of the last one. The
exultant expression on the myriad of faces took on a tint of anxiety.
The fireman yanked open the door of the fire-box and shoveled in
coal. No need of that, for 39 was already blowing off, even when
running at so high speed. Jim Halpine had drawn over the long
reversing lever till it stood within a few inches of perpendicular and
another shift would have choked the engine.
The young aviator held his place for a brief while and then began
gradually drifting back again. Bohunkus Johnson groaned.
“Confound it! what’s de use ob trying to be good?” he wailed;
“dem folks will grin dere heads off. Harv! make tings hum!”
Heedless of him, Harvey was carrying out his own scheme. He
saw that the game was his and he was playing with the locomotive.
When gaining on it, the airship was not doing its best, and his slight
retrogression was in order to make his victory more impressive. Each
contestant was going fully sixty miles an hour. No. 39 could do no
more, but the aeroplane had not yet extended herself. She now
proceeded to do so, inasmuch as in the circumstances the struggle
must soon terminate.
Having dropped well to the rear again, Harvey called upon the
motor to do its best. Its humming took on the character of a musical
tone, and the propeller spun around, twelve hundred revolutions to
the minute. The keenest eye could detect nothing of the ends of the
blades, and only faintly discern them nearer the shaft, as if they
were so much mist.
And then the biplane forged bravely ahead. She moved steadily
along over the roofs of the cars, one after the other, and pulled away
from the engine whose ponderous drivers appeared to be spinning
around with the dizzying swiftness of the propeller overhead. Jim
Halpine was utilizing every ounce of power, but could do no more,
for he was already doing his best. It humiliated him to be thus left
behind, but there was no help for it. In his chagrin he tried a little
trick which deceived no one, not even the two victors. Pretending he
detected something amiss on the rails, he emitted a couple of blasts
from his whistle and shut off steam. It looked as if he was actuated
by prudence, but the obstruction was imaginary.
Most of the passengers like true sportsmen cheered the winner.
Even the grinning fireman circled his cap again about his tousled
head, but the engineer was glum and acted as if the only thing in
the world of interest to him was the rails stretching away in front.
What did he care for airships bobbing overhead? They were only
toys and could never amount to anything in the economy of life.
As for Bohunkus Johnson he could not contain himself. Harvey
remained as calm as a veteran, and gave no attention to anything
except his machine, but his companion stood up in the hurricane at
the imminent risk of playing the mischief with the aeroplane’s center
of gravity, waved his cap and furiously beckoned the engineer not to
lag behind. His thick lips could be seen contorting themselves and
evidently he was saying something. Had the laughing passengers
been able to catch his words—which they were not—they would
have heard something like the following:
“Why doan’ yo’ trabel? Yo’s only walking; we ain’t half trying; can’t
yo’ put on more steam and make us show what we can do? I’m
plum disgusted wid yo’.”
Harvey Hamilton did not speak. He was “letting out” the machine.
He meant to learn what it could do. When several hundred yards
ahead of the train, he lifted the lip of the rudder in front, and the
structure glided upward until he was a quarter of a mile above the
earth. Even then Bohunkus behaved so extravagantly that the
aviator turned his head and motioned to him to cease.
“Can’t doot, Harv! My mouf am so wide open dat it’ll take me a
good while to bring my jaws togeder agin, and I’m ready to tumble
out head fust.”
By and by the colored youth toned down enough to resume his
seat and check his explosions of delight, though he looked around
and waved his hand several times at the train which was now so far
to the rear that his action was not understood.
“Gee! but it’s getting cold!” he exclaimed some minutes later, with
a shiver. He buttoned his thick coat to the chin, donned his mittens,
and wondered what it all meant. He had never understood, though
he had been told more than once, that temperature decreases with
increasing altitude. He had objected to donning such thick garments
when about to start on their flight, but Harvey was the boss and
insisted.
Bohunkus’s next surprise came when he looked between his feet.
They were directly over the city noticed some time before, but the
buildings were shrunken and mixed together in a way that even he
understood.
The anemometer suspended at the side of Harvey Hamilton
showed that the aeroplane was coursing through the air at the rate
of not quite a mile a minute. With the low temperature caused by
the altitude, the wind created in the still atmosphere cut the faces of
the two like a knife, and even penetrated their thick clothing.
