SER 001

USE OF ENGLISH

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

OBAFEMI AWOLOWO UNIVERSITY, ILE-IFE, OSUN, NIGERIA.

GROUP P MEMBERS
1. EFERIHO EMMANUEL ALEX (GLY/2022/036)
2. EFERIHO FAVOUR EJIROGHENE (GLY/2022/037)
3. EFERIHO GIFT OKEROGHENE (GLY/2022/038)
4. EJAM GABRIEL IJEOMA (GLY/2015/077)
5. EMORODI CHUKWUDI EMMANUEL (GLY/2019/058)
6. FAGBEMI RACHEAL OLUW ANIFEMI (2023301914823 HF)
7. FALADE ABIOI A MIRACLE (202210811472BF)
8. FEMI-FAMAKINW A OLUWAFUNTO (GLY/2021/144)
9. ISRAEL FOLORUNSHO ABIGAIL ENIOLA (202331187286IF)
10. FOWOWE AYOMIDE PETER (202330952447IA)

INSTRUCTOR: MR JOHN TAYO.

PROJECT TOPIC: BASIC CONCEPTS IN SEMANTICS.

MEANING IN ENGLISH

INTRODUCTION:

The study of meaning in English is a

multifaceted endeavor, encompassing
the exploration of how words are defined,
how they relate to one another, and how
they combine to create meaning at the
sentence and discourse levels. By delving
into the semantic aspects of the English
language, we can unlock the rich tapestry
of communication, enabling us to
express ourselves with precision, clarity,
and depth.

Here is a list of basic concepts in semantics to be considered in details:

1. Meaning
2. Context and Meaning
3. Sense and Reference
4. Denotation and Connotation
5. Semantic relations (such as synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, hypernymy and polysemy)

MEANING: this is the core focus of the field of semantics. It refers to the significance,
interpretation, or understanding of linguistic expressions, such as words, phrases, sentences,
and larger units of language.

SOME KEY ASPECTS OF MEANING.

1. Lexical meaning
2. Compositional meaning
3. Contextual meaning
4. Figurative meaning
5. Pragmatic meaning

1. LEXICAL MEANING:

This refers to the meaning of individual words or lexical items.

It involves understandinc the denotative (literal) and connotative (associated) meanings of
words.
Lexical meaning I is often captured in dictionary definitions.

Examples of lexical meaning:

1. The word "dog":

- The lexical meaning of "dog" is a common domesticated mammal that is kept as a pet or for
work.

2. The word "run":

- The lexical meaning of "run" is to move at a pace faster than a walk, by lifting each foot off
the ground for a moment.

3. The word "happy":

- The lexical meaning of "happy" is feeling or showing pleasure or contentment.

4. The word "table":

- The lexical meaning of "table" is a piece of furniture with a flat top and legs, used for various
purposes such as eating, working, or placing objects on.

Therefore Lexical meaning refers to the basic, dictionary-defined meaning of a word,

independent of the context in which it is used.

2. COMPOSITIONAL MEANING:

Compositional meaning refers to the meaning that is

derived from the combination of the
individual parts or components of an
expression, based on the rules of
grammar and semantics.
Example: The sentence " The big dog
chased the cat." The compositional
meaning of this sentence is derived from
the individual meanings of the words
" the," " big," " dog," " chased," and " cat,"
combined according to the rules of
English grammar.

3. CONTEXTUAL MEANING:

Contextual meaning refers to the meaning that is derived from the specific context in which an
expression is used, including the situational, social, and cultural factors that influence its
interpretation.

Certainly, here are some clear examples to illustrate the concept of contextual meaning:

1. The word "BANK":

A. - CONTEXTUAL MEANING: In the sentence "I need to go to the bank to deposit my

paycheck," the word "BANK" refers to a FINANCIAL INSTITUTION.

B. - CONTEXTUAL MEANING: In the sentence "I like to sit on the bank of the river and watch
the sunset," the word "BANK" refers to the EDGE or SLOPE of the river.

The contextual meaning of the word "bank" changes depending on whether it is used in the
context of a financial institution or the edge of a river.

2. The phrase "It's raining cats and dogs":

- CONTEXTUAL MEANING: In the CONTEXT of a rainy day, this idiomatic expression means
that IT IS RAINING HEAVILY, not that actual cats and dogs are falling from the sky.
etc.

4. FIGURATIVE MEANING:

Figurative meaning refers to the non-literal, symbolic, or metaphorical interpretation of

language, where the intended meaning goes beyond the literal, dictionary definition of the words
used.

Figurative meaning is in contrast to literal meaning, which is the straightforward, denotative

meaning of words and expressions.

Some examples of figurative meaning include:

1. Metaphor:
- "The road of life is full of twists and turns."
- Here, "road of life" is a metaphor, where the concept of a physical road is used to represent
the journey of life.

2. Simile:
- "She is as busy as a bee."
- The simile "as busy as a bee" uses a comparison to convey the meaning of being very
industrious or active.
3. Idiom:
- "It's raining cats and dogs."
- The idiomatic expression "raining cats and dogs" does not literally mean that cats and dogs
are falling from the sky, but rather conveys the meaning of heavy or intense rainfall.

