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SE VE N T H E D I T I O N

© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
SE VE N T H E D I T I O N

JOHN C. RUSS • F. BRENT NEAL

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press
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Version Date: 20150804

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-4028-9 (eBook - PDF)

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© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
About this text.................................................. xiii
A word of caution............................................. xv
A personal note............................................... xvi

1 Acquiring Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Human reliance on images.................................. 1
Extracting information......................................... 4
Video cameras................................................... 6
CCD cameras.................................................... 8
CMOS detectors...............................................12
Camera artifacts and limitations..........................13
Color cameras..................................................15
Camera resolution.............................................18
Electronics and bandwidth limitations.................. 20
Handling color data..........................................21
Color encoding................................................ 22
Other image sources..........................................24
Pixels.............................................................. 25
Tonal resolution................................................ 29
The image contents........................................... 30
Camera limitations.............................................31
Noise............................................................. 33
High-­depth images............................................34
Focusing.......................................................... 35
Color displays.................................................. 36
Image types......................................................37

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© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 Multiple images............................................... 40
Imaging requirements........................................ 44

2 Printing and Storage. . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Hard copies......................................................47
Halftoning....................................................... 49
Dots on paper...................................................52
Color printing.................................................. 55
Adding black—CMYK....................................... 58
Printing hardware............................................. 62
Film recorders.................................................. 66
Presentation tools...............................................67
File storage.......................................................67
Storage media................................................. 69
Magnetic recording...........................................70
Databases for images........................................72
Searching by content.........................................76
Browsing and thumbnails....................................79
File formats.......................................................81
Lossless coding................................................. 82
Reduced color palettes...................................... 86
JPEG compression.............................................87
Wavelet compression........................................ 93
Fractal compression.......................................... 96
Digital movies.................................................. 98

3 Human Vision. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

What we see and why.....................................101
Recognition....................................................104
Technical specs...............................................107
Seeing color...................................................108
Acuity............................................................ 112
What the eye tells the brain.............................. 116
Spatial comparisons........................................ 118
Local to global hierarchies................................124
Grouping.......................................................127
It’s about time.................................................130
The third dimension..........................................134
How versus what.............................................138
Seeing what isn’t there, and vice versa...............140
Image compression..........................................142
A world of light...............................................144
Size matters....................................................148
Shape (whatever that means)............................152
Context..........................................................154
Arrangements must be made.............................156
Seeing is believing..........................................158
Learning more.................................................162

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4 Correcting Imaging Defects . . . . . . . 163
Color adjustments............................................164
Hue, saturation, intensity..................................166
Other spaces..................................................168
Color correction.............................................. 171
Noisy images................................................. 174
Neighborhood averaging................................. 178
Gaussian smoothing........................................ 181
Neighborhood ranking....................................185
The color median............................................190
More median filters..........................................193
Weighted, conditional, and adaptive
neighborhoods..............................................196
Other neighborhood noise reduction methods.... 204
Defect removal, maximum entropy, and
maximum likelihood...................................... 208
Nonuniform illumination................................... 214
Fitting a background function............................ 217
Rank leveling..................................................222
Color images..................................................225
Nonplanar views.............................................227
Computer graphics..........................................228
Geometric distortion........................................230
Alignment.......................................................234
Interpolation...................................................236
Morphing.......................................................241

5 Image Enhancement in the Spatial

Domain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Purposes for enhancement................................243
Contrast expansion..........................................244
False color lookup tables (LUTs).........................248
Contrast manipulation......................................250
Histogram equalization....................................253
Contrast in color images...................................255
Local equalization...........................................258
Laplacian sharpening.......................................261
The unsharp mask............................................269
Derivatives......................................................272
Edges and gradients........................................276
Edge orientation..............................................279
More edge detectors.......................................284
Rank-­based methods....................................... 290
Texture...........................................................294
Implementation notes.......................................298
Image math....................................................299
Subtracting images......................................... 300
Multiplication and division............................... 303

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 Principal component analysis........................... 305
Principal component analysis for contrast
enhancement................................................ 310
Other image combinations............................... 313
Cross- ­correlation............................................. 317

6 Processing Images in Frequency

Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
About frequency space....................................321
The Fourier transform.......................................322
Fourier transforms of simple functions.................325
Moving to two dimensions................................327
Frequencies and spacings................................331
Preferred orientation........................................333
Texture and fractals.........................................336
Removing selected frequencies..........................338
Periodic noise removal.....................................345
Selection of periodic information.......................349
Convolution....................................................352
Deconvolution.................................................354
Noise and Wiener deconvolution......................358
Other deconvolution methods...........................362
Additional notes on deconvolution.....................365
Template matching and correlation....................368
Autocorrelation...............................................373
Wavelets........................................................ 374

7 Segmentation and Thresholding. . . . 381

Brightness thresholding.....................................381
Automatic settings...........................................384
Multiband images...........................................391
Color thresholding...........................................395
Thresholding from texture................................. 400
Multiple thresholding criteria............................ 402
Textural orientation......................................... 403
Region boundaries......................................... 406
Noise and overlaps........................................ 408
Selecting smooth boundaries............................ 411
Conditional histograms..................................... 413
Boundary lines................................................ 415
Contours........................................................420
Cluster analysis...............................................423
More segmentation methods............................ 430
Image representation.......................................434

8 Processing Binary Images. . . . . . . . 439

Boolean operations.........................................439
Combining Boolean operations.........................442

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© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 Masks............................................................447
From pixels to features.................................... 449
Filling holes................................................... 450
Measurement grids..........................................452
Boolean logic with features...............................454
Selecting features by location...........................458
Double thresholding.........................................462
Erosion and dilation.........................................463
Opening and closing.......................................465
Isotropy..........................................................469
Measurements using erosion and dilation...........470
Extension to grayscale images...........................473
Neighborhood parameters............................... 474
Examples of use..............................................476
Euclidean distance map...................................479
Watershed segmentation................................. 482
Ultimate eroded points.................................... 488
Skeletons....................................................... 490
Topology........................................................492
Boundary lines................................................497
Combining skeleton and Euclidean distance
map............................................................ 500