Bohunkus turned up his coat collar, and drew his cap over his ears,
but his feet ached. He hoped the aviator would soon strike milder
weather, though the colored youth did not know whether it was to
be sought for above or below.
“If it gits colder as yo’ go up,” he reflected between his chattering
teeth, “it must be orful cold when yo’ reach heben; I remember now
dat I was tole something ’bout dat, but I thought dey was fooling
me.”
The front rudder still sloped upward, and Harvey showed no
intention of dropping lower or even of maintaining the level already
reached. He and his companion had started on a week or ten days’
outing, and it struck him that now was as good a time as he was
likely to have for making a notable record.
So the propeller kept humming and they continued to climb. A
glance at the barograph by his side showed that he had reached five
thousand feet; to this he added another thousand, then another, and
he felt a thrill when the indicator made known he was close to nine
thousand.
Although, as you may know, several aviators have mounted
almost two miles, none had done so at the time of which I am now
speaking. Harvey was near the limit, and he had but to persevere a
little longer to achieve a grand triumph. But the cold was becoming
almost unbearable. In the hope of moderating the piercing chill, he
lessened his speed, but was not sensible of much improvement.
His unremitting attention was not needed and he turned his head
and looked at Bohunkus. The sight made him laugh. The negro had
not only drawn his upturned collar about his ears, with his cap sunk
low over them, and his mittened hands shoved into his pockets, but
he had shrunk within himself to that degree that only his staring
eyes and the tip of his nose were visible. He was hunched together,
and gave one of the best imitations imaginable of a young man
freezing to death.
“I know his race doesn’t like cold weather, but it won’t hurt him,”
reflected Harvey with another look at his barograph. To his
astonishment, he had made no perceptible gain during the last
several minutes. He turned on full power and kept the forward
rudder inclined upward. He waited awhile before examining the
instrument again. So far as it could indicate he was not a foot higher
than before.
He was mystified. What could it mean? With the propeller
revolving more than a thousand times a minute, he ought to have
risen a half mile higher.
“I never heard of anything like it; the explanation is beyond me.”
With a thrill of misgiving, he glanced at the different parts of the
machine. There were the two slightly curving wings, measuring
thirty-five feet from tip to tip; the horizontal rudder on the front
outrigger responded easily to the levers, as he proved by test; the
ailerons or wing tips, one above the other, worked simultaneously
and with the same ease; the ash which formed the foundation of the
engine, the whitewood of the ribs, and the sprucewood of most of
the structure, all scraped and highly varnished, did not show the
least flaw. The rigidity which is indispensable in the framework was
maintained throughout. The rubberized linen covering of the wings
was taut and as smooth as silk, and the eye could not detect the
slightest wire or thing out of gear.
“Professor Sperbeck never told me anything of this, though if he
were here, he would understand it. I wonder whether we have
climbed any farther.”
Another inspection of the instrument failed to show that the
biplane had ascended an inch.
“Can it be that our height has anything to do with it——”
Harvey Hamilton uttered an exclamation. The mystery was solved.
The aeroplane had risen so high that the rarefied air refused to lift it
farther. The propeller was whirling at its utmost velocity, but the
cold, thin atmosphere could sustain no more. It was impossible,
situated as he was, to go any higher.
“If Bohunkus wasn’t with me, I could rise a half mile or more, but
there’s no use of trying it now. Some time I’ll do it alone.”
The limit marked was a trifle under nine thousand feet. It was a
notable exploit, but, as we know, it has been surpassed by other
aeroplanes, and more than doubled by aeronauts.
Another fact flashed upon Harvey: it was two hours since he and
his companion had started on the flight that was destined to be a
memorable one, and they were a hundred miles from home. There
could be only a small amount of gasoline left in the tank, and it
would be impossible to return without procuring more. Prudence
urged that he should lose no time in doing so. He slowly advanced
the control lever, the front rudder dipped downward and he began
approaching the earth. Some minutes must pass before they should
feel the pleasant change of temperature, but it could not be long
delayed.
In the midst of his pleasant anticipations, Harvey was startled by a
shriek from Bohunkus:
“We’s gone, Harv!” he shouted; “nuffin can sabe us!”
 CHAPTER V.

A WOODLAND EXPERT.

