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NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

Bambang, Nueva Vizcaya
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IM No.4:MCHE14-2NDSEM-2021-2022

College : Engineering
Campus: Bambang

DEGREE
BSME 3 COURSE NO. MCHE14
PROGRAM
COURSE
SPECIALIZATION Mechanical Combustion Engineering
TITLE
YEAR LEVEL 3rd Year TIME FRAME 9 Hrs WK.NO. 13-15 IM NO. 4

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE

THEORETICAL ENGINE CYCLES

II. LESSON TITLE

1. The Otto Cycle or Spark Ignition Cycle
2. The Diesel Cycle or Compression Ignition Cycle
3. The Dual Cycle or Limited Pressure Air Cycle
4. The Bryton Cycle

III. LESSON OVERVIEW

Certain concepts of heat and work are necessary before the operation of the internal-
combustion engine can be understood. It is assumed that the student at this point has had an
introductory course in heat physics or thermodynamics. This chapter is intended only as a review of
pressure-volume- temperature relationships for systems of fixed mass that explain the internal
combustion engine cycle or working process.

Thermodynamics is the study of changes in which energy is involved. The first law of
thermodynamics, which is a statement of the conservation of energy, says: All forms of energy are
mutually convertible. The energy of a closed and isolated system remains constant. The second law of
thermodynamics cannot be stated simply, but it deals with the fact that in real systems heat cannot be
fully converted to work.

The second law is based on experiment and indicates the practical limitations on engine
performance. It means that no engine can convert all the energy supplied to it, inasmuch as a large part
of the energy supplied is rejected in the form of unused heat.

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

The student of this course can solve various related problems particularly air-standard power cycles for
which these are so very important in the field of mechanical engineering discipline to contribute both for
the welfare and benefit of people because of the ever growing population and the universe as whole
due to continuous innovations, discoveries with respect to science and technology.

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V. LESSON CONTENT

The ideal Otto cycle Sketch of an actual Otto Cycle

Piston and valves in a four-stroke internal combustion engine

The Otto cycle is a set of processes used by spark ignition internal combustion engines (2-
stroke or 4-stroke cycles). These engines a) ingest a mixture of fuel and air, b) compress it, c) cause it
to react, thus effectively adding heat through converting chemical energy into thermal energy, d)
expand the combustion products, and then e) eject the combustion products and replace them with a
new charge of fuel and air. The different processes are shown in Figure 3.8:

1. Intake stroke, gasoline vapor and air drawn into engine (5 – 1).
2. Compression stroke, p, T increase (1 – 2).
3. Combustion (spark), short time, essentially constant volume (2 – 3). Model: heat absorbed from a
series of reservoirs at temperatures T2 to T3.
4. Power stroke: expansion ( 3 – 4).
5. Valve exhaust: valve opens, gas escapes.
6. (4 – 1) Model: rejection of heat to series of reservoirs at temperatures T 4 to T1.
7. Exhaust stroke, piston pushes remaining combustion products out of chamber (1 – 5).

We model the processes as all acting on a fixed mass of air contained in a piston-cylinder arrangement.

Efficiency of an ideal Otto cycle

The starting point is the general expression for the thermal efficiency of a cycle:

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The convention, as previously, is that heat exchange is positive if heat is flowing into the system or
engine, so QL is negative. The heat absorbed occurs during combustion when the spark occurs,
roughly at constant volume. The heat absorbed can be related to the temperature change from state 2
to state 3 as:

The heat rejected is given by (for a perfect gas with constant specific heats)

Substituting the expressions for the heat absorbed and rejected in the expression for
thermal efficiency yields

We can simplify the above expression using the fact that the processes from 1 to 2 and from 3 to 4 are
isentropic:

The quantity V1/V2 is called the compression ratio. In terms of compression ratio, the efficiency of an
ideal Otto cycle is:

Ideal Otto cycle thermal efficiency

Engine work, rate of work per unit enthalpy flux

The non-dimensional ratio of work done (the power) to the enthalpy flux through the engine is given by

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There is often a desire to increase this quantity, because it means a smaller engine for the
same power. The heat input is given by

where

 is the heat of reaction, i.e. the chemical energy liberated per unit mass of fuel,

 is the fuel mass flow rate.

