Communicative Grammar

Communicative grammar emphasizes the practical use of grammatical rules in effective

communication. By understanding how to structure sentences properly, a person can convey
their messages clearly and accurately.

WORD CLASSES/ PARTS OF SPEECH

1. Nouns
A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, idea, or quality. Nouns are one of the basic
building blocks of sentences.
Types of Nouns:
1. Common Nouns: Refer to general items or concepts, not specific names.
- Example: The *cat* is sleeping.
2. Proper Nouns: Name specific people, places, or things.
Are always capitalised.
- Examples: *John* is my friend.
- *Tokyo* is a bustling city.
3. Abstract Nouns: Refer to ideas, qualities, or conditions that cannot be seen or touched.
- Examples: *Honesty* is important.
- *Freedom* requires responsibility.
4. Concrete Nouns: These refer to things that can be seen, touched, heard, or smelled.
- Examples: The *book* is on the table.
- The *mountain* was covered in snow.
5. Countable Nouns: These nouns can be counted and have singular and plural forms.
- Example: There are three *apples*.
6. Uncountable Nouns: Cannot be counted and usually do not have plural forms.
- Examples: There is *water* in the bottle.
- *Information* is critical in this project.
7. Collective Nouns: Refer to a group of individuals or things as a single unit.
- Examples: The *team* won the game.
The *herd* of cows grazed in the field.

Usage of Nouns:
1. As Subjects:
Nouns frequently act as the subject of a sentence, indicating who or what is performing the
action. For example, in "The *dog* barked," the noun *dog* is the subject performing the
action.
- Examples:*John** went to the market.
- The **committee** made a unanimous decision.
2. As Objects:
Nouns can also be the object of a verb or preposition, receiving the action. For example, "She
read the book" uses *book* as the object.
- Examples: He bought a *car*
-The manager discussed the *project* in detail.
3. As Complement:
A noun can act as a complement, describing the subject or object in more detail. For example,
"He is a teacher" uses *teacher* as a complement to provide more information about the subject
*he*.
- Examples: Sarah is a *student*.
- This proposal is a *masterpiece* of innovation.
4. As Appositive:
Nouns can be used to rename another noun and give more information. This is called an
appositive. For example, "My friend, *John*, is coming over" uses *John* to rename *friend*.
- Examples: My brother, *Tom*, is an engineer.
- The conference, a major *event*, attracted scholars from around the world.
5. Pluralization and Gender Forms:
Nouns have singular and plural forms, and some may also reflect gender distinctions. Common
pluralization rules include adding *-s* or *-es* to form plurals, but irregular nouns (like
*man/men*) require special forms.
 - Examples: One *book*, two *books*.
- One *child*, many *children**.

2. Verbs:
A verb is a word that expresses an action, occurrence, or state of being. It is a crucial part of a
sentence, as it indicates what the subject is doing.
Types of Verbs
1. Action Verbs: Show physical or mental action.
- Examples: She *runs* every day.
- He *considered* all options before making a decision.
2. Linking Verbs: Connect the subject to additional information, often about a state or
condition.
- Examples: She *is* happy.
- The soup *tastes* delicious.
3. Auxiliary Verbs (Helping Verbs): Help the main verb express tense, mood, or voice.
- Examples: She *is* running.
- They *have* been waiting for hours.
4. Modal Verbs: Express necessity, possibility, or ability.
- Examples: You*can* do it.
- We *should* consider all the risks.
5. Transitive Verbs: Require an object to complete their meaning.
- Examples: She *bought* a new dress.
- The manager **approved** the proposal.
6. Intransitive Verbs: Do not require an object.
- Examples: He *laughed* loudly.
- The flowers *bloom* in spring.
Usage of Verbs:
1. As Main Action Words:
 Verbs are used to indicate what the subject of the sentence is doing or experiencing. For
example, "She *runs* every morning" uses *runs* to show what the subject does.
- Examples: They **play** football every weekend.
- He *analyzed* the report thoroughly before making a decision.