The aeroplane was caught in a furious snow squall. While

descending it ran into the swirling tumult which in an instant
enveloped it like a blanket, the myriads of particles filling the air so
thickly that the terrified Bohunkus could not see the ailerons and
even the aviator was partly shrouded from sight. Harvey Hamilton
was faintly visible as he leaned over and manipulated the levers. Not
only was the snow everywhere, but the machine itself was rocking
like a ship laboring in a storm. It tipped so fearfully that the negro
believed it was about to capsize and tumble them out. He shrieked
in his terror, and held fast for life.
Harvey paid no heed to him. He had enough to engage his skill
and wits. He recalled that Professor Sperbeck had told him what to
do when caught in one of those elemental outbursts. Instead of
running away from it, he headed for its center, so far as he could
locate it, as the navigator does when gripped by the typhoon of the
Indian Ocean.
Within five minutes of the aerial explosion, as it may be called, the
biplane was sailing in the same calm as before. The sun was shining
low in the sky and all was as serene as the mildest summer day that
ever soothed earth and heavens. The gust had come and gone so
quickly that it seemed like some frightful nightmare. The youths
might have doubted the evidence of their senses, but for the
reminder of the snowflakes on the wings, different parts of the
machine and their clothing. They had entered so balmy a
temperature, however, that the particles soon dissolved and left only
a slight moisture behind them.
“Wal, if dat don’t beat all creation,” mused Bohunkus; “de fust ting
I knowed I didn’t know anyting and de next dat I knowed wasn’t
anyting. Wonder if Harv seed dat yell I let out when dat rumpus hit
me on de side ob my head.”
The aviator acted as if unaware of the dusky youth’s presence.
Knowing the gasoline was nearly gone, he centered his thoughts
upon making a landing. To his astonishment he saw an immense
forest below him, many miles in extent. This seemed remarkable in
view of the fact that only a short time before he had sailed over a
large city, which could not be far to the south. He would have turned
about and made for it, knowing he could renew his supply of fuel
there, and find accommodations for himself and companion. But the
fluid was lower than he had supposed. It would not carry him thither
and he must volplane, or glide to earth, the best he could.
It need not be said that a stretch of woods is the worst place in
the world for an aeroplane to descend to the earth. In fact it is
impossible to land without wrecking the apparatus and endangering
the lives of those it is carrying.
The keen eyes of the youth were scanning the ground below when
to his surprise he caught sight of a village of considerable size to the
westward. Why he had not observed it before passed his
comprehension. It was barely two miles distant and he was
wondering whether he had enough gasoline left to carry him over
the woods to the broken country beyond when he made a second
and pleasing discovery. A short distance ahead an open space in the
forest showed,—one of those natural breaks that are occasionally
seen in wide stretches of wilderness. It was several acres in extent
and seemed at that altitude to be free of stumps and covered with a
sparse growth of dry grass, so level that it formed an ideal landing
place. He did not hesitate to make use of it.
Now when an aeroplane comes down to earth, the greatest care is
necessary to avoid descending too suddenly. A violent bump is likely
to injure the small wheels beneath or the machine itself. The aviator
therefore oscillates downward somewhat after the manner of a
pendulum. When near the ground, he shifts his steering gear so that
the machine glides sideways for a little way. Then he circles about or
takes a zig-zag course, until it is safe to shut off power and alight.
As our old friend Darius Green said, the danger is not so much in
rising and sailing through the sky as it is in ’lighting.
Harvey Hamilton displayed fine skill, seesawing back and forth
until at the right moment the three small wheels touched the
ground, the machine under the slight momentum ran forward for
two or three rods, and then came to a standstill. A perfect landing
had been effected.
“Gee, but dat’s what I call splendacious!” exclaimed Bohunkus;
“it’s jest de way I’d done it myself.”
The aviator leaped lightly from his seat, and his companion did so
more deliberately. He yawned and stretched his arms over his head.
Harvey gave him no attention until he had examined the different
parts of the machine and found them in order. Then he looked
gravely at the African and asked:
“Didn’t I hear you make some remark at the moment we dived
into that snow squall?”
“P’raps yo’ did, for de weather was so funny dat it war nat’ral dat I
should indulge in some obserwation inasmuch as to de same.”
“But why use so loud tones?”
