MODULE 6 GEOGRAPHICAL IMFORMATION SYSTEM

6.1 BASIC CONCEPT

FIG: GIS

A Geographical Information System (GIS) is a system for capturing, storing, analysing and managing
data and associated attributes, which are spatially referenced to the Earth. The geographical information
system is also called as a geographic information system or geospatial information system. It is an
information system capable of integrating, storing, editing, analysing, sharing, and displaying
geographically referenced information. In a more generic sense, GIS is a software tool that allows users
to create interactive queries, analyse the spatial information, edit data, maps, and present the results of
all these operations. GIS technology is becoming essential tool to combine various maps and remote
sensing information to generate various models, which are used in real time environment. Geographical
information system is the science utilizing the geographic concepts, applications and systems.
Geographical Information System can be used for scientific investigations, resource management, asset
management, environmental impact assessment, urban planning, cartography, criminology, history,
sales, marketing, and logistics. For example, agricultural planners might use geographical data to decide
on the best locations for a location specific crop planning, by combining data on soils, topography, and
rainfall to determine the size and location of biologically suitable areas. The final output could 2 include
overlays with land ownership, transport, infrastructure, labour availability, and distance to market
centres.

Geographical Information System (GIS) is a technology that provides the means to collect and use
geographic data to assist in the development of Agriculture. A digital map is generally of much greater
value than the same map printed on a paper as the digital version can be combined with other sources of
data for analysing information with a graphical presentation. The GIS software makes it possible to

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synthesize large amounts of different data, combining different layers of information to manage and
retrieve the data in a more useful manner.

6.2 PRINCIPLES

Using GIS, it is possible to overlay large number of maps. Conventionally, manually overlays are
prepared. This process is cumbersome and error prone. In GIS retrieval of information is faster as it is
done through computer. Conventionally, maps are browsed to retrieve information. In GIS information
retrieval is much easier and is done automatically. In GIS, interactive/ virtual output may be prepared.
The virtual output is automatically updated, if the component maps are revised. In convention method,
hardcopy output is prepared. Updating of such maps is difficult. The map is required to be redrawn.
Annotation is clumsy in hardcopy maps. Thus, while retrieving information ambiguity may arise. Also
all features may not be annotated in paper maps. Thus, attribute information e.g. names etc. for some of
the features are lost in paper products. In GIS, information is stored in tables and is linked to geographic
features and thus is not limited by availability of annotation space/ colour/ symbol etc. If multiple maps
are prepared for same area e.g. watershed, land use, geomorphology, common boundaries are drawn
manually and may not match in different maps. In GIS common boundaries are once digitized and are
available to all layers. Once GIS map layers are prepared, any number of maps can be designed.
Handling of paper maps is difficult.

Data capture or input is costly in GIS. Commercially available paper maps may be cheaper than GIS
layer. This is because of high cost of data capture in GIS. Use of GIS requires investment in computers,
software and training. GIS handling requires trained manpower. In GIS data are required to be converted
in to native format of GIS software. In suitable import/ export functionality is not available or the format
is obscure/ unknown, data may be unusable. GIS software should have proper functionality as desired in
an application. For example, in transportation applications, network analysis function should be
available. For hydrological modelling, DEM analysis functions should be available.

Data types
GIS Data is mainly of two types:
1. Spatial Data
2. Non-Spatial Data

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 1. Spatial Data is that which has physical dimensions and geographic locations on the surface
of Earth. Example: -River, State Boundary, Lake, State Capital, etc. Spatial Data is mainly
classified into two types: -

Raster data and Vector data

1.1 Raster Data The data stored is in cell-based and color-pixel format with a digital
value/number (DN)for each cell. These are pixels that are arranged in columns and rows
format. Units are usually represented as square grid cells that are uniform in size. The
data is in .jpg, .png, and .tiff. The Raster Data in GIS is very efficient for visualization
and analysis, which is barely possible in vector-based data.

1.2 Vector data Vector data is a geographic data type where data is stored as a collection of
points, lines, or polygons along with attribute data. Vector data specified in 3 types of
Point, Line, Polygon

• Point- Point data represents non-adjacent features and has zero dimensions. We can’t measure area or
length with point data, but we can measure density (Number of points in certain areas) Point Data can be
used to show the location of certain features.
Example– Cities Name

• Line- Line data is used to represent linear features. Line has one dimension and can be used to
measure the length of the feature.
Example-- Road Network, River, Railway line etc...
Advantage Disadvantage

❑Simple data Structure. ❑Hard to represent objects less than cell size.
❑Finer resolution generates huge data.
❑High spatial variability efficiently
represented. ❑Loss of information when using large cells.
Raster
❑Efficient representation of continuous ❑Difficult to edit
features.