2. As Linking Words:
Linking verbs connect the subject to additional information about its state or condition.
For instance, "She *is* a doctor" uses *is* to connect the subject she to the noun doctor.
- Examples: The weather *seems* nice today.
- The manager *appeared* uncertain during the discussion.
3. Helping and Main Verbs:
Auxiliary verbs are used with main verbs to create complex verb tenses or moods. For
example, "She *has* been studying for hours" uses *has* (auxiliary) with been studying (main
verb) to indicate an ongoing action.
- Examples: She *is* going to the party.
- They *had* finished the project by the time we arrived.
4. Modal Verbs:
Modals express possibilities, obligations, or permissions. For example, "He *must* finish
his work" shows necessity, while "You *can* leave early" shows permission.
- Examples: You *can* join us if you want.
- We *might* need to revise the report.
5. Verb Tenses:
Verbs change forms to indicate the time of the action (past, present, future). For example,
"She *writes* every day" (present), "She *wrote* a letter yesterday" (past), and "She *will
write* a report tomorrow" (future).
- Examples: They *walked* to the park.
- He *will have completed* the task by the end of the day.

2. Adverbs:
An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. It provides more
information about how, when, where, or to what extent an action occurs.
Types of Adverbs
1. Adverbs of Manner:
Describe how an action is performed.
- Examples: She writes *neatly*.
- He drove *recklessly*, risking everyone's safety.
2. Adverbs of Time: Indicate when an action happens.
- Examples: I will call you *tomorrow*.
- Examples: The meeting started *before* noon.
3. Adverbs of Place: Tell where an action occurs.
- Examples: The children are playing *outside*.
- They searched *throughout* the building for the missing file.
4. Adverbs of Frequency: Express how often an action occurs.
- Examples: He *always* wakes up early.
- The technician *rarely* checks the system thoroughly.
5. Adverbs of Degree: Tell the intensity or degree of an action.
- Examples: She was *very* happy.
- The lecture was *extremely* informative for advanced learners.
Usage of Adverbs
1. Modifying Verbs:
When an adverb modifies a verb, it explains how, when, where, or to what extent an action
occurs. For example, in the sentence "He ran *quickly*," the adverb *quickly* tells us how the
subject ran.
- Examples: The dog barked *loudly*.
- She spoke *calmly* during the intense meeting.
2. Modifying Adjectives:
Adverbs can modify adjectives to give more information about the quality or state
described by the adjective. For example, in "She is **extremely** talented," the adverb
**extremely** enhances the degree of talent.
- Examples: This task is *very* easy.
- The landscape is *incredibly* beautiful at sunset.
3. Modifying Other Adverbs:
Adverbs can modify other adverbs to explain the intensity or manner of an action. For
instance, "He ran *very* quickly" shows that *very* intensifies the adverb quickly.
- Examples: She ran *quite* fast.
- He worked *exceptionally* well under pressure.
Position in a Sentence:
Adverbs can be placed in different positions, but this can slightly change the emphasis or
meaning.
- Beginning: *Tomorrow*, I will call you.
- End: I will call you *tomorrow*.
- Before the verb: She *always* eats lunch at noon.
- After the verb: She eats lunch at noon *always* (less common but still acceptable in some
cases).