9 Image Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . 505

Photogrammetry............................................. 505
Comparisons.................................................. 511
Global measurements...................................... 518
Volume..........................................................520
Surface area...................................................525
Grain size......................................................530
Multiple surfaces.............................................533
Length............................................................535
Thickness........................................................538
Sampling strategies.........................................539
Determining number........................................543
Curvature, connectivity, and the Disector............546
Anisotropy and gradients.................................551
Size distribution...............................................554
Classical stereology (unfolding).........................555

10 Feature Measurements . . . . . . . . . . 559

Brightness measurements..................................559
Density...........................................................561
Brightness profiles............................................563
Color values...................................................566
Determining location........................................568
Orientation.....................................................573
Neighbor relationships.....................................575

Contents ix
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 Separation distance.........................................579
Alignment.......................................................582
The linear Hough transform...............................586
The circular Hough transform............................588
Counting........................................................592
Special counting procedures.............................597
Feature size................................................... 602
Circles and ellipses..........................................607
Caliper dimensions......................................... 609
Perimeter........................................................ 612

11 Characterizing Shape . . . . . . . . . . . 619

Describing shape............................................ 619
Dimensionless ratios.........................................624
Effects of orientation........................................628
“Like a circle”................................................. 630
An example: Leaves.........................................633
Topology and the skeleton............................... 640
Boundaries.....................................................647
Shock graphs..................................................649
Fractal dimension............................................651
Measurement techniques..................................653
Harmonic analysis.......................................... 660
Chain code....................................................662
An example: Arrow points................................665
Wavelets........................................................667
Moments........................................................672
An example: Dandelion...................................676
Zernike moments.............................................677
Landmarks......................................................679

12 Correlation, Classification,
Identification, and Matching . . . . . . 683
A variety of purposes...................................... 683
Matching.......................................................685
Cross- ­correlation.............................................689
Curvature scale space......................................692
Classification..................................................696
Distributions and decision points........................697
Linear discriminant analysis (LDA) and principal
component analysis (PCA)............................. 700
Class definition...............................................702
Unsupervised learning......................................709
Are groups different?....................................... 712
Neural nets..................................................... 716
k-­Nearest neighbors.........................................720
Parametric description......................................722
Bayesian statistics............................................724

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 A comparison.................................................726
Harmonic analysis and invariant moments..........729
Species examples............................................732
Correlation.....................................................736
Landmark data................................................743

13 3D Imaging. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
More than two dimensions................................749
Volume imaging versus sections.........................750
Serial sections.................................................754
Removing layers..............................................756
Reconstruction.................................................760
Confocal microscopy.......................................762
Stereo viewing................................................764
Tomography................................................... 767
Tomographic reconstruction..............................770
Reconstruction artifacts.....................................774
Algebraic reconstruction...................................776
Maximum entropy...........................................780
Imaging geometries......................................... 781
Other signals..................................................783
Beam hardening and other issues......................786
3D tomography...............................................790
Dual energy methods.......................................795
Microtomography............................................799
3D reconstruction and visualization................... 803
Slices and surfaces......................................... 806
Marching cubes.............................................. 810
Volumetric displays.......................................... 813
Ray tracing..................................................... 815

14 3D Processing and Measurement. . . 819

Processing voxel arrays.................................... 819
When the z-­axis is different...............................824
Multiple image sets..........................................828
Thresholding and segmentation........................ 830
Morphological operations and structural
measurements...............................................837
Skeletons....................................................... 840
Surface and volume.........................................847
Quantitative use of reconstructions.....................849
Methods for object measurements.....................852
Size...............................................................854
Examples of object measurements.....................857
Other object measurements..............................861
Limitations......................................................867
Industrial applications..................................... 868
Comparison to stereological measurements.........878

Contents xi
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 Spherical harmonics, wavelets, and fractal
dimension.....................................................881
Other applications and future possibilities.......... 888

15 Imaging Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 891

Producing surfaces...........................................891
Imaging by physical contact.............................894
Noncontacting measurements...........................898
Shape from shading and polynomial texture
map............................................................ 902
Microscopy of surfaces................................... 906
Stereoscopy................................................... 908
Matching points.............................................. 913
Composition imaging....................................... 917
Processing of range images.............................. 919
Processing of composition maps........................923
Data presentation and visualization...................924
Surface rendering............................................928
Measurements.................................................931
Profiles...........................................................933
Representing elevation data..............................937
The surface measurement suite..........................940
Hybrid properties............................................943
Topographic analysis.......................................945
Fractal dimensions...........................................949

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013

xii Contents
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Introduction

About this text

Image processing is used in a wide variety of applications, primarily for two somewhat
different purposes:

1. improving the visual appearance of images for a human observer, including their
printing and transmission, and
2. preparing images for the measurement and analysis of the features and struc-
tures that they reveal.

The techniques appropriate for each of these tasks are not always the same, but there
is considerable overlap, and this book explains, illustrates, and compares methods used
for both purposes. To get the best possible results, it is important to know about the
intended uses of the processed images. For visual enhancement, this means having some
familiarity with the human visual process and an appreciation of what cues the viewer
responds to or normally overlooks in images. The chapter on human vision addresses
those issues. It also is useful to know about printing and storage methods, since many
images are processed in the context of reproduction, storage, or transmission.
This handbook presents and illustrates an extensive collection of image processing tools
to help the user and prospective user of computer-based systems understand the meth-
ods provided in various software packages and determine those steps that may be best
suited for particular applications. Comparisons are presented for different algorithms
that may be employed for similar purposes, using a selection of representative pictures
from various microscopy techniques, as well as macroscopic, forensic, remote sensing,
and astronomical images. Throughout the text, a conscious effort has been made to
include examples of image processing and analysis from a wide variety of disciplines,
and at all scales, from the nano- to astro-, including real-world macroscopic images.
It is very important to emphasize that the scale of an image matters very little to the
techniques used to process or analyze it. Microscopes that have a resolution of nano-
meters and telescopes that produce images covering light years produce images that