❑Compatible with remote sensing

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 image
❑Simple discrete geometry that means ❑Complex data structure.
less data.
❑Continuous data is difficult to represent.
❑Easy to edit.
❑Lots of manual editing may be necessary.
❑Attributes are combined with objects.
❑High spatial variability inefficiently
❑Accurate map output represented.
Vector
❑Many types of geographical analysis ❑Not compatible with remote sensing imagery.
techniques supported

• Polygon- Polygon are used to represent areas. Polygons have two dimensions and can be used to
measure area. An area is fully encompassed by a series of connected lines. Example-- Lake, forest,
Urban areas, Political boundary etc...

2. Non- Spatial Data describes the characteristics of a geographical feature. Non spatial data is
also known as attribute or characteristics data. This data represented in table formats.
Example– Administrative boundary table has population information, districts name, provinces, Sex
ratio etc...

Data Capturing
When working on a GIS project, the first issue or decision that cartographers must face is how to
incorporate data into the system. This is the process called “data capture”. There are different
methodologies to capture data.

Scanning: All of maps are converted into raster data.

Digitizing: Individual features selected from map as point, line and polygons.
Digitizing is the process of capturing knowledge of a feature’s geometry and attributes into a digital
format stored on the computer’s disk.

➢ GIS Data can be stored in a database or as files.

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➢ One commonly used file format is the shapefile which is actually a group of three or more files
(.shp, .dbf and .shx).

➢ Before creating a new vector layer one needs to plan both what geometry type and attribute fields it
will contain.

➢ Geometry can be point, polyline or polygon.

➢ Attributes can be integers (whole numbers), floating points (decimal numbers), strings (words) or
dates.

➢ The digitizing process consists of drawing the geometry in the map view and then entering its
attributes. This is repeated for each feature.

Analysis
A Geographical Information System (GIS) is a framework for gathering, managing, and analyzing data
rooted in geographic locations. It integrates various types of data—spatial (location-based) and attribute
(descriptive)—and displays it in a visual format, typically maps, to reveal patterns, relationships, and
trends.
GIS for Analysis

❖ Data Integration and Management:

• GIS can integrate diverse datasets from various sources (e.g., maps, satellite imagery,
census data, environmental sensors, social media) based on their geographic location.

• It provides tools for organizing, storing, and managing these spatial and non-spatial
data efficiently.

• This integration allows for a holistic understanding of a situation by considering

multiple factors in their geographical context.

❖ Spatial Analysis Capabilities:

GIS offers a wide array of analytical techniques to extract meaningful information from spatial
data, including:

• Mapping and Visualization: Creating thematic maps, charts, and 3D models to visualize spatial
patterns, distributions, and relationships. This helps in understanding complex data visually.

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 • Spatial Queries and Selection: Identifying features based on their location or attributes (e.g.,
finding all hospitals within a 5km radius of a specific location).

• Buffering: Creating zones around features to analyze proximity and potential impact (e.g.,
determining the population living within a flood zone).
• Overlay Analysis: Combining multiple spatial layers to identify areas of convergence or
conflict (e.g., overlaying land use and soil type maps to determine suitable areas for agriculture).
• Network Analysis: Analyzing linear features like roads or utility lines to find optimal routes,
calculate travel times, or determine service areas.
• Spatial Statistics: Identifying statistically significant spatial patterns, clusters, or outliers in
data.
• Geostatistical Analysis: Predicting values at unsampled locations based on the spatial
relationships in the data (e.g., predicting air pollution levels across a city).
• Terrain Analysis: Analyzing elevation data to derive information about slope, aspect, and
visibility.
• Hydrological Analysis: Modeling water flow, identifying drainage basins, and assessing
flood risk.
• Change Detection: Comparing spatial data from different time periods to identify changes in
land cover, urban growth, or environmental conditions.
• Suitability Analysis: Evaluating different locations based on a set of criteria to determine the
most suitable areas for a specific purpose (e.g., site selection for a new school or business).

Decision making in GIS

It refers to the process of using spatial data and analysis capabilities of GIS to make informed decisions.
GIS provides a powerful set of tools for analyzing geographic information, visualizing patterns, and
evaluating different scenarios, all of which are crucial for effective decision-making across various
fields.
The Decision-Making Process with GIS:

While the specific steps can vary based on the context, a general decision-making process using GIS
involves the following stages:
• Problem Definition: Clearly define the problem or question that needs to be addressed.
This includes understanding the goals and objectives of the decision.