4. Adjectives:
An adjective is a word that describes or gives more information about a noun or pronoun. It
tells what kind, how many, or which one.
Types of Adjectives:
1. Descriptive Adjectives: Describe the quality or characteristics of a noun.
- Examples: The *blue* sky is beautiful.
- The *ancient* ruins were fascinating to explore.
2. Quantitative Adjectives Indicate the amount or number of nouns.
- Examples: She has *two* cats.
- There were *several* issues with the report.
3. Demonstrative Adjectives: Point out specific nouns.
- Examples:*This* book is interesting.
-*Those* students excelled in the competition.
4. Possessive Adjectives: Show ownership or possession.
- Examples:*My* bag is red.
- *Their* decision was based on facts.
5. Interrogative Adjectives:*Used in questions.
- Examples: *Which* book do you want?
- *Whose* idea was it to implement this strategy?
Usage of Adjectives:
1. Before Nouns:
Adjectives are typically placed before the noun they describe. They add information about
the noun's size, color, shape, condition, or other attributes. For example, "The *red* car is
fast" describes the car's color.
- Examples: The *old* man walked slowly.
- The *newly-built* house attracted many buyers.
2. After Linking Verbs:
In some cases, adjectives are used after linking verbs (such as *is, seem, become*) to
describe the subject. For example, "The cake tastes *delicious*" uses **delicious** to describe
the taste of the cake.
- Examples: The weather is *cold*.
- The decision seems *important* for the future of the company.
3. Comparative and Superlative Forms:
Adjectives can be used in their comparative (comparing two things) and superlative
(comparing three or more things) forms.
- Comparative: He is *taller* than his brother.
- Comparative: The presentation was *more informative* than the previous one.
- Superlative: She is the *smartest* in the class.
- Superlative: This is the *most challenging* project we’ve ever worked on.
4. Coordinate Adjectives:
When two or more adjectives describe the same noun and are of equal importance, they are
called coordinate adjectives. You can usually place "and" between them and put a comma in
writing. For example, “It was a *cold, windy* day” describes the day with both *cold* and
*windy*.
- Examples: The *big, round* balloon floated away.
- Examples: She wore a *dark, mysterious* dress to the gala.
5. Pronouns:
A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun to avoid repetition and make sentences shorter and
clearer.
Types of Pronouns:
1. Personal Pronouns: Refer to a specific person or thing.
- Examples: *She* is a doctor.
- *They* completed the project on time.
2. Possessive Pronouns: Indicate ownership or possession.
- Examples: This is *mine*.
- The decision is *theirs*, not ours.
3. Demonstrative Pronouns: Point to specific nouns.
- Examples: *This* is my favorite.
- *Those* were the best days of my life.
4. Relative Pronouns: Introduce relative clauses and link them to main clauses.
- Examples: The boy *who* won the race is my friend.
- The car *that* I bought last year is still in good condition.
5. Interrogative Pronouns: Used to ask questions.
- Examples:*Who* is calling?
- *Whom* did you invite to the party?
Usage of Pronouns:
1. Subject Pronouns:
These pronouns replace the subject of a sentence. For example, in "John is a teacher," you can
replace *John* with the pronoun *he*: *He* is a teacher.
- Examples: *I* am going to the store.
- *They* decided to attend the seminar after the meeting.
2. Object Pronouns:
Pronouns can also replace the object of a sentence. For example, "Give the book to *her*,"
where *her* replaces the name of the person receiving the book.
- Examples: She gave the gift to *him*.
- The teacher asked *them* to finish the assignment by tomorrow.
3. Possessive Pronouns:
These pronouns show ownership or possession and replace possessive nouns. For example,
instead of saying "This is *John’s* car," you can say, "This is *his* car."
- Examples: The pen is **mine**.
- The ideas expressed in the meeting were *theirs*.
4 Relative Pronouns:
Relative pronouns introduce clauses that provide more information about a noun. For
example, "The book *that* I read was fascinating" uses *that* to introduce the clause *I read*.
- Examples: The person *who* called is my friend.
- The project *that* I worked on was very challenging.

6. Prepositions:
A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and other
elements in a sentence. Prepositions often indicate direction, place, time, or relationship.
Types of Prepositions
1. Prepositions of Place: Show the position or location of something.
- Examples: The cat is *on* the table.
- He placed the keys *under* the mat before leaving.
2. Prepositions of Time: Indicate when something happens.
- Examples: I’ll meet you *at* 5 p.m.
- The meeting was scheduled *for* Monday.
3. Prepositions of Direction: Show movement or direction.
- Examples: They are going *to* the park.
- She walked *towards* the exit after the lecture.
4. Prepositions of Agent/Instrument: Show the means or agent of an action.
- Examples: The letter was written *by* him.
- She cut the bread *with* a knife.
5. Prepositions of Reason or Purpose: Explain why something happens.
-Examples: He left *because of* the weather.
 - The project was delayed *due to* unforeseen circumstances.
Usage of Prepositions:
1. Prepositions of Place:
These prepositions describe the location or position of an object in relation to another.
Common examples include *on, in, under, behind, beside, above, below*.
- Examples: The keys are *on* the table.
- The painting is hung *above* the fireplace.
2. Prepositions of Time:
These prepositions explain when something happens, showing a relationship between
events and time. Common examples include *at, on, in, before, after*.
- Examples: The meeting is scheduled *at* 10 a.m.
- The contract must be signed *before* the deadline.
3. Prepositions of Direction or Movement:
These show movement from one place to another. Common examples include *to, into, onto,
through, across, towards*.
-Examples: They walked *to* the park.
- The student ran *towards* the teacher when the bell rang.
4. Prepositions of Agent or Instrument:
These show how an action is performed or who is responsible. Common examples include
*by, with*.
- Examples: The song was sung *by* her.
- The document was signed *with* a digital pen.
5. Compound Prepositions:
These are phrases that function as prepositions, often providing more detail than single-word
prepositions. Examples include *because of, due to, in spite of, along with*.
- Examples: She succeeded *because of* her hard work.
- The results were delayed *due to* technical issues.