xiii
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
require many of the same algorithms. People trying to use image processing and analysis
methods for their particular area of interest should understand that the same basic tools
are useful at other scales and in other disciplines, and that a solution to their problems
may already exist just down the street. It may also help to recall that image processing,
like food processing or word processing, does not reduce the amount of data present
but simply rearranges it. Some arrangements may be more appealing to the senses, and
some may make the information more accessible, but these two goals might not call for
identical methods.
The measurement of images is often a principal method for acquiring scientific and
forensic data, and generally requires that objects or structure be well defined, either
by edges or by unique brightness, color, texture, or some combination of these factors.
The types of measurements that can be performed on entire scenes or on individual
features are important in determining the appropriate processing steps. Several chapters
deal with measurement in detail. Measurements of size, position, and brightness are
subjects that humans generally understand, although human vision is not quantitative
and is easily fooled. Shape is a more subtle concept, dealt with in a separate chapter.
Measurement data may be used for classification or recognition of objects. There are sev-
eral different strategies that can be applied, and examples are shown. The topics covered
are generally presented in the same order in which the methods would be applied in a
typical workflow.
For many years, in teaching this material to students I have described achieving mas-
tery of these techniques as being much like becoming a skilled journeyman carpenter.
The number of distinct tools (saws, planes, drills, etc.) is relatively small, and although
there are some variations (slotted or Phillips-head screwdrivers, or saw blades with fine
or coarse teeth, for example) knowing how to use each type of tool is closely linked
to understanding and visualizing what it can do. With a set of these tools, the skilled
craftsman can produce a house, a boat, or a piece of furniture. So it is with image pro-
cessing tools, which are conveniently grouped into only a few classes, such as histogram
modification, neighborhood operations, Fourier-space processing, and so on, that can be
used to accomplish a broad range of purposes. Visiting your local hardware store and
purchasing the appropriate woodworking tools does not provide the skills to use them.
Understanding their use requires practice, which develops the ability to visualize before-
hand what each will do. The same is true of the tools for image processing.
The emphasis throughout this seventh edition continues to be explaining and illustrating
methods so that they can be clearly understood, rather than providing dense mathemat-
ics and derivations. There are excellent texts on Fourier transforms, image compression,
mathematical morphology, stereology, and so on that provide all of the equations and
rigor that may be desired; many of them, as well as original publications, are referenced
here. But the thrust of this book remains teaching by example. Few people learn the
principles of image processing from equations. Just as we use images to communicate
ideas and to “do science,” so most of us rely on images to learn about things, including
imaging itself. The hope is that by seeing and comparing what various operations do to
representative images, you will discover how and why to use them. Then, if you should
need to look up the mathematical foundations or the computer code, they will be easier
to understand.
This edition includes a greater range of “high end” or computationally intensive algo-
rithms than previous versions. With the continuing increase in the power and speed of
desktop and laptop computers, more of these methods are now practical for most users,

xiv Introduction
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
and consequently more of the available software programs tend to include them. The
algorithms themselves are not necessarily new, but they have become more accessible.
However, the simpler tools that have been available to most users for decades are still
viable, and sometimes give equal or even superior results.

A word of caution
A very real concern for everyone involved in imaging, particularly in scientific and foren-
sic fields, is the question of what constitutes proper and appropriate processing, and
what constitutes unethical or even fraudulent manipulation. The short answer is that
anything that alters an image so as to create a false impression on the part of the viewer
is wrong. The problem with that answer is that it does not take into account the fact that
different viewers will see different things in the image anyway, and that what constitutes
a false impression for one person may not for another. The first rule is always to store a
permanent copy of the original image along with relevant data on its acquisition. The
second rule is to carefully document whatever steps are taken to process the image and
generally to report those steps when the processed image is published.
The word “photoshopping” has become an everyday expression, with generally nega-
tive connotations. Most scientific publications and the editors who review submitted
papers have become very aware of the ease with which images can be processed or cre-
ated, and the dangers of inadequate documentation. For example, see M. Rossner and
K. M. Yamada’s “What’s in a Picture?” ( J. Cell Biology 166:11–15, 2004) for the Journal
of Cell Biology’s policy on image ethics and examples of improper manipulation. For
forensic purposes, there is an additional responsibility to fully record the entire step-
by-step procedures that are used and to make sure that those methods are acceptable
in court according to the U.S. Supreme Court’s Daubert ruling (Daubert v. Merrell Dow
Pharmaceuticals, 92–102, 509 U.S. 579, 1993). This generally means that not only are
the methods widely accepted by professionals, but also that they have been rigorously
tested and have known performance outcomes. In a forensic setting, there will often be
a need to explain a procedure to a nontechnical jury. This frequently requires showing
that the details obtained from the image are present in the original but become visually
more evident and measurable with the processing.
Some procedures, such as rearranging features or combining them within a single image,
or differently adjusting the contrast of several images to make them appear more alike,
are potentially misleading and usually wrong. Some such as using copy-and-paste to
insert something into an image or selectively erasing portions of an image are out-and-
out fraudulent. Even selective cropping of an image (or choosing which field of view to
record in the first place) can create a false impression. A general guideline to be consid-
ered is that it is never acceptable to add anything to an image, but it may be acceptable
to suppress or remove some information if it makes the remaining existing details more
accessible, either visually for presentation and communication, or to facilitate measure-
ment. Of course, the steps used must be documented and reported, and it is better to use
an algorithmic procedure than to manually tweak settings until the results “look good.”
Any of the procedures shown here may be appropriate in a particular instance, but they
can also be misused and should in any case never be used without understanding and
careful documentation. The heart of the scientific method is replicability. If adequate
information is provided on the processing steps applied and the original image data are
preserved, then the validity of the results can be independently verified.

Introduction xv
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
The scientist who does not understand his or her instruments and what they do risks
making serious errors. But after acquiring an image, some are content to use software,
possibly downloaded free from the web, to apply algorithms they do not understand and
have not tested. The results can be misleading or worse. An important but often over-
looked concern is the importance of avoiding the use of programs that alter the image
without the user being aware of it. For example, placing an image into a slide presenta-
tion, web page, or word processing document may alter colors, discard pixels, and intro-
duce unwanted compression. Saving an image with a lossy compression method such
as jpeg will discard potentially important information that cannot be recovered and is
strongly discouraged.
This seventh edition brings many more references, plus new examples and images
throughout. The characterization of shape and the statistical analysis of data are covered
in greater detail, and examples of forensic applications of imaging have been expanded.
A major expansion is in the area of 3D imaging. The availability of instruments such as
synchrotron and microfocus X-ray tomography, and the ongoing development of com-
puter software that can present visualizations as well as make measurements with 3D
voxel arrays offer exciting possibilities for many research disciplines as well as routine
industrial and medical applications, and I try to present a current overview of these new
capabilities and their uses.
A great many scientists, worldwide and representing a broad range of disciplines, are
represented by example images from their work, and many have provided assistance,
raw data, references, and other information. They are acknowledged throughout, and
their help is gratefully appreciated. Many thanks to you all. Particular thanks are due
to Dr. Brian Metscher, at the University of Vienna, who performed microtomography on
specimens; to Dr. Loes Brabant, at Inside Matters, who provided data and the Octopus
software (based on the Morpho+ programs developed at the University of Gent) for pro-
cessing and measurement of 3D data sets; to Dr. Andreas Wiegmann, at Math2Market
GmbH, who provided valuable references, examples, and reconstructions; to Patrick
Barthelemy, at FEI Visualization Science, who loaned their Amira 3D visualization soft-
ware; and to Dr. Paul Shearing, at the Department of Chemical Engineering, University
College, London, who provided access to data from ongoing research projects. Access to
advanced 2D algorithms was provided by Andy Thé at The MathWorks. Christian Russ
at Ocean Systems provided valuable input on video technology and image compression.

