Engineering College
Electromechanical Engineering Dep’t
Instrumentation and Measurement
Chapter Four
Measurement of Mechanical Quantities
Academic Year: 2023/24
1
4/22/2024 Prepared by Bereket Walle
Out lines
1 Introduction
2 Basic electrical quantities
Electrical current and charge
Electrical voltage
Electrical power & energy
3 R, L, C, & Z Passive elements
4 R, L, C, & Z measuring instruments
5 Time and frequency domain representation
Electrical Quantity in time & frequency domain
6 Measurement methods and instrumentations
7 Electrical power and energy measuring instruments
Instrument transformers
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Introduction
A fundamental overview of measurement of electrical quantities is
given including units of their measurement.
Electrical quantities have various nature and characteristic.
They also differ in the frequency range and spectral content from dc
up to tens GHz and the level range from nano and micro units up to
mega and giga units, No single instrument satisfies all these
requirements even for only one quantity and therefore the
measurement of electrical quantities requires a wide variety of
techniques and instrumentations to perform a required measurement.
The measurement is unimaginable without well knowledge of the
quantities, measure units and theory of electrical circuits.
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Introduction
Nowadays the measurement of electrical quantities is an essential part
of nearly any measurement.
It could be realized as a measurement that results indicate directly a
value of measured electric quantities such as voltage, current,
resistance, etc. or a measurement where measurement of electrical
quantities is only an internal function of electronic measurement
system measuring any other physical quantity.
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Basic electrical quantities
The basic electrical quantities, electrical charge, current and voltage,
resistance, capacitance, inductance and electric power will be
discussed under this chapter.
Electricity is a flow of free electrons carrying negative electric charge
from the place with their excess (place with negative charge) to the
place with their deficiency (place with positive charge).
According the convention, the positive direction of electric current is
opposite, i.e. the positive direction of electric current is from the
place with positive charge to the place with negative charge.
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Electrical charge and current
The symbol for electric current is I (or i if the current is time varying)
and the basic unit of measure is ampere (symbol A) after Andr-Marie
Ampre.
The ampere is one of seven basic units according to international
convention (SI)
The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two
straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular
cross-section, and placed 1 meter apart in vacuum, would produce
between these conductors a force equal to 2x10−7 newton per meter
of length.
Another more simple definition of electric current is movement of
elementary electric charges carried by electrons. 1.602176487 X 10^19
It is a constant flow of approximately 1.602176487101 9 electrons per
second through a surface, the current of 1 amper is flowing.
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Electrical charge and current
dq
The mathematical representation is i(t) = dt
where q is the charge and t the time.
The unit of measure charge is coulomb (symbol C) after Charles
Augustin de Coulomb.
One coulomb is approximately 1.602176487 X 1019 of elementary
charges.
The SI definition of coulomb is ”the coulomb is the quantity of
electricity carried in 1 second by a current of 1 amper”.
Although electrical charge is one of basic electrical quantities it is
measured very rarely and if needed usually only calculated from
measurement of other electrical quantities.
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Electrical voltage
Electrical voltage is a difference of potential between two places with
different charges.
Voltage provides the ability to move charges and hence: do a work
and therefore voltage is also sometimes called electromotive force
(EMF).
The symbol for voltage is V or sometimes U (v or u if the voltage is
time varying quantities) and the unit of measure is volt (V) after
Alessandro Volta.
The SI definition is: ”The volt is the potential difference between two
points of a conducting wire carrying a constant current of 1 ampere,
when the power dissipated between these points is equal to 1 watt”.
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Electrical voltage
Electrical voltage and current are manifestation of electrical charge
movement and they can be supposed to be ”active” quantities.
They can carry information in electronic circuits and systems or they
can be supposed to be only expression of supplied and consumed
electrical energy.
Measurement methods and instrumentation as well as measured
parameters differ from a point of view where and why the voltage and
current are measured.
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Measurement of Electrical power & energy
Electrical power and electrical energy are quantities equivalent to
power and energy known from other technical and scientific fields.
e.g., mechanics, physics, chemistry, etc.