“Dat was necessumsary on ’count ob de prewailing disturbance ob
de atmospheric air wat was surrounding us.”
“I’m glad to hear your explanation, but it sounded to me as if you
were scared.”
“Me scared! Yo’ hurts my feelings, Harv; but I say, ain’t yo’ gwine
to tie de machine fast?”
“What for?”
“To keep it from running away.”
“It won’t do that unless some one runs away with it; but, Bunk,
we can’t do any more flying till we get some gasoline and oil, and it
doesn’t look to me as if there is much chance of buying any in these
parts.”
“Mebbe we can git it ober dere.”
“Where?”
 “At dat house jest behind yo’.”
Harvey turned about and met another surprise, for on the farther
edge of the natural clearing stood a dilapidated log dwelling, with
portions of several outbuildings visible around and beyond it.
“I must be going blind!” was his exclamation; “I came near
passing this spot without seeing it and never noticed that house.”
But the young man was hardly just to himself. In his concentration
of attention upon a landing place, he had given heed to nothing
else, and the descent engaged his utmost care until it was finished.
It was different with his companion, who had more freedom of
vision. Moreover, the primitive structure which the aviator now saw
for the first time was so enclosed by trees that it was hardly
noticeable from above.
No fence was visible, but a small, tumble-down porch was in front
of the broad door, which was open and showed a short, dumpy
woman, slovenly dressed and filling all of the space except that
which was above her head, because of her short stature. Her
husband, scrawny, stoop-shouldered, without coat, waistcoat or
necktie, wearing a straw hat whose rim pointed straight upward at
the back and almost straight downward in front, with a yellow tuft of
whiskers on his receding chin, and a set of big projecting teeth, was
slouching toward the two young men, as if impelled by a curiosity
natural in the circumstances. The thumb of each hand was thrust
behind a suspender button in front, and it was evident that he felt
some distrust until Harvey Hamilton’s genial “Good afternoon!”
greeted him. His trousers were tucked in the tops of his thick boots,
which now moved a little faster, but came to a stop several paces
off, as if the owner was still timid.
“How’r you?” he asked with a nod, in response to Harvey’s
salutation; “what sort of thing might you be calling that? Is it an
aeroplane?”
“That’s its name; you have heard of them.”
“I’ve read about them in the newspapers and studied pictures of
the blamed things, but yours is the first one I ever laid eyes on.”
Despite the uncouth manner of the man, it was evident that he
possessed considerable intelligence. He stepped closer and made
inquiries about the machine, its different parts and their functions,
and finally remarked:
“It’s coming, sure.”
“What do you refer to?” asked Harvey.
“The day when those things will be as common as automobiles
and bicycles. If I don’t peg out in the next ten years, I expect to
own one myself.”
“I certainly hope so, for you will get great pleasure from it.”
“Not to mention a broken neck or arm or leg,” he remarked with a
chuckle. “Now I suppose you call this contrivance a biplane because
it has double wings?”
“That is the reason.”
“And it seems to me,” he added, turning his head to one side and
squinting, “the length is a little greater from the nose of the forward
rudder to the end of the tail than between the wing tips?”
“You are correct again; there is a difference of about two feet.”
“The wings are curved a bit; I have read that that shape is better
than the flat form to support you in air.”
“Experiments have proved it so.”
“And this stuff,” he continued, touching his forefinger to the taut
covering of one of the wings, “is rubberized linen?”
“It is with our machine, though some aviators prefer other
material.”
“Spruce seems to be the chief wood in your biplane.”
“Because of its lightness and strength.”
“The horizontal rudder in front must be used in ascending and
descending and the two vertical ones at the rear for steering your
course. I should judge,” he said, scrutinizing the motor, “that your
engine has about sixty-horse power.”
“You hit it exactly; I am astonished by your knowledge.”
“It all comes from remembering what I read. And the wing tips
are the ailerons, and the engine weighs about three hundred
pounds.”
“A trifle less, the whole weight of the aeroplane being eight
hundred pounds.”
 “Your propeller is made of black walnut, and has eight
laminations, and when under full headway revolves more than a
thousand times a minute.”
“See here,” said Harvey; “don’t say you haven’t examined
aeroplanes before.”
“As I told you, I never saw one until now, but what’s the use of
reading anything unless you keep it in your memory? That’s my
principle.”