A personal note
A brief personal and historical comment seems appropriate for this seventh edition.
Nearly 60 years ago I undertook my first serious foray into image processing—and it
was analog, not digital. As a student project, I tried to design an optical solution to a
problem that seemed to be beyond the capability of then-available (at least to me) com-
puter solution. The problem was to obtain dimensionally corrected images of the land
surface using aerial photography for surveying (with satellite imagery unimaginably far
in the future, the intended vehicle was a small plane flying at 12,000 feet, which tied in
nicely with my interest in flying). My solution was a continuously moving strip recorder
using photographic film and a wide angle slit lens system that “morphed” the image
projected onto the film one line at a time so that the geometric distortion was can-
celed. It worked on paper. In practice, the physical optics were impractical to fabricate
and specific to a fixed elevation and speed, and many difficulties—such as maintaining

xvi Introduction
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
the stability and knowing the exact position of the airplane—would have frustrated its
actual use. The project succeeded in achieving its immediate purpose of fulfilling the
course requirements.
Since then I have been continuously involved in many ways with imaging throughout
my career, both in industry and academia. I’ve used and in some cases helped design
light and electron microscopes, surface metrology instruments, X-ray, gamma ray and
neutron tomography; have mounted digital cameras onto telescopes as a hobby; and
have programmed computers (ranging from a Cray to the early Apple IIs) to implement
most of the known, and some novel, processing and measurement algorithms. My name
is on several patents, and I’ve been involved in forensic cases and court trials in the
United States, Canada, and England. Most satisfying to me personally is that I’ve taught
image processing and measurement to several thousands of students, in settings rang-
ing from formal semester-long university courses, to 3- or 4-day intensive workshops
under the auspices of professional societies for their members and corporations for their
own employees.
As I approach the start of my ninth decade, and marvel at the progress in the capabili-
ties to extract useful information from images, I am especially pleased to work with the
next generation of researchers who will carry on this work. I have previously published
a book (Introduction to Image Processing and Analysis) and several papers with my
son, Christian Russ, who is involved in software developments for imaging. My present
coauthor, Brent Neal, was once a student who worked with me at North Carolina State
University and is now an accomplished researcher and the leader of the core instrumen-
tation facility at Milliken Research, where his expertise in polymer characterization and
measurement science uses a broad spectrum of 2D and 3D imaging technologies. I’ve
worked with Brent on a previous book (Measuring Shape), as well as several technical
publications, and a set of materials science teaching aids (“Visualizations in Materials
Science,” sponsored by the National Science Foundation), and have enormous respect
for his knowledge, intelligence, wide-ranging curiosity, and sense of humor. Putting
this volume together with him has been fun, and it is a much stronger text because of
his involvement.
The encouragement, support, and patience of our “girls”—Helen, Sarah, Meg, and Claire—
has also been a vital and most appreciated assistance for this effort.

Introduction xvii
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 1
Acquiring Images

Human reliance on images

Humans are primarily visual creatures. Not all animals depend on their eyes, as we do, for
most of the information received about their surroundings (the characteristics of human vision
are discussed in Chapter 3). For example, we expect to recognize familiar people and sur-
roundings in photographs, and television and movies are major sources of entertainment.
Tests with college students indicate that they are predominantly visual learners (in spite of
which, lectures are still the most common teaching mode). In a more specific instance, crime
scene photographs are often critical in explaining physical evidence to a jury.
Our expectations in everyday life extend to how we pursue more technical goals as well.
Scientific instruments commonly produce images to communicate their results to the user,
rather than generating audible tones or emitting a smell. Space missions to other planets
and equally arduous explorations of the ocean depths always include cameras as major
components, and the success of those missions is often judged by the quality of the images
returned. This suggests a few of the ways in which humans have extended their range of
natural vision. In order to best understand the methods used in image processing and analy-
sis, it is helpful to begin with the types of images that are used and the devices that are used
to obtain them.
Optical devices such as microscopes and telescopes allow us to see things that are vastly smaller,
larger, or farther away than we could otherwise. Beyond the visible portion of the electro-
magnetic spectrum (a narrow range of wavelengths between about 400 and 700 ­nanometers)
there are sensors capable of detecting infrared and ultraviolet light, X-rays, and radio waves.
Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2 show examples. One combines visible light with infrared and X-ray
data, obtained with different orbiting telescopes, and the second is an image presenting radio
telescope data in which color represents the Doppler shift in the radio signal. Such devices
and presentations are used to further extend imaging capability. Closer to home, ultraviolet
light is used in forensic investigations to cause latent fingerprints (Figure 1.3) and various
body fluids to fluoresce, enabling their detection at crime scenes. Infrared light also has been
used to reveal an identifying tattoo hidden beneath a more recent, elaborate tattoo (Asheville,
NC, Citizen-Times, August 7, 2012).
Signals other than electromagnetic radiation can be used to produce images, too. New types
of microscopes that use atomic-scale probes to “feel” the specimen surface also present their

1
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Figure 1.1 The pinwheel galaxy (M101) imaged in visible (green, Hubble image), infrared (red, Spitzer
image), and X-ray (blue, Chandra image) wavelengths. (Image courtesy of NASA and ESA.)