The non-dimensional power is

The quantities in this equation, evaluated at stoichiometric conditions are:

so

1. The Diesel Cycle or Compression Ignition Cycle

An CI Engine Used in Ships

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Thermodynamic cycles can be divided into two general categories: power cycles, which produce
a net power output, and refrigeration and heat pump cycles, which consume a net power input. The
thermodynamic power cycles can be categorized as gas cycles and vapor cycles. In gas cycles, the
working fluid remains in the gas phase throughout the entire cycle. In vapor cycles, the working fluid
exits as vapor phase during one part of the cycle and as liquid phase during another part of the cycle.
Internal combustion engines and gas turbines undergo gas power cycle.

Internal combustion engines, which are commonly used in automobiles, have two principal
types: spark-ignition engines and compression-ignition engines. This section will introduce the
compression-ignition engines and the ideal cycle for compression-ignition engines - Diesel Cycle.

Four-stroke Compression-ignition (CI) engine

Four-stroke Compression Cycle for CI Engine

In compression-ignition engines, air is compressed to a high pressure and temperature which is

above the auto ignition temperature of the fuel. When the fuel is injected, the combustion occurs
spontaneously. Compression-ignition engines are suited for heavy trucks, buses, and ships which
require large amount of power.

In spark-ignition engine, compression ratio is limited because of engine knock. In CI engine, only air is
compressed during the compression stroke. Therefore, CI engine can be designed to operate at a
much higher compression ratio.

The four strokes for a CI engine is the same as SI engine. They are

 Intake stroke:
The piston starts at the top dead center, the intake valve opens, and the piston moves down to let
the engine take in a cylinder-full of air
 Compression stroke:
The piston moves back up to compress air to a temperature which is higher than the auto ignition
temperature of the fuel.
 Combustion stroke (power stroke):
When the piston approaches the top of its stroke, fuel starts to be injected from the fuel injector
and the combustion occurs spontaneously, driving the piston down. Fuel is injected during the first
part of the power stroke, resulting in a longer combustion interval.
 Exhaust stroke:
Once the piston hits the bottom of its stroke, the exhaust valve opens and the exhaust leaves the
cylinder to go out through the tail pipe. A new cycle can begin again.

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Diesel Cycle - Ideal Cycle for Compression-ignition Engines

The only difference between ideal Otto cycle and ideal Diesel cycle is the heat addition process.
Instead of constant volume heat addition process in SI engine, heat is added to the air in the Diesel
engine at constant pressure. The four processes are:

 1-2 Isentropic compression

 2-3 Constant pressure heat addition
 3-4 Isentropic expansion
 4-1 Constant volume heat rejection

Isentropic Compression (1-2)

Noting that the ideal Diesel cycle is executed in a closed system and the working fluid is air
according to the air-standard assumption. Also, changes in kinetic and potential energies are negligible.
No heat transfer is involved in the two isentropic processes. The energy balances for these two
processes are:

-w12 = u2 - u1

-w34 = u4 - u3

w12 is negative since work is needed to compress the air in the cylinder and w34 is positive since
air does work to the surroundings during its expansion.

Constant Pressure Heat Addition (2-3)

In the constant pressure heat addition process, air is expanded to keep the pressure as
constant during the heat addition. The expansion work equals

w23 = P2(v3 - v2)

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The energy balances for this process is:

q23 = u3 - u2 + w23 = h3 - h2

Isentropic Expansion (3-4)

In the constant volume heat rejection process, no work interaction is involved since no volume
change occurs. The energy balances for this process is:

q41 = u1 - u4

q23 is positive since heat is added to the air and q41 is negative since heat is rejected to the
surroundings during this process.

Constant Volume Heat Rejection (4-1)

The thermal efficiency of an ideal Otto cycle is

ηth,Diesel = wnet/qin

According to the analysis above, the net work output is

wnet = w34 + w12 = q23 + q41

qin = q23

ηth, Diesel = 1+ q41/q23

Under the cold air-standard assumption, the thermal efficiency of an ideal Diesel cycle is

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This thermal efficiency can be converted in terms of measurable quantities as it was done for
Otto and Diesel cycle.