 CHAPTER VI.

WORKING FOR DINNER.

Further conversation justified the astonishment of Harvey

Hamilton. The countryman, who gave his name as Abisha Wharton,
showed a knowledge of aviation and heavier-than-air machines such
as few amateurs possess. In the midst of his bright remarks he
abruptly checked himself.
“What time is it?”
Harvey glanced at the little watch on his wrist.
“Twenty minutes of six.”
“You two will take supper with me.”
Bohunkus Johnson, who had been silently listening while the three
were standing, heaved an enormous sigh.
“Dat’s what I’se been waitin’ to hear mentioned eber since we
landed; yas, we’ll take supper wid yo’; I neber was so hungry in my
life.”
“I appreciate your kindness, which I accept on condition that we
pay you or your wife for it. We have started on an outing, and that is
our rule.”
“I didn’t have that in mind when I spoke, but if you insist on
giving the old lady a little tip, we sha’n’t quarrel; leastways I know
she won’t.”
“That is settled then. Now I should like to hire you to do me a
favor. I don’t suppose you keep gasoline in your home?”
“Never had a drop; we use only candles and such light as the fire
on the hearth gives.”
“How near is there a store where we can buy the stuff?”
 “I suppose Peters has it, for he sells everything from a toothpick
to a folding bed. He keeps the main store at Darbytown, two miles
away. I drive there nearly every day.”
“Will you do so now, and buy me ten gallons of gasoline and two
gallons of cylinder oil?”
“I don’t see why I shouldn’t; certainly I’ll do it. Do you want it
right off?”
“Can you go to town and back before dark?”
“My horse isn’t noted for his swiftness,” replied Abisha with a grin,
“but I can come purty nigh making it, if I start now.”
“Dat’s a good idee; while yo’s gone, Harv and me can put
ourselves outside ob dat supper dat yo’ remarked about.”
Harvey’s first thought was to accompany his new friend to the
village, but when he saw the rickety animal and the dilapidated
wagon to which he was soon harnessed, he forebore out of
consideration for the brute. Besides, it looked as if he was likely to
fail with the task. Accordingly, our young friend handed a five-dollar
bill to his host and repeated his instructions. Then he and Bohunkus
sauntered to the rude porch, where Mrs. Wharton came forth at the
call of her husband, and was introduced to the visitors, whose
names were given by Harvey. She promised that the evening meal
should suit them and passed inside to look after its preparation.
The winding wagon road was well marked, and Abisha Wharton,
seated in the front of his rattling vehicle, struck his bony horse so
smart a blow that the animal broke into a loping trot, and speedily
passed from sight among the trees in the direction of Darbytown.
Harvey and Bohunkus, having nothing to hold their attention,
strolled to the woodpile and sat down on one of the small logs lying
there, awaiting cutting into proper length and size for the old-
fashioned stove in the kitchen. A few minutes later the wife came
out and gathered all that was ready for use. As she straightened up,
she remarked with a sniff:
“That Abisha Wharton is too lazy ever to cut ’nough wood to last a
day; all he keers about is to smoke his pipe, or fish, or read his
papers and books.”
When she had gone in, Harvey said to his companion:
 “We haven’t anything to do for an hour or so; let’s make ourselves
useful.”
“I’m agreeable,” replied Bohunkus, lifting one of the heavy pieces
and depositing it in the two X’s which formed the wood horse. The
saw lay near and was fairly sharp. The colored youth was powerful
and had good wind. He bent to work with a vigor that soon severed
the piece in the middle. He immediately picked up another to subject
it to the same process, while Harvey swung the rather dull axe and
split the wood for the stove. It was all clean white hickory, with so
straight a grain that a slight blow caused it to break apart. The work
was light and Harvey offered to relieve his companion at the saw.
“Don’t bodder me; dis am fun; besides,” added Bohunkus, “I
cac’late to make it up when I git at de supper table; I tell yo’, Harv,
yo’ll hab to gib dat lady a big tip.”
“I certainly shall if I wish to save her from losing on you.”
For nearly an hour the two wrought without stopping to rest. By
that time, most of the wood was cut and heaped into a sightly pile.
The odor of the hickory was fragrant, and it made a pretty sight,
besides which we all know that it has hardly a superior for fuel,
unless it be applewood.