Figure 1.2 Combining visible light and radio astronomy produces images such as this view of HH 46/47
(generated with data from the Atacama Large Millimeter Array). These are often displayed with false
colors to emphasize subtle variations in signal strength or, as in this example, Doppler shift. The red
and orange colors identify the jet moving away from us, and the blue and magenta show the jet mov-
ing toward us. (Courtesy of European Space Agency.)

data as images (Figure 1.4). The data so collected may represent the surface elevation and
topography, but other signals, such as surface compliance or drag force on the probe, may
also be used. Acoustic waves at low frequency produce sonar images, while at gigahertz fre-
quencies the acoustic microscope produces images with resolution similar to that of the light
microscope, but with image contrast that is produced by local variations in the attenuation
and refraction of sound waves rather than light. Figure 1.5 shows an acoustic microscope
image of a subsurface defect, and Figure 1.6 shows a sonogram of a baby in the womb.

2 The Image Processing Handbook, Seventh Edition

© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 Figure 1.3 Latent fingerprint fluorescing
under ultraviolet light.

Figure 1.4 Atomic force microscope image

of human chromosomes. (Data cour-
tesy of S. Thalhammer and F. Jamitzky,
Helmholtz Zentrum, München, Germany.)

Figure 1.5 Microscope image of voids in solder bond beneath a GaAs die: (a) die surface (visible light);
(b) acoustic image showing strong signal reflections (white areas) from the surface of the voids.
(Courtesy of J. E. Semmens, Sonoscan Inc., Elk Grove Village, Illinois).

Acquiring Images 3
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
O. H. Oldroyd, editor of the "Lincoln Memorial Album," says:
"His fame is world-wide and stands in history more lasting than a
monument of brass. His words will continue to sound through the ages as
long as the flowers shall bloom or the waters flow."

Another writer says:

"We hear Lincoln's words in every schoolhouse and college, in every
cabin, and at every public meeting. We read them in every newspaper,
school-book, and magazine, and they are all in favor of right, liberty, and
truth, and of honesty and reverence for God. His words, some of them as
familiar as the Bible, are on the tongues of the people, shaping the
national character."

Bishop Newman said:

"There is no name more deserving of imperishable fame than Abraham
Lincoln. He is embalmed in song, recorded in history, eulogized in
panegyric, cast in bronze, sculptured in marble, painted on canvas,
enshrined in the hearts of his countrymen, and lives in the memories of
mankind."
 GEORGE W. TURNHAM,
Of Evansville, Indiana, son of the
Indiana constable who loaned
Lincoln the Revised Statutes of
Indiana. Mr. Turnham has a letter
written to his father by Lincoln in
1860, and printed in this volume.
 MOSES MARTIN.
Mr. Martin signed a temperance pledge
presented by Abraham Lincoln in
1847. Mr. Martin resides at Edinburg,
Illinois, and is eighty years of age.
 MAJOR J. B. MERWIN,
Who canvassed Illinois with Lincoln for
State Prohibition in 1854-55, and
was associated with Mr. Lincoln till
the day of his death. Major Merwin
now resides at Middleburg, Conn.
 REV. R. L. McCORD,
Of Lake City, Iowa, who named Lincoln
as his candidate for President after
hearing him speak at Springfield,
Illinois, in 1854.
 CHAPTER XIV.
Unpublished Official Documents

A Discovery—Documents of Historic Value—Lincoln Owned Land in Iowa—Copy of

Letters Patent from United States, under James Buchanan, to Abraham Lincoln,
in 1860—Copy of Deed Executed by Honorable Robert T. Lincoln and Wife in
1892—Other Transfers—The Present Owner.

A few months ago I learned through a newspaper that Abraham

Lincoln, at the time of his death, owned land in the State of Iowa, by
virtue of his having served in the Black Hawk War of 1832. He was
given a land script, good for one hundred and twenty acres, which
he located in what is now Crawford County, Iowa. Having never
heard of this before, I went to Denison, the county-seat, and,
through the law and abstract office of Shaw, Sims & Kuehnle,
obtained the information where the records could be found in the
county recorder's office. The above-named Shaw is the Honorable
Leslie M. Shaw, ex-Governor of Iowa and ex-Secretary of the United
States Treasury under President Roosevelt.
Through the kindness of the county recorder, W. E. Terry, I was
allowed to copy the records in the case. Probably Abraham Lincoln
never saw the land, but because of their historical value the records
are here given. The first is the letters-patent from the United States
to Abraham Lincoln. Record D, page 18. Original Entry, page 125.
"The United States of America.
"To All Whom, These Presents Shall Come, Greeting:
"Whereas, In pursuance of the Act of Congress, approved March 3, 1855,
entitled An Act, in addition to certain Acts, Granting Bounty Land to
certain officers and soldiers who have been engaged in the military service
 of the United States, There has been deposited in the General Land Office,
Warrant No. 68645, for 120 acres of land in favor of Abraham Lincoln,
Captain Illinois Militia, Black Hawk War, with evidence that the same has
been duly located upon the east half of the northeast quarter, and
northwest quarter of the northeast quarter of section eighteen, in
Township eighty-four, north of Range thirty-nine west, in the district of
Lands subject to sale at Council Bluffs, Iowa, containing one hundred and
twenty acres, according to the official plat of the survey of the said land
returned to the General Land Office by the Surveyor General, the said
tract having been located by the said Abraham Lincoln.
"Know ye, That there is, therefore, granted by the United States unto
the said Abraham Lincoln, heirs, and assigns forever.
"In Testimony, whereof, I, James Buchanan, President of the United
States of America, have caused these Letters to be made Patent, and the
seal of the General Land Office to be hereto affixed.
"[Seal.]
"Given under my hand, at the City of Washington, the tenth day of
September, in the year of our Lord One Thousand Eight Hundred and
Sixty, and of the Independence of the United States the Eighty-fifth.
"By the President:
James Buchanan.
"By J. B. Leonard, Sec.
"G. W. Granger, Recorder of the General Land Office.
"Recorded vol. 468, page 53."