The Compression ratio (rv) is given by

(equation 2)

Pressure ratio (rp) is given by

and

Cutoff ratio (rc) is given by

For isentropic compression (1-2)

For constant volume process (2-3)

For constant pressure process (3-4)

For isentropic
expansion process (4-5)

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Put T2, T3, T4, and T5 in equation 1

Thermal efficiency of dual cycle is reduces to

Mean effective pressure, pm:

Generally, it is defined as the ratio of the net workdone to the displacement volume of the piston.

bar

Now, express mean effective pressure in easily measurable quantities as given below:

(equation 3)

But from equation 2, we have

Put T2, T3, T4, T5 and (v1-v2) in equation 3

Therefore,pm

where, rv = compression ratio = v1/v2

rc = cut-off ratio = v4/v3

rp = explosion ratio = p3/p2

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Important points

1. Increase in compression ratio (CR) increases Efficiency and Mean effective pressure.

As efficiency and mean effective pressure increase in both Otto and Diesel cycles with increase in CR,
they have to increase in dual cycle as well. This can be proved on the same lines as it was done for
Otto and Diesel cycles.

2. For dual cycle, efficiency depends not only on compression ratio but also on how much heat
is added at constant volume and constant pressure. For same amount of heat added, efficiency
will increase if its share in constant volume heat addition is increased and vice versa.

Proof:

To see the above effect, compare cycle 1-2-3-4-5-1, Cycle 1-2-3’-4’-5’-1 and Cycle 1-2-3”-4”-5”-
1 as in the Figure 2.

So we can say that if portion of heat added at constant volume is increased (total heat added
remaining same), the efficiency increases & vice-versa.

For diesel cycle, we noticed that with increase in cut-off ratio the efficiency decreases. But we need
some time for solid injection of diesel oil into cylinder. In dual cycle, injection of fuel starts little before
piston reaches TDC. So cut-off ratio of dual cycle is less than that of diesel cycle so its efficiency will be
higher than diesel cycle for same compression ratio. For rp =1, efficiency becomes equal to that of
diesel cycle. For rc =1, efficiency becomes equal to that of Otto cycle.

3. Increase in heat input either due to increase in rp or rc increases mean effective pressure ‘pm’.

This can be seen by drawing comparative p-v diagrams of dual cycle with different heat inputs.

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1-2-3-4-5-1 Dual cycle,

 1-2-3’-4’-5’-1 Dual cycle with same heat input but higher rpand lower rc ,

 1-2-3”-4”-5”-1 Dual cycle with same heat input but lower rpand higher rc

Figure 2: Effect of ‘CR’, ‘rp’& ‘rc’ on mean effective pressure & thermal efficiency.

COMPARISON OF OTTO, DIESEL & DUAL CYCLES ALL HAVING SAME COMPRESSION RATIO
(CR) AND HEAT INPUT

The Otto cycle is most efficient cycle followed by dual & diesel cycles, all having same CR and
heat input.

Proof:

To proof the above statement, compare the Otto cycle 1-2-3-4, Dual cycle 1-2-2’-3’-4’ and Diesel
cycle1-2-3”-4”in Fig. 45.3.

Therefore, Otto cycle is most efficient cycle followed by dual & diesel cycles.


1-2-3-4 Otto cycle ,

 1-2-3”-4” Diesel cycle,

 1-2-2’-3’-4’ Dual cycle

Figure 3: Otto, Diesel & Dual cycles all having same CR and heat input

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Problem 1:

An engine working on dual cycle has bore of 20 cm & stroke of 40 cm. Compression ratio is
14.5 & pressure ratio at constant volume heat addition process is 1.5. The constant volume heat
addition cut-off takes place at 4.9 % of the stroke. Assume = 1.4, find air standard efficiency.