By and by the woman of the house came to the door and looked
at the two boys. She was delighted, for she saw enough wood ready
cut for the stove to last her for a week at least. Bohunkus was
bending over the saw horse with one knee on the stick, while a tiny
stream of grains shot out above and below, keeping time with the
motion of the implement, and Harvey swung the axe aloft with an
effect that kept the respective tasks equal. Gazing at them for a
moment, the housewife called:
“Supper’s waiting!”
“So am I!” replied Bohunkus, who, having a stick partly sawn in
two worked with such energy that the projecting end quickly fell to
the ground. Harvey would not allow him to leave until the pieces
were split and piled upon the others.
“Now let us each carry in an armful.”
They loaded themselves, and Harvey led the way into the house,
where the smiling woman directed them to the kitchen. There being
no box they dumped the wood upon the floor, then seated
themselves at the table, and she waited upon them.
Despite her untidy appearance, Mrs. Wharton gave them an
abundant and well-cooked meal, to which it need not be said both
did justice. They were blessed with good appetites, Bohunkus
especially being noted at home for his capacity in that line. They
pleased the hostess by their compliments, but more so by their
enjoyment of the meal.
It was a mild, balmy night, and at the suggestion of the woman
they carried their stools outside and sat in front of the house and on
the edge of the clearing, to await the return of the master of the
household. Sooner than they expected, they heard the rattle of the
wheels and the sound of his voice, as he urged his tired animal
onward. It took but a few minutes for him to unfasten, water and
lead him to the stable. Then the man came forward and greeted his
friends.
“How did you make out?” asked Harvey.
“I got what I went after, of course; the gasoline and oil are in the
wagon, and there’s about three dollars coming to you.”
“Which you will keep,” replied Harvey. “We have finished an
excellent meal and shall wait here for you if you don’t mind.”
“I’m agreeable to anything,” remarked the man, as he slouched
inside, where by the light of a candle he ate the evening meal with
his wife. Our friends could not help hearing what she said, for she
had a sharp voice and spoke in a high key. She berated him for his
shiftlessness and declared he ought to be ashamed to allow two
strangers to saw and split the wood which had too long awaited his
attention. She made other observations that it is not worth while to
repeat, but evidently the man was used to nagging, for it did not
affect his appetite and he only grunted now and then by way of
reply or to signify that he heard.
When Abisha brought out his chair and lighted his corncob pipe, it
was fully dark. The night was without a moon, and the sky had so
clouded that only here and there a twinkling star showed.
“Do you ever fly at night?” asked their host.
 “We have never done so,” replied Harvey, “because there is
nothing to be gained and it is dangerous.”
“Why dangerous?”
“We can’t carry enough gasoline to keep us in the air more than
two hours, and it is a risky thing to land in the darkness. If I hadn’t
caught sight of this open space, it would have gone hard with us
even when the sun was shining.”
“It’s a wonderful discovery,” repeated Wharton, as if speaking with
himself, “but a lot of improvements will have to be made. One of
them is to carry more gasoline or find some stuff that will serve
better. How long has anyone been able to sail with an aeroplane
without landing?”
“I believe the record is something like five hours.”
“In two or three years or less time, they will keep aloft for a day
or more. They’ll have to do it in order to cross the Atlantic.”
“There is little prospect of ever doing that.”
“Wellman tried it in a balloon, but was not able to make more than
a start.”
“I agree with you that the day is not distant when the Atlantic will
be crossed as regularly by heavier-than-air machines as it is by the
Mauretania and Lusitania, but in the meantime we have got to make
many improvements; that of carrying enough fuel being the most
important.”
At this point Bohunkus felt that an observation was due from him.
“Humph! it’s easy ’nough to fix dat.”
“How?”
“Hab reg’lar gasumline stations all de way ’cross de ocean, so dat
anyone can stop and load up when he wants to.”
“How would you keep the stations in place?” gravely inquired
Wharton.
“Anchor ’em, ob course.”
“But the ocean is several miles in depth in many portions.”
“What ob dat? Can’t you make chains or ropes dat long? Seems to
me some folks is mighty dumb.”
“I’ve noticed that myself,” remarked the host without a smile.