The following copy of the warranty deed from Robert T. Lincoln

and wife to Henry Edwards is recorded in Deed Record 13, page
208. Robert T. Lincoln at this time was minister from the United
States to Great Britain, under President Benjamin Harrison's
administration:
"Warranty Deed.
"Filed April 26, A. D. 1892, at 2:10 P.M., W. W. Cushman, Recorder.
"Know All Men by These Presents:
"That we, Robert T. Lincoln and Mary H. Lincoln, his wife, of Cook County,
and State of Illinois, in consideration of the sum of Thirteen Hundred
Dollars ($1,300) to us in hand paid by Henry Edwards, of Crawford
County, and State of Iowa, do hereby sell and convey unto the said Henry
Edwards the following described premises, situated in the County of
Crawford, and State of Iowa, to-wit:
"The east half of the northeast quarter, and the northwest quarter of
the northeast quarter of section eighteen (18) in Township eighty-four
(84), north of Range thirty-nine (39), west of the Principal Meridian.
"And we covenant with the said Henry Edwards that we hold said
premises by good and perfect title, that we have good right and lawful
authority to sell and convey the same, that they are free and clear of all
liens and all encumbrances, whatsoever, excepting the taxes levied, or to
be levied, for the year 1892, and excepting also a lease of said land
expiring on or about the fourth day of May, A. D. 1894, and we covenant
to warrant and defend the title to said premises against the lawful claims
of all persons, whomsoever, excepting as against the said taxes, and the
said lease, the obligation and discharge of both of which are hereby
assumed by the said Henry Edwards.
"The said Robert T. Lincoln hereby declares that his title to said land is
wholly by descent, and derived as follows, namely:
"That Abraham Lincoln, the patentee of said land, died on the 15th day
of April, 1865, intestate, leaving heirs surviving, his widow, Mary Lincoln,
and his two sons, Robert T. Lincoln and Thomas Lincoln, and no other
heirs; that said Thomas Lincoln died on the 15th day of July, A. D. 1871,
in the nineteenth year of his age, intestate, and unmarried, leaving him
surviving as his only heirs his mother, said Mary Lincoln, and his brother,
said Robert T. Lincoln; that said Mary Lincoln died on the 16th day of July,
A. D. 1882, intestate, and a widow, leaving her surviving as her sole heir,
said Robert T. Lincoln; and that the estate of said Abraham Lincoln,
Thomas Lincoln, and Mary Lincoln were successively duly administered
according to law in the county court of Sangamon County, in the State of
Illinois, and that all claims against them were duly paid and discharged.
"Signed the twenty-second day of March, A. D. 1892.
"Robert T. Lincoln.
"Mary H. Lincoln.
"United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.

"Legation of the United States of America at London on this 22d day of

March, A. D. 1892, before me Larz Anderson, a secretary of the Legation
of the United States of America at London, aforesaid, came Robert T.
Lincoln and Mary H. Lincoln, his wife, personally to me known to be the
identical persons whose names are affixed to the above instrument as
 grantors thereof, and acknowledged the execution of the same to be their
voluntary act and deed for the purpose therein expressed.
"Witness my hand and the seal of said Legation the day and year last
above written.
"The Legation of the United States of America to Great Britain.
Larz Anderson,
"Secretary of Legation."

On the 20th of April, 1892, the above-named Henry Edwards sold

the land to Enoch T. Cochran, consideration $1,500. Recorded May
2, 1892, Deed Book 12, page 624.
On the 20th of October, 1892, Enoch T. Cochran sold the land to
the present owner, Peter F. Jepsen, consideration $1,925. Recorded
October 24, 1892, Deed Book 15, page 135.
I copied the foregoing records in the recorder's office, in
Dennison, Crawford County, Iowa, in the afternoon of May 22, 1908.
Mr. Jepsen, the present owner of the land, is a retired German
farmer and resides in Denison. I called at his home after I had
copied the records. He came to the United States in 1867, and is
proud of the fact that he is the owner of the land that Abraham
Lincoln owned. The land joins another farm which Mr. Jepsen owns,
where he formerly resided, in Goodrich Township, about seven miles
northwest of Denison. The present veteran county surveyor, Moses
Henry, told me that he surveyed the land Lincoln owned, and that it
is now valued at one hundred dollars per acre.
 THE OLD STILL-HOUSE SITE
In Indiana, where Lincoln worked the latter part of the winter before going to
Illinois, in March, 1830.
 GIDEON WELLS HASKINS ABRAHAM LINCOLN HASKINS
SIMON CAMERON HASKINS
Triplets named by Abraham Lincoln in 1861. They are still living.
HOUSE IN WHICH LINCOLN DIED
LINCOLN'S MILL
 CHAPTER XV.
Celebration of the Centennial Anniversary of Lincoln's Birth

Preparations—General Observance—President Roosevelt Lays Corner-stone of

Lincoln Museum at Lincoln's Birthplace—Extracts from Addresses at Various
Places—Closing Tribute.