Solution:

Given: Bore of the cylinder, d = 20 cm = 0.2 m;

Stroke of the cylinder, L = 40 cm = 0.4 m;

Stroke volume, Vs = (V1-V2) = x (d)2 x L

= x (20)2 x 40 = 12571.4 cm3

Compression ratio, rv = = 14.5;

Pressure ratio, rp = = 1.5

(V4-V3) = 4.9% of the stroke volume

= 0.049 Vs

γ = 1.4

Determine the air standard efficiency, ;

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METHOD-I

Formula:

Finding unknown rc ;

Finding unknown V3 and V4 ;

= 14.5

= 14.5

1 = 14.5

= 14.5- 1 = 13.5

V3 = = = 930 cm3

(V4-V3) = 0.049 Vs

or V4 = V3 + 0.049 Vs

= V3 + 0.049 x 12571.4 = 1545 cm3 ;

rc = = = 1.66

Answer: =1−

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= 1−

= 0.627 or 62.7%

METHOD-II

Formula:

or

[Hint: Find all temperatures ‘T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5’ as a function of ‘T’ then substitute them in
the above equation and T will get cancelled].

Finding unknown, T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 as a function of T;

Assume T3 = T ;

For constant pressure process (3-4), we have

or

or

Finding unknown V3 and V4 ;

= 14.5

= 14.5

1+ = 14.5

= 14.5- 1 = 13.5

V3 =

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= = 930 cm3

Also (V4-V3) = 0.049 Vs

or V4 = V3 + 0.049 Vs

= V3 + 0.049 x 12571.4 = 1545 cm3

For isentropic expansion (4-5), we have

Finding unknown, V5 ; We have,

V5 = V1 = V3 + Vs = 930 + 12571.4 = 13501.4 cm3

= 1.66 × T × (0.1144)0.41 = 0.68244 T

For constant volume process (2-3), we have

or

For isentropic compression (1-2), we have

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T1 =

= = 0.23 T

Answer:

= 1−

= 1−

= 0.639 or 63.9%

The Bryton Cycle

Thermodynamic cycles can be divided into two general categories: power cycles, which produce
a net power output, and refrigeration and heat pump cycles, which consume a net power input. The
thermodynamic power cycles can be categorized as gas cycles and vapor cycles. In gas cycles, the
working fluid remains in the gas phase throughout the entire cycle. In vapor cycles, the working fluid
exits as a vapor during one part of the cycle and as a liquid during another part of the cycle. Internal
combustion engines and gas turbines undergo gas power cycle.

The two major application areas of gas-turbine engines are aircraft propulsion and electric
power generation. This section introduces the ideal cycle for gas-turbine engine - Brayton cycle and jet-
propulsion cycle for aircraft propulsion.

Brayton cycle - the Ideal Cycle for Gas-turbine Engine

An Open Gas-Turbine Cycle Ideal Brayton Cycle

Gas-turbines usually operate on an open cycle, shown on the left above.

 A compressor takes in fresh ambient air (state 1), compresses it to a higher temperature and pressure
(state 2).

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 Fuel and the higher pressure air from compressor are sent to a combustion chamber, where fuel is
burned at constant pressure. The resulting high temperature gases are sent to a turbine (state 3).
 The high temperature gases expand to the ambient pressure (state 4) in the turbine and produce
power.
 The exhaust gases leave the turbine.

Part of the work generated by the turbine is sent to drive the compressor. The fraction of the
turbine work used to drive the compressor is called the back work ratio.

Since fresh air enters the compressor at the beginning and exhaust are thrown out at the end,
this cycle is an open cycle.

By utilizing the air-standard assumptions, replacing the combustion process by a constant

pressure heat addition process, and replacing the exhaust discharging process by a constant pressure
heat rejection process, the open cycle described above can be modeled as a closed cycle, called ideal
Brayton cycle. The ideal Brayton cycle is made up of four internally reversible processes.