Failing to catch the drift of his comment, Bohunkus held his peace
for the next few minutes, but in the middle of a remark by his
companion, he suddenly leaped to his feet with the gasping
question:
“What’s dat?”
 CHAPTER VII.

THE DRAGON OF THE SKIES.

The others had seen the same object which so startled Bohunkus.
Several hundred feet up in the air and slightly to the north, the
gleam of a red light showed. It was moving slowly in the direction of
the three, all of whom were standing and studying it with wondering
curiosity. It was as if some aerial wanderer was flourishing a danger
lantern through the realms of space.
“What can it be?” asked Abisha Wharton in an awed voice.
Not knowing the proper answer, Harvey Hamilton held his peace,
but Bohunkus had an explanation ready.
“It am de comet!” he exclaimed, having in mind the celestial
visitor named in honor of Halley the astronomer, over which the
world had been stirred a short time before; “it hab broke loose and
is gwine to hit de airth; we’d better dodge.”
And he plunged into the house, where the wife had lighted a
candle and set it on the table in the front room. The others left him
to his own devices while they kept their eyes on the mysterious
visitant to the upper world.
They saw that the light was moving in a circle a hundred feet in
diameter, and gradually descending. Whatever connection anything
else had with it was invisible in the gloom. If the peculiar motion
continued, it must come down in the clearing where Harvey’s biplane
had settled to rest some time before.
Suddenly a fanlike stream of light shot out from a point directly
above the crimson glow. It darted here and there, whisked over the
small plain, flitted above the treetops and then flashed into the faces
of the two persons who were standing side by side.
“It’s another aeroplane!” cried Harvey; “it carries a searchlight and
the man is hunting a spot to land.”
At this juncture, Bohunkus’s curiosity got the better of him. He
came timidly to the open door and peeped out.
“Hab it struck yet?” he asked; “it’ll be mighty bad when it swipes
yo’ alongside de head. Better come in here——”
At that instant the blinding ray hit the dusky youth in the face, and
with another gasp of affright, he dashed to the farthest corner of the
room, where he cowered in trembling expectancy.
 A Fanlike Stream of Light Shot Out.

The couple outside were too much absorbed in what they saw to
give heed to him.
 “You’re right,” said Wharton; “it’s an aeroplane and the aviator
means to alight.”
The searchlight continued darting here and there, but the
spreading glow finally settled upon the ground near where the
biplane stood silent and motionless.
“It is unaccountable that it makes no noise. Look!”
The aviator now demonstrated that he was an expert in the
management of his machine. He oscillated downward, zig-zagging to
the right and left, until he gently touched the earth and the wheels
running a short distance settled to rest. The searchlight flitted
toward different points several times and then was abruptly
extinguished. Harvey and Wharton walked across the ground toward
the machine. Before they reached it, they made out the dim forms of
a monoplane and a man standing beside it. To the youth he was the
tallest and slimmest person he had ever seen. His stature must have
been six and a half feet and in common language he was as thin as
a rail. He had observed the approach of the two and silently awaited
them.
“Good evening!” saluted Harvey, who was slightly in advance of
his companion.
“How do you do, sir?”
The voice would have won an engagement for the owner as the
basso profundo in an opera troupe. It was like the muttering of
thunder, and as Abisha Wharton expressed it, seemed to come from
his shoes.
Since Wharton left it to his young friend to do the honors, Harvey,
pausing a few paces away, exerted himself to play the host.
“I see that your machine is a monoplane; you seem to have it
under good control.”
“Why shouldn’t I? I made every part of it.”
“Even to the searchlight?”
“Of course; is that biplane yours?”
“It is; we landed several hours ago, having been kindly furnished a
meal and lodgings for the night. I presume you will keep us
company; my friend here, I am sure, will be glad to do what he can
for you.”
 “Kerrect,” added Wharton; “you’re as welcome as the flowers in
spring.”
“Don’t you travel by night?” asked the visitor, ignoring the
invitation.
“Not when I can avoid it; it is too risky to land in the darkness.”
“Night is the favorite period with me.”
“But you can’t keep in the air all the time.”
“What do you know about it, young man?” asked the other in his
sepulchral tones; “I don’t expect to make a landing till after sunrise
to-morrow.”
“I never heard of such a thing.”