Never, perhaps, in the history of mankind has such general

recognition been given to the anniversary of any man's birth as was
given to the one hundredth anniversary of Abraham Lincoln's birth
on Friday, February 12, 1909. For weeks in advance the newspapers,
both religious and secular, and the magazines were decorated with
his pictures, and other pictures illustrating many scenes in his life.
The recollections of personal friends and acquaintances, war
incidents, stories, anecdotes, and his personal traits were placed on
record, with various announcements and programs for the coming
anniversary, showed the great interest attached to his name and his
history.
The day was made a national holiday by Congress and the
proclamation of the President, supplemented by legislatures and
governors of many States. The event was celebrated, almost without
exception, by all the common schools, colleges, and universities
throughout the nation. Churches, Grand Army posts, Young Men's
Christian Associations, the various temperance organizations, clubs,
trades unions, and almost every form of organized bodies celebrated
the day. Courts and legislatures adjourned and joined in the general
anniversary exercises, or held separate exercises. The wheels of the
general Government at Washington, D. C., stopped to recognize the
great memorial day. Business in many places was practically
suspended in honor of the day. In every community, town, and city
the praises of Lincoln were heard.
Orations delivered by great and undistinguished men and women,
pertaining to many phases of Lincoln's life and character, were given.
Prayers, religious and patriotic songs were heard. Pictures, flowers,
flags, parades, and banquets were greatly in evidence. The
Gettysburg address, the Emancipation Proclamation, the second
inaugural address, Lincoln's favorite poem, "Oh, why should the
spirit of mortal be proud?" with many other selections, were recited
and read.
The Southern people, as well as the Northern, joined in the
general exercises of the day. The colored people were enthusiastic in
showing their appreciation of what Mr. Lincoln had done for their
race. In many cities in foreign countries, including London, Berlin,
Honolulu, and Rome, the anniversary was observed.
The center of attraction was the celebration at Lincoln's birthplace,
on the farm three miles from Hodgenville, Larue County, Kentucky. A
large tent had been erected for the occasion, with a platform inside
for the speakers. In front of the platform was placed a rebuilt little
cabin, sixteen feet square, which had itinerated in many parts of the
country and exhibited as the cabin in which Abraham Lincoln was
born. The little cabin, set in flowers contributed by the school
children of Kentucky, and decorated with the national colors, very
fitly illustrated the kind of a cabin in which the great emancipator
was born. When Lincoln was born in a log cabin on that spot, no one
could imagine that a future President was born there, and that a
hundred years later another President would stand on the same spot
to assist in celebrating his birth.
Five extra trains came from Louisville to Hodgenville, bearing
persons from various points in the United States. These were
conveyed by carriages to the place of celebration. The day there was
rainy, but the foreign and local attendance was estimated at eight
thousand. Among the distinguished persons present were President
Roosevelt, Mrs. Roosevelt, and daughter, Miss Ethel; Mr. Loeb, the
President's private secretary; Ex-Governor Joseph Folk, of Missouri,
president of the Lincoln Farm Association; Governor A. E. Willson, of
Kentucky; General James G. Wilson, and Luke E. Wright, Secretary
of War.
There were various committees, guards and police. Good order
prevailed. All lines of the North and the South were blotted out in
representation, men of both sections taking part in the exercises.
Twenty-six negro citizens, appointed by Governor Willson, as a
reception committee, represented their race.
After prayer, Ex-Governor Folk, of Missouri, president of the
Lincoln Farm Association, said, in part:
"Here, on this farm, one hundred years ago to-day, was born the
strongest, strangest, gentlest character the republic has ever known. His
work was destined to have a more far-reaching influence than any that
went before him. Until recently this spot which should be hallowed by
every American, was unnoticed and abandoned. Inspired by the idea that
due regard for the apostle of human liberty who sprang from this soil
demanded the preservation of his birthplace, a few patriotic men
organized the Lincoln Farm Association, to purchase this property and to
erect upon it a memorial to that simple, but sublime life that here came
into the world. This association is purely patriotic in its purposes, and the
movement has met with a ready response from every section of the
nation. In revering the name of Lincoln, there is now no North or South,
or East or West. There is but one heart in all, and that the heart of
patriotic America. So the memorial to be erected here, by South as well as
North, will not only be in memory of Lincoln, but it will be a testimony that
the fires of hatred kindled by the fierce civil conflict of nearly half a
century ago, are dead, and from the ashes has arisen the red rose of
patriotism to a common country and loyalty to a common flag."

President Roosevelt, in behalf of the nation, said, in part:

"He lived in days that were great and terrible, when brother fought
against brother for what each sincerely deemed to be the right. In a
contest so grim the strong men who alone can carry it through are rarely
able to do justice to the deep convictions of those with whom they
grapple in mortal strife. At such times men see through a glass darkly; to
 only the rarest and loftiest spirits is vouchsafed that clear vision which
gradually comes to all, even to the lesser, as the struggle fades into
distance, and wounds are forgotten, and peace creeps back to the hearts
that were hurt. But to Lincoln was given this supreme vision. He did not
hate the man from whom he differed. Weakness was as foreign as
wickedness to his strong, gentle nature; but his courage was of a quality
so high that it needed no bolstering of dark passion. He saw clearly that
the same high qualities, the same courage and willingness for self-
sacrifice, and devotion to the right as it was given them to see the right,
belonged both to the men of the North and to the men of the South. As
the years roll by, and as all of us, wherever we dwell, grow to feel an
equal pride in the valor and self-devotion alike of the men who wore the
blue and the men who wore the gray, so this whole nation will grow to
feel a peculiar sense of pride in the man whose blood was shed for the
union of his people, and for the freedom of a race. The lover of his
country and of all mankind; the mightiest of the mighty men who
mastered the mighty days, Abraham Lincoln."

Governor Willson, in behalf of Kentucky, for her greatest son, said,

in part:
"We have met here on this farm where he was born, in memory of
Abraham Lincoln, to know for ourselves and to prove to the world, by a
record made to endure, and deep graven on these acres, that the love of
country and of its nobly useful citizens are not dreams, nor idle words, but
indeed living, stirring, and breathing feelings. Abraham Lincoln is claimed
by all humanity and all time as the type of the race best showing forth the
best in all men in all conditions of life.
"Here are met to-day, with equal zeal to do him honor, soldiers of the
war for and against the Union, heroes of the Union and the Confederacy,
Americans all, no one less pledged than the other, not only by the bond of
the covenant of our law, but alike by the dearest feelings of his heart and
fervor of his blood, to our united country and its beautiful flag."