4. Hyperbole:
- "I'm so hungry I could eat a horse."
- The exaggerated statement "I could eat a horse" is used to convey the meaning of being
extremely hungry, not a literal desire to consume a whole horse. etc.

Figurative meaning allows language users to express ideas, emotions, and experiences in more
vivid, creative, and impactful ways, going beyond the literal denotations of words.
Understanding figurative language is an important aspect of comprehending the full meaning
and nuance of communication.

5. PRAGMATIC MEANING:

Pragmatic meaning refers to the contextual, implied, or intended meaning of a linguistic

expression, beyond its literal or dictionary-based meaning. It focuses on how language is used
in real-world situations to achieve specific communicative goals and social functions.

Types of Pragmatic Meaning:

a. CONVERSATIONAL IMPLICATIVE:
This refers to the implied meaning that a speaker conveys through their utterance, which goes
beyond the literal meaning of the words used. FOR EXAMPLE, if someone says, "It's getting
late," they may be implying that it's time for the conversation to end, even though they didn't
explicitly state that.

b. SPEECH ACTS:
Speech acts are the actions performed by uttering a linguistic expression, that is, when a
speaker performs an act or action via speech uttered. such as REQUESTING, PROMISING,
APOLOGIZING, or COMMANDING.
The concept of speech acts is very much related to the idea of language as action.

The core premise of speech act theory is that by uttering certain linguistic expressions,
speakers are performing actions or doing things, beyond just conveying information.

KEY FEATURES OF SPEECH ACT:

1. PERFORMATIVE UTTERANCES:
Some utterances are considered "performative" in the sense that by saying them, the speaker is
actually performing the action described. For example, saying "I promise to return the book
tomorrow" is not just a statement, but the actual act of making a promise.

2. ILLOCUTIONARY FORCE:

Speech acts have an "illocutionary force" - the intended communicative purpose or action that
the speaker wants to achieve through the utterance, such as requesting, commanding,
promising, apologizing, etc.

TYPES OF ILLOCUTIONARY FORCE:

1. Assertive:
- "The Earth revolves around the Sun." (Stating a fact)

2. Directive:
- "Please close the door." (Requesting an action)

3. Expressive:
- "I'm so sorry for your loss." (Expressing sympathy)

4. Declarative:
- "I now pronounce you husband and wife." (Changing the status of individuals)

5. Verdictive:
- "The defendant is found guilty." (Rendering a judgment or verdict)

3. REAL-WORLD CONSEQUENCES:

The performance of speech acts can have real-world consequences and effects. For instance, a
judge saying "I hereby sentence you to 5 years in prison" is not just a statement, but an action
that has legal and social ramifications. etc.

therefore, the concept of speech acts directly links language use to action and the performance
of social functions.

C. PRESUPPOSITION:

Presupposition is the implicit assumption or background information that is taken for granted in
an utterance, that is not explicitly stated. The pragmatic meaning of a presupposition is the
unspoken assumption that the speaker expects the listener to already know or accept.
1. EXAMPLE: "Have you stopped beating your wife?"
PRESUPPOSITION: The listener has been beating his wife, even though this is not explicitly
stated.

EXAMPLE: "John stopped smoking."

PRESUPPOSITION: John used to smoke.

EXAMPLE: "When did you stop smoking?"

PRESUPPOSITION: The addressee used to smoke.

EXAMPLE: "If I had studied harder, I would have passed the exam."
PRESUPPOSITION: The speaker did not study hard enough and did not pass the exam.

These are some of the main types of pragmatic meaning, and they illustrate how the intended
meaning of language goes beyond the literal, dictionary-based definitions of words and is
shaped by the context and communicative goals of the speakers.

2. CONTEXT AND MEANING IN SEMANTICS:

In semantics, the study of meaning and the concept of context is fundamental. Context refers to
the surrounding circumstances, environment, or situation in which a linguistic expression is
used. The meaning of a word, phrase, or utterance is heavily influenced by the context in which
it is used.

Examples:

1. The word "bank" can mean a financial institution or the edge of a river, depending on the
context in which it is used.
- "I need to go to the bank to deposit some money." (financial institution)
- "I like to walk along the bank of the river." (edge of a river)

2. The phrase "It's raining cats and dogs" does not mean that actual cats and dogs are falling
from the sky. In this context, it means that it is raining heavily.

3. The statement "I'm going to the store" can have different meanings depending on the context.
It could mean going to a physical store, an online store, or a specific store (e.g., the grocery
store, the hardware store).

4. The tone and body language of a speaker can also contribute to the context and influence the
meaning of their words. For example, the phrase "I'm fine" can convey different meanings
depending on the context, such as the speaker's tone, facial expressions, and body language.

In summary, the context in which a linguistic expression is used plays a crucial role in
determining its meaning. Understanding the context is essential for accurate interpretation and
communication in semantics.