“There are lots of things you never heard of; I built this
monoplane, without help from any one; it embodies a number of
new principles, one of which is the ability to keep in the air for
twelve hours without renewing the gasoline; I mix a certain chemical
with that fluid which increases its power tenfold; I shall not rest until
it is multiplied a hundred times.”
“You have an invention that will make you wealthier than Carnegie
or Rockefeller.”
“I’m not seeking wealth,” said the other sourly, as if not pleased
with the suggestion; “there are better things in life than riches.”
“All the same, it’s mighty pleasant to have them,” replied Harvey,
nettled as much by the manner as by the words of the stranger.
“See here,” interposed the hospitable Wharton; “we are keeping
you standing——”
“There is no compulsion about it, sir; I am doing what pleases me
best.”
“Will you walk into my house and have something to eat? There
isn’t much style about us, but my wife will give you a good cup of
coffee and some corn bread and fried chicken.”
“I’ll go to your house, but I’ll not eat for I’m not hungry.”
Wharton led the way to the porch. Harvey, who was curious to
learn more of this strange individual, deftly placed his chair so that
the rays from the candle fell through the open window upon him. In
obedience to the youth’s order, Bohunkus brought out a fourth stool,
so that all were seated, the woman of the house remaining inside
and attending to her duties, as if she felt no interest in what was
going on.
The negro sat close to his companion and huskily whispered:
“Am he de feller dat rid down on de comet?”
“Bunk, the best thing you can do is to keep still and listen; our
conversation is likely to be above your head.”
“Jest like de comet; all right; I ain’t saying nuffin.”
A part of the yellow rays touched Harvey, and the stranger turned
and scrutinized him as if impelled by curiosity similar to that of the
youth. The movement revealed the visitor’s face plainly, and it may
be said it was in keeping with the impression he had already made.
He wore a motorman’s cap, and a long, linen duster, buttoned to the
chin and reaching downward to his slim tan shoes. What clothing
was within this envelope was out of sight.
The face was long and covered with a grizzled beard that reached
well down on his breast. He had removed his buckskin gloves,
crossed his legs, and placed one of the hand coverings in his lap,
while he loosely grasped the other and idly flipped the first with it as
he talked.
But his eyes were the most striking feature of the remarkable
man. They were overhung by shaggy brows, were of a piercing black
color, and glowed as if with fire. Their startling glare caused a
sudden suspicion in the mind of Harvey Hamilton that the man was
partially insane. At least, he must be the curious individual best
described by the word “crank,” one whom much study and research
had made mad. As is well known, such a person often succeeds in
hiding his affliction from his friends, or gains the reputation of being
simply eccentric.
“What is your name and why are you here?” he abruptly asked,
still looking in the face of Harvey, who said he lived at Mootsport,
something more than a hundred miles distant.
“I have started on an outing with my colored friend, without any
particular destination in view; when we have had enough sport, we
shall return. Who are you?” queried the youth, feeling warranted in
asking a few equally pointed questions.
 “My name is Milo Morgan; I have no special home, but stop where
the notion takes me; my business is invention, as it relates to the
aeroplane.”
“May I ask what improvements you have made, Professor?”
He hesitated a moment as if uncertain what to reply.
“Not half as many as I am sure of making in the near future. The
rigging of a searchlight cannot be called an invention, for it has long
been in common use on warships and others, and all aeroplanes are
supplied with electricity. I have rigged up a wireless telegraph, so as
to pick out messages from the air; I have succeeded in
compounding a fluid which as I told you is ten times stronger than
gasoline; I run without noise, and my uplifter will carry me vertically
upward, as high as I care to go.”
“I should think you were blamed near the limit,” suggested Abisha
Wharton, profoundly interested in what the Professor was saying.
“I have only begun; and I intend to justify the name of my
monoplane.”
“I didn’t hear it.”
“Because I haven’t spoken it, but when you have a daylight view
of my machine you will see the name painted on the under side of
the wings, ‘The Dragon of the Skies.’”
This was said with so much solemnity that Harvey had hard work
to hide his smile. He no longer doubted that he was talking with a
crank.
“Do you mind telling me what is the great object you have in
view?”
“It is to build a machine that will keep afloat and travel at an
average speed of sixty miles an hour,—probably greater. That will
enable me to cross the Atlantic in a little more than two days and I
shall have no difficulty in sailing to Asia or Africa.”