General James G. Wilson, of New York, who was in the Union

Army, spoke fitting words in behalf of the Union, while General Luke
E. Wright, who was in the Confederate Army, now Secretary of War,
spoke fitting words in behalf of the Confederacy.
President Roosevelt laid the corner-stone of the Lincoln Museum,
which is to be built of limestone and white marble. He spread white
cement with a silver trowel where the stone was to set. The stone,
weighing three thousand pounds, was placed in position with a
derrick. A number of articles were deposited in a leaden box placed
in the stone before it was set, among which was the life of Lincoln
written by President Roosevelt and the speeches delivered on the
occasion.
In connection with the depository of articles, an aged negro, Isaac
T. Montgomery, of Mississippi, said to have been at one time a slave
of Jefferson Davis, President of the Southern Confederacy, was
assigned the appropriate honor of depositing in the box a copy of
President Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation. In doing this he
made a brief speech, in which he referred to himself "as one of the
former millions of slaves to whom Lincoln gave freedom, and the
representative of 10,000,000 grateful negro citizens."
The cabin in which it is alleged Abraham Lincoln was born will be
kept in the memorial building. It is expected that the building will be
dedicated in April, by William H. Taft, who will be inaugurated
President of the United States, March 4, 1909.
The spot where Abraham Lincoln was born will, for coming ages,
be the most sacred shrine in all this great country, whose
government he died to save.
At Lincoln City, Spencer County, Indiana, where the Lincolns lived
fourteen years after moving from Kentucky, and before moving to
Illinois, and where Abraham's mother lies buried, exercises were
held. The school children of Evansville, Indiana, raised money to
purchase a flag, and the school children of Indianapolis sent a
wreath of flowers, both of which were placed on Mrs. Lincoln's
grave. A procession of one hundred school children of Lincoln City,
headed by Principal Curtis Cox and the other teachers, marched to
the grave, where the exercises were held.
At Springfield, Illinois, Lincoln's old home, and where his body
rests in the great monument erected to his memory, imposing
exercises were held in various places well worthy of the man. Mr.
Lincoln was instrumental in having the State capital moved from
Vandalia to Springfield. Ambassador Jusserand of France, Senator
Dolliver of Iowa, Ambassador Bryce of England, and William J. Bryan
were among the distinguished visitors, and who delivered addresses.
A most impressive feature of the occasion was the scene at Lincoln's
tomb, when Robert T. Lincoln, son of the martyred President, stood
beside the sarcophagus in which the body of his great father rests.
Here his mother, brothers, and a son named Abraham Lincoln are
also entombed. He stood in silent meditation with tear-dimmed eyes,
with Ambassadors Jusserand, Bryce, Senator Dolliver, W. J. Bryan,
and many other distinguished persons gathered about. In his
speech, Ambassador Bryce said, in part:
"Of the personal impression he made on those who knew him, you will
hear from some of the few yet living who can recollect him. All I can
contribute is a reminiscence of what reached us in England. I was an
undergraduate student in the University of Oxford when the Civil War
broke out. Well do I remember the surprise when the Republican National
Convention nominated him as a candidate for the presidency, for it had
been expected that the choice would fall upon William H. Seward. I
recollect how it slowly dawned upon Europeans in 1862 and 1863 that the
President could be no ordinary man, because he never seemed cast down
by the reverses which befell his arms, because he never let himself be
hurried into premature action, nor feared to take so bold a step as the
Emancipation Proclamation was when he saw that the time had arrived.
And, above all, I remember the shock of awe and grief which thrilled all
Britain when the news came that he had perished by the bullet of an
assassin....
"To you, men of Illinois, Lincoln is the most famous and worthy of all
those who have adorned your commonwealth. To you, citizens of the
United States, he is the President who carried you through a terrible
conflict and saved the Union. To us in England he is one of the heroes of
the race whence you and we sprung. We honor his memory as you do;
and it is fitting that one who is privileged here to represent the land from
which his forefathers came should bring on behalf of England a tribute of
admiration for him and of thankfulness to the Providence which gave him
to you in your hour of need.
 "Great men are the noblest possession of a nation, and are potent
forces in the molding of national character. Their influence lives after
them, and if they be good as well as great, they remain as beacons
lighting the course of all who follow them. They set for succeeding
generations the standards of public life. They stir the spirit and rouse the
energy of the youth who seek to emulate their virtues in the service of the
country."

At Washington City all Government and leading business houses

were closed. The Senate adjourned until Monday, but in the House,
Lincoln's famous Gettysburg speech was read by Representative
Boutell, of Illinois. Appropriate exercises were held at Howard
University, where a large negro student body witnessed the unveiling
of a large painting of the "Underground Railroad." Secretary of the
Interior Garfield and other speakers were on the program.
In Boston, the city sometimes called the literary "hub of the
universe," Senator Lodge gave an address on the life and work of
Mr. Lincoln before the Massachusetts Legislature. At a meeting held
in the evening in Symphony Hall, John D. Long, former Secretary of
the Navy, gave an address, and Julia Ward Howe, author of the
"Battle Hymn of the Republic," read a poem she had written for the
occasion, depicting Lincoln's rise from obscurity to the leader of the
nation.
In Chicago, the metropolis of Lincoln's adopted State, fifty public
meetings were held in his honor. The city was fairly buried beneath
flags, buntings, and pictures of Lincoln. Show-windows were filled
with war relics and Lincoln mementoes. Streets were crowded with
marchers and military bands. Standing bareheaded in Lincoln Park,
in sight of the Lincoln Statue, a group of Civil War veterans fired a
presidential salute. Dexter Pavilion, at night, was crowded, while a
chorus of one thousand voices sang patriotic songs.
At Gettysburg, where Lincoln delivered his classic address
dedicating the national cemetery, November 19, 1863, the day was
duly observed. The principal exercises were held on the campus of
Gettysburg College, near Seminary Ridge, where much of the first
and second days' fighting occurred during the great battle. Lincoln's
Gettysburg address was read by Judge Samuel McSwope.
At Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, Vice-President Fairbanks said, in part:
"Who, among all the men of his day, has produced utterances so classic
and lofty and which will survive so long as many of the speeches of Mr.
Lincoln? It is impossible to think that schools, colleges, or universities
could have increased the intellectual or moral nature of Lincoln. He was
the marvelous product of the great school of nature. He kept close to
nature's heart, close to the people, close to the soul.... His life was spent
in the field of conflict. In his youth he struggled with nature. At the bar he
contended for the rights of his clients. In the wider field of politics he
fought with uncommon power to overthrow the wrong and enthrone the
right. He fought not for the love of contest, but for the love of truth. By
nature he was a man of peace. He did not like to raise his hand against
his fellow-man. He instinctively loved justice, right, and liberty. His soul
revolted at the thought of injustice and wrong. His conscience impelled
him to uphold the right wherever it was denied his fellow-man. He could
not do otherwise."

In New York City the celebration was the most hearty and
widespread of its kind ever seen there. The city's official celebration
was held in Cooper Union, in the hall in which Lincoln made his great
speech called the "Cooper Union Speech," delivered in 1860.
Addresses were delivered by Joseph H. Choate and Rev. Dr. Lyman
Abbott. At a great club meeting, Booker T. Washington delivered an
address, and referred to himself as "one whom Lincoln found a piece
of property and made into an American citizen."
In closing this little volume as an humble tribute to the memory of
Abraham Lincoln, I desire to say that, while Mr. Lincoln possessed so
many excellent traits of character, the most significant and worthy
one was his constant anxiety, as he expressed it, to know and do the
will of God. This, in the providence of God, is what made him truly
great.
 Transcriber's Note:
Minor typographical errors have been corrected
without note.
Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were
retained.
Mid-paragraph illustrations have been moved to
the end of chapters.
References added to the list of illustrations: House
in which Lincoln died and Lincoln's mill.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOOTPRINTS OF
ABRAHAM LINCOLN ***

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