 1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)

 2-3 Constant pressure heat addition
 3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
 4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection

P-v and T-s Diagrams of Ideal Brayton Cycle

The P-v and T-s diagrams of an ideal Brayton cycle are shown on the left. In an ideal Brayton
cycle, heat is added to the cycle at a constant pressure process (process 2-3).

qin = h3 - h2 = cP(T3 - T2)

Heat is rejected at a constant pressure process (process 4 -1).

qout = h4 - h1 = cP(T4 - T1)

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Then the thermal efficiency of the ideal Brayton cycle under the cold air-standard assumption is given
as

Process 1-2 and process 3-4 are isentropic processes, thus,

Since P2 = P3 and P4 = P1,

Considering all the relations above, the thermal efficiency becomes,

where rP = P2/P1 is the pressure ratio and k is the specific heat ratio. In most designs, the
pressure ratio of gas turbines range from about 11 to 16.

Actual Gas-turbine Cycle

T-s Diagram of Actual Gas-turbine Cycle

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The actual gas-turbine cycle is different from the ideal Brayton cycle since there are
irreversibilities. Hence, in an actual gas-turbine cycle, the compressor consumes more work and the
turbine produces less work than that of the ideal Brayton cycle. The irreversibilities in an actual

compressor and an actual turbine can be considered by using the adiabatic efficiencies of the
compressor and turbine. They are:

Another difference between the actual Brayton cycle and the ideal cycle is that there are
pressure drops in the heat addition and heat rejection processes.

Gas- Turbines for Aircraft Propulsion

A Turbojet Engine
Gas-turbines are widely used to power aircraft. Aircraft gas turbines operate on an open cycle
called a jet-propulsion cycle. Jet-propulsion cycle differs from the Brayton cycle in the gas expansion
process. In Brayton cycle, gases are expanded to ambient conditions, but in jet-propulsion cycle, the
gases are expanded to a pressure such that the power produced is only enough to drive the
compressor and the auxiliary equipment. Therefore, the net work output of a jet-propulsion cycle is
zero. The high pressure gases exit from the turbine are sent to a nozzle. They are accelerated in the
nozzle to provide the thrust to propel the aircraft. Also, aircraft gas turbines operate at higher pressure
ratios (between 10 and 25). To get a high pressure before the compression process, the fluid passes
through a diffuser first.

Aircraft are propelled by accelerating a fluid in the opposite direction to motion. Propeller-driven
engine accomplishes this by slightly accelerating a large mass of fluid, jet or turbojet accomplishes this
by greatly accelerating a small mass of fluid, and turboprop engine uses both.

In a turbojet engine, the cycle proceeds as follows,

 In the diffuser, air increases its pressure slightly.

 Air is compressed to a higher pressure in the compressor.
 Air mixed with the fuel in the combustion chamber and the mixture is burned at constant pressure.
 The high pressure, high temperature gases exit from the combustion chamber and expand in the
turbine to generate enough power to drive the compressor and the auxiliary equipment.
 The gases expand in a nozzle to the ambient pressure and leave the engine at high velocity.

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T-s Diagram of an Ideal Turbojet Cycle

In an ideal jet-propulsion cycle, the power generated in the turbine equals the power
consumed in the compressor. And the processes in the diffuser, compressor, turbine and nozzle
are assumed to be isentropic. The T-s diagram is shown on the left.

The thrust force developed in a turbine engine can be determined from Newton's
second law. According to the Newton's second law, the thrust produced by the jet engine is
equal to the rate of change of the momentum of the fluid flowing through the engine. When the
inlet and exit pressures of the engine are identical, the thrust force is

where
vexit = velocity of gases exhausted from the
nozzle, relative to the aircraft.
vinlet = inlet air velocity, relative to the aircraft.

Propulsive power ( ) is the propulsive force times the distance this force acts on
the aircraft per unit time, which is the aircraft velocity.

The efficiency of a turbojet engine is defined through the general definition since the
net work output is zero. The desired output in a turbojet engine is the propulsive power and the
required input is the thermal energy of the fuel released in the combustion process. This
efficiency is called the propulsive efficiency.

The propulsive efficiency measures how much energy released in the combustion
process is converted to propulsive energy.