Certainly! Here's a short and precise note on the concept of Sense and Reference, which is one
of the fundamental concepts in semantics:

Sense and Reference:

In semantics, the distinction between sense and reference is a crucial concept introduced by the
German philosopher Gottlob Frege. It explains the relationship between the meaning of a
linguistic expression and the object or entity it denotes.

SENSE:

The sense of a linguistic expression refers to its meaning or the way in which it represents the
object or concept it refers to. It is the conceptual content or the cognitive significance of the
expression. For example, the sense of the word "morning star" is the celestial body that is
visible in the morning sky.

REFERENCE :

The reference of a linguistic expression is the actual object or entity in the world that the
expression denotes or points to. It is the real-world object or state of affairs that the expression
represents. For example, the reference of the term "morning star" is the planet Venus, which is
the celestial body that appears in the morning sky.

Note:
The term "morning star" is , a traditiona I name used to refer to Venus when it is visible in the
morning sky.
This is because Venus appears as a bright,, star-like object in the sky before the Sun rises ,
leading to its association with the concept of a "morning star."

Other Examples:
1. The expression "the capital of France" has the SENSE of: "the city that serves as the
administrative and political center of France," and its REFERENCE is: "the city of Paris."

2. The expressions "the author of Hamlet" and "the playwright of Hamlet" have the same
reference (William Shakespeare), but different senses, as they describe the same person in
different ways.
3. The expression "the current president of the United States" has a different reference
depending on the time it is used, as the president changes over time.

The distinction between sense and reference is crucial in understanding the meaning and
interpretation of linguistic expressions, as it helps to differentiate between the conceptual
content and the actual object or entity being referred to.

4. DENOTATION AND CONNOTATIONS

Denotation and Connotation are fundamental concepts in the field of semantics, which is the
study of the meaning of words and language.

DENOTATION refers to the literal, dictionary-defined meaning of a word. It is the basic,

objective, and factual meaning that a word conveys. For example, the denotative meaning of the
word "dog" is a four-legged, domesticated mammal that is often kept as a pet or used for
various purposes.

CONNOTATION, on the other hand, refers to the additional, implied, or associated meanings
that a word can carry. Connotations are the subjective, emotional, or cultural associations that a
word may evoke. For example, the word "DOG" may have positive connotations of loyalty,
companionship, and protection, or negative connotations of aggression, dirtiness, or nuisance,
depending on the context and the individual's experiences and perceptions.

Here are some examples to illustrate the difference between denotation and connotation:

1. DENOTATION (dictionary-defined meaning): "Thrifty" means economical or frugal.

CONNOTATION (additional, implied, or associated meaning): "Thrifty" may also suggest being
stingy or miserly.

2. DENOTATION(dictionary-defined meaning): "Slim" means thin or slender.

CONNOTATION (additional, implied, or associated meaning): "Slim" may also suggest

elegance, beauty, or desirability.

Understanding the distinction between denotation and connotation is crucial in effective

communication, and also to choose our words carefully to convey the intended meaning and
evoke the desired emotional response.

5. SEMANTIC RELATIONS (such as synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, hypernymy and

polysemy)
These semantic relations are essential for understanding the structure and organization of
vocabulary within a language. They help us navigate the complexities of meaning, make
connections between words, and effectively communicate our ideas.

1. Synonymy: This refers to the relationship between two or more words that have the same or
very similar meanings. For example, "big" and "large" are synonyms, as they both convey the
idea of something being of considerable size.

2. Antonymy: This is the opposite of synonymy, where two words have contrasting or opposite
meanings. Examples include "hot" and "cold," "up" and "down," or "happy" and "sad."

3. Hyponymy and Hypernymy: Hyponymy is the relationship between a specific instance or

subtype (the hyponym) and a more general category or supertype (the hypernym). For instance,
"rose" is a hyponym of the hypernym "flower," and "dog" is a hyponym of the hypernym
"animal."

4. Polysemy: This refers to a single word having multiple, related meanings. For example, the
word "bank" can mean a financial institution, the edge of a river, or a sloping surface. The
different meanings are considered polysemous, as they are connected by a common core
meaning.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, semantics is the study of meaning in language, examining how words, phrases,
and sentences convey and construct meaning. The core concepts in semantics includes:
Meaning, Context and Meaning, Sense and Reference, Denotation and Connotation
Semantic relations (such as synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, hypernymy and polysemy)

. MASTERING SEMANTICS is a key component of LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY and is vital for

fields ranging from LINGUISTICS and COGNITIVE SCIENCE to NATURAL LANGUAGE
PROCESSING and beyond.

It also provides the foundation for how meaning is encoded, understood, and utilized in human
language, making it a fundamental area of study for anyone seeking to deepen their command
of language and communication.

REFERENCES:

1. Saeed, J. I. (2016). Semantics (4th ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. pages 21-22.

2. Leech, G. N. (1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning (2nd ed.). Penguin Books. page 10
3. "Semantics." Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
www.britannica.com/topic/semantics.

4. "Semantic Relations." Linguistic Society of America,

www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/semantic-relations.

4. "Lexical Semantics." SIL International,

www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsLexicalSemantics.htm..

5. "Conceptual Semantics." SIL International,

www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsConceptualSemantics.htm..