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 • Data Acquisition and Preparation: Identify and gather relevant spatial and attribute data.
This may involve collecting new data, using existing datasets, and ensuring the data is accurate,
complete, and in a compatible format for GIS analysis.
• Data Analysis: Utilize GIS tools and techniques to analyze the spatial relationships,
patterns, and trends within the data. This can involve various methods like overlay analysis,
proximity analysis, network analysis, spatial statistics, and modeling.
• Scenario Development and Evaluation: Based on the analysis, develop different scenarios
or alternatives to address the problem. GIS can be used to model the potential outcomes and
impacts of each scenario, often through "what-if" analysis.

• Visualization and Communication: Present the results of the analysis and scenario
evaluations using maps, charts, and reports generated by GIS. Effective visualization helps
stakeholders understand the information and participate in the decision-making process.
• Decision Selection: Based on the evidence provided by the GIS analysis and visualizations,
decision-makers choose the most appropriate course of action.
• Implementation and Monitoring: Once a decision is made, GIS can be used to support the
implementation process, track progress, and monitor the outcomes of the decision.
• How GIS Supports Decision Making:
GIS enhances decision-making in several critical ways:
• Data Integration & Visualization – Combines diverse datasets (satellite imagery, maps,
demographic data) into interactive visual formats for better understanding.
• Spatial Analysis – Identifies patterns, relationships, and trends in geographic data to
support strategic planning.
• Predictive Modeling – Uses historical and real-time data to forecast outcomes, such as
urban expansion, climate change impact, or disaster risk.
• Resource Optimization – Assists in efficient allocation of resources, whether for
infrastructure, agriculture, or emergency response.
• Risk Assessment & Management – Evaluates hazards and vulnerabilities for disaster
preparedness and mitigation planning.

Components of Geographic Information System (GIS)

A GIS comprises five fundamental components that work together to facilitate geographic data
processing and analysis:
• Hardware: Includes physical devices such as computers, servers, GPS devices, scanners,
printers, and remote sensing tools. Provides the necessary computing power and storage for
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 processing large spatial datasets. Supports data input, processing, and output in the form of
maps, charts, and reports.
• Software: Comprises specialized GIS applications such as ArcGIS, QGIS, MapInfo, and Google
Earth. Provides tools for spatial data visualization, geospatial analysis, and map creation.
Supports various functions, including spatial querying, layering, and geocoding.
• Data: The most critical component of GIS, as it provides the raw information for analysis and
decision-making. Includes spatial data (maps, satellite imagery, GPS coordinates) and attribute
data (demographic statistics, land-use records, environmental data). Can be obtained from
sources such as government agencies, remote sensing, field surveys, and crowdsourcing.
• People: Refers to GIS users, including professionals such as cartographers, analysts, urban
planners, environmentalists, and decision-makers. Their expertise is essential in designing GIS
applications, interpreting data, and applying spatial insights to solve real-world problems.
Includes researchers, businesses, and the general public who use GIS for different purposes,
from academic research to everyday navigation.
• Methods and Procedures: Encompasses the techniques, models, algorithms, and workflows
used to collect, process, and analyze geographic data. Ensures that GIS operations follow
standardized procedures for data accuracy, integrity, and usability. Includes spatial analysis
techniques such as overlay analysis, buffer analysis, and network analysis.

Usefulness of GIS
GIS offers numerous advantages across industries, enhancing decision-making and operational
efficiency:
• Enhanced Decision-Making: Enables data-driven decisions in urban planning, disaster
management, and transportation.

• Data Visualization: Represents spatial data in maps, making complex information easier to
understand.

• Resource Management: Aids in managing land, water, and environmental resources efficiently.

• Improved Efficiency and Cost Savings: Helps optimize logistics, infrastructure development,
and environmental monitoring.

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• Environmental Monitoring: Supports climate change research, pollution control, and
sustainable development initiatives.

Application Areas of GIS

GIS is applied in various sectors, including:

• Urban and Regional Planning: Aids in zoning, infrastructure development, and population
studies for sustainable city growth.

• Environmental Management: Helps in monitoring deforestation, water resources, wildlife

conservation, and pollution control.

• Disaster Management: Assists in emergency response planning, hazard mapping, and

disaster recovery efforts.

• Transportation and Navigation: Supports route optimization, traffic management, and

navigation services such as Google Maps.

• Agriculture and Land Use Planning: Used for precision farming, soil analysis, and crop
health monitoring to increase productivity.

• Healthcare and Epidemiology: Aids in tracking disease outbreaks, planning healthcare

facilities, and analyzing health-related data.

• Military and Defense: Supports strategic planning, surveillance, and geospatial intelligence
for national security.

• Business and Marketing: Helps businesses analyze market locations, customer behavior,
and supply chain optimization.

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