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 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bambang, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.4:MCHE14-2NDSEM-2021-2022

VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Problem Solving:
1. The adiabatic compression of a diesel engine from an initial pressure of 13 psia and
temperature of 100 to 1/12 of its initial volume wit cut-off ratio of 2.75.
a) Calculate the temperature (t2) in F before the heat addition will take place. (5 points)
b) Thermodynamics cycle efficiency of the engine un percent. (5 points)

Given:
Air standard Diesel cycle
Adiabatic compression (C=S)
P1= 13 psia
T1= 100 F = 506
V2= 1/12 V1 ; rk= V2/V1=12 rc= 2.75 = V3/V2

Solution for adiabatic relation/equation

a. ;

T2= 1,513R ; t2= 1,053F

b) ec= 1- ( )=

ec=1-0.3701( )= 1- 0.3701(1.2759)

ec= 0.528 or 52.8%

Problem # 2 (Bryton Cycle)

An ideal gas turbine with pressure ratio of 8 and temperature limits of 25°C and 1150°C.
The energy input in the high temperature heat exchanger is 360 Kw. Determine the air flow rate
in kg/hr.

Given: rp = =8 t1 = 25°C
T1 = 25 + 273 = 298 K T3 = 1150 + 273 = 1423 K
QA = 360 kW
Required: air flowrate
Sol’n:

=( )

T2 = 539.81 K
QA = MA Cp (T2 – T1)
360 = MA (1.006) (1423 – 539.81)
MA = 1458.66 kg/hr

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may be reproduced for educational purposes only and not for
commercial distribution.”
 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bambang, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.4:MCHE14-2NDSEM-2021-2022

ASSIGNMENT
Instructions: Solve and show your solutions using short bond papers as per required in the
problem sets given. Box-in or underline your answers.

Problems:

1. An ideal Otto engine operating on hot-air standard with k = 1.34 and the conditions at the
beginning of compression are 101.3 kPa, 0.4 m3 and 30°C, respectively. The clearance is
10% and 125 kJ of heat added per cycle. Determine:
a) T4, P4
b) QR, W and e
c) Pm
d) Power for 1000 cycles/min, kW

2. In an air standard Diesel cycle, compression starts at 100 kPa and 300 K. The compression
ratio is 16. The maximum temperature is 2031 K. Determine the thermal efficiency. (ME
Board: April, 1995).

3. An air-standard Dual cycle receives air at 25°C and 1 atmosphere pressure. The
compression ratio is 15, and the cut-off ratio is 2.5. During the constant volume heat addition
process the pressure doubles and the maximum temperature is 2300 K. Determine the heat
added in the constant volume process.

4. A gas turbine working on an air standard Bryton Cycle has air enter into the compressor at
atmospheric condition and 22°C. The pressure ratio is 9 and the maximum temperature in
the cycle is 1077°C. Compute for the cycle efficiency per kg of air in percent.

VII. REFERENCES

Note: This prepared instructional materials was directly copied from the sources and references as
mentioned below and it is intended for educational purpose only. Modification was the type and size of
fonts used, images and figures sizes where adjusted suited to fit for this IM.

https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4684-6632-4_2
http://web.mit.edu/16.unified/www/FALL/thermodynamics/notes/node26.html
https://ecourses.ou.edu/cgi-bin/ebook.cgi?doc=&topic=th&chap_sec=08.2&page=theory
http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=2458
https://ecourses.ou.edu/cgi-bin/ebook.cgi?doc&topic=th&chap_sec=09.1&page=theory
Power and Industrial Plant Engineering, 2nd Edition, by: Jose Arvin Seco Tordillo
Thermodynamics by: Marcelo S. Domalanta

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may be reproduced for educational purposes only and not for
commercial distribution.”
 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bambang, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.4:MCHE14-2NDSEM-2021-2022

. Disclaimer: This document does not claim any originality and cannot be used as a substitute for
prescribed textbooks. The information presented here is merely a collection by the faculty member for
his respective teaching assignments. Various sources as mentioned at the end of the document as well
as freely available material from internet were consulted for preparing this document. The ownership of
the information lies with the respective authors or institutions. Further, this document is not intended to
be used for commercial purpose and the faculty member is not accountable for any issues, legal or
otherwise, arising out of use of this document. The faculty member makes no representations or
warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this document and
specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose.

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