7. Conjunctions:
A conjunction is a word that connects words, phrases, or clauses in a sentence.
Types of Conjunctions:
1. Coordinating Conjunctions: Join words, phrases, or independent clauses of equal rank.
- Examples: I want pizza *and* pasta.
- He is smart, *but* he doesn't work hard.

2. Subordinating Conjunctions: Join dependent clauses to independent clauses.

- Examples: I stayed home *because* it was raining.
- She went to the meeting *although* she was unwell.
3. Correlative Conjunctions: Work in pairs to join equal elements.
- Examples: *Neither* John *nor* Mary can attend.
- *Either* we leave now *or* we miss the flight.
Usage of Conjunctions:
1. Coordinating Conjunctions:
These conjunctions (such as: and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet) are used to link independent
clauses or items in a list. For example, "I like apples *and* oranges" combines two items in a
list.
- Examples: I will go to the party, *and* I will bring a friend.
- She wanted to go hiking, *but* the weather was too bad.
2. Subordinating Conjunctions:
These introduce dependent clauses, linking them to independent clauses. For instance, "I
will stay *if* it doesn’t rain" shows the condition under which the action occurs.
- Examples: *Although* it was cold, we went outside.
- I’ll help you *if** you promise to complete your part of the work.
3. Correlative Conjunctions:
These pairs work together to connect equivalent sentence elements. Examples include
*either...or*, *neither...nor*, and *not only...but also*. For instance, "She *not only* sings *but
also* dances" shows a connection between two actions.
- Examples: *Either** you start studying now, *or* you will fail the exam.
- *Not only* did he finish the project, *but he also* presented it beautifully.
4. Conjunctions in Complex Sentences:
 Conjunctions are crucial in forming complex sentences that express detailed relationships
between ideas. For example, "Although it was late, I decided to call her" shows a contrast
between the two clauses.
- Examples: I like tea *because* it is refreshing.
- She was tired, *yet* she continued to work on the project.
5. Using Conjunctions for Clarity:
Conjunctions help clarify relationships between different ideas or actions in sentences,
preventing misunderstandings. For instance, "I wanted to buy a new car, *but* I didn’t have
enough money" clearly indicates a contrast between desire and ability.
- Examples: He loves swimming, *and* he goes every weekend.
-The project was successful, *for* it received positive feedback from all stakeholders.
8. Interjections:
An interjection is a word or phrase that expresses strong emotion or surprise, often standing
alone outside the regular structure of a sentence.
Types of Interjections:
1. Expressive Interjections: Convey strong feelings or reactions.
- Examples: *Wow!* That’s amazing!
- *Alas!* The event was cancelled at the last minute.
2. Greeting Interjections: Used to greet someone.
- Examples: *Hello!* How are you?
- *Greetings!* It’s wonderful to see you.
3. *Response Interjections:* Used to respond to situations or questions.
- Examples: *Yes!* I agree with you.
- *Indeed!* That is precisely what I was thinking.
4. Cautionary Interjections: Warn or alert someone.
- Examples: *Watch out!* The car is coming.
- *Beware!* The path is slippery.
Usage of Interjections:
1. Expressing Emotion:
 Interjections convey a wide range of emotions, from joy to surprise or disappointment. For
example, "Oh!" can indicate realization or regret, while "Yay!" expresses excitement.
- Examples: *Hooray!* We won the match!
- *Ouch!* That hurt more than I expected.
2. Setting the Tone:
Interjections can set the tone for a sentence, affecting the reader's or listener's emotional
response. For instance, "Yikes!" can indicate fear or concern, making the audience more
engaged.
- Example: *Eek!* There’s a spider!
- *Phew!* I thought I was going to be late.
3. Standalone Responses:
Interjections often appear on their own, expressing a feeling or reaction without needing
a complete sentence. For example, "Wow!" can be used alone to express admiration.
- Examples: *Wow!* That’s incredible!
- *Alas!* I never thought this would happen.
4. Adding Emphasis:
Interjections can emphasize points in conversation, allowing speakers to express urgency
or importance. For example, "Indeed!" emphasizes agreement or affirmation.
- Examples:*Yes!* I would love to join.
- *Absolutely!* That’s the best idea I’ve heard all day.
5. Engaging the Audience:
Using interjections can engage the audience, making the conversation feel more dynamic
and interactive. They draw attention to specific reactions or moments in dialogue.
- Examples:*Hey!* Look at this!
- *Bravo!* What a stunning performance!

Make sure you go through these topics of Communicative Grammar from:

Merit Functional English by Prof. Rana M. Younas Shukeeb and High School English
Grammar and Composition by Wren and Martin