The only formal difference is that electrical power and energy is
related to electric circuits and other electrical quantities. For
example, the power P in a circuit with a steady voltage V and current
I and with application of Ohm law can be simply calculated as:
V2
P = V .I = I 2 .R =
R
Electrical power can be also expressed as change of electrical energy E
in a time t:
dE
P(t) =
dt
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Electrical Power & Energy
The unit of measure power is watt (W) after James Watt. According
to above eq.
W = V .A = A2 .Ω = V 2 /Ω
, or according to SI definition ”the watt is the power which in one
second gives rise to energy of 1 joule”:
J N.m Kg .m2
W = = =
s s s3
Electrical energy describes the ability of electricity to perform a work
and the unit of measure is joule (J) after James Prescott Joule.
According to above eq. J is equal to W.s and at measurement of
electrical quantities Ws or its multiplications, e.g. kWh, MWs, etc.,
are formally more often used than J and its multiplications.
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R, L, C, & Z Passive elements
The next electrical quantities: resistance, capacitance and inductance
are ”passive” quantities.
They describe behavior and manifest properties of material and
electrical components at the presence of voltage and current.
Resistance (symbol R) is very important electrical quantity that
indicates how much voltage is necessary to create a certain amount of
current in a component.
The relation among voltage, current and resistance is given by the
Ohm law:
V
I =
R
Resistance is measured in ohms (symbol Ω) after Georg Simon Ohm.
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R, L, C, & Z Passive elements
The SI definition of ohm is: ”the ohm is the electric resistance
between two points of a conductor when a constant potential
difference of 1 volt, applied to these points, produces in the conductor
a current of 1 ampere, the conductor not being the seat of any
electromotive force”.
The capacitance expresses ability to accumulate an electrical energy
in the form of electric field.
Capacitance is the basic required property of capacitor.
The simplest capacitor consists of two isolated conductive plates.
The general relation among current, voltage and capacitance C is
given by:
dv
i(t) = c
dt
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R, L, C, & Z Passive elements
The unit of measure capacitance is farad (symbol F) after Michael
Faraday.
The SI definition is:”the farad is the capacitance of a capacitor
between the plates of which there appears a potential difference of 1
volt when it is charged by a quantity of electricity of 1 coulomb”.
The inductance is ability to accumulate electrical energy in the form
of magnetic field.
Inductance is fundamental property of inductor.
The simplest inductor is a coiled wire optionally equipped with a core.
The general relation among current, voltage and inductance L is given
by:
di
v (t) = L
dt
The unit of measure inductance is henry (symbol H) after Joseph
Henry.
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R, L, C, & Z Passive elements
The SI definition is: ”the henry is the inductance of a closed circuit in
which an electromotive force of 1 volt is produced when the electric
current in the circuit varies uniformly at the rate of 1 ampere per
second”.
Capacitance, inductance, and resistance are electrical quantities that
characterize ideal simple electronic circuit, component, and the
materials used to make components and determine relation between
ac voltage and current.
To express relation between ac voltage and current (sine waves of a
frequency) in complex electronic component that contains in its
structure a combination of capacitance, inductance, and resistance
the complex quantity ”impedance” is used.
The unit of measure impedance is ohm the same as for resistance.
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R, L, C, & Z Passive elements
Mathematically the impedance is expressed by complex number
R + jX or in the polar form as a magnitude and phase angle: |Z |<θ.
It describes the coordinates of impedance vector in complex plane; an
impedance vector consists of a real part (resistance, R) and an
imaginary part (reactance, X) as shown in figure below.
Figure: Expressions of complex impedance Z
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R, L, C, & Z Passive elements
In some cases, using the reciprocal of impedance is mathematically
expedient.
1/Z = 1/(R + jX ) = Y = G + jB
where Y represents admittance, G conductance, and B susceptance.
The unit of admittance is the siemens (S).
Impedance is a commonly used parameter and is especially useful for
representing a series connection of resistance and reactance, because
it can be expressed simply as a sum, R and X. For a parallel
connection, it is better to use admittance.
Impedance and admittance are frequency dependent electrical
quantities.
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R, L, C, & Z measuring instruments
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Resistance can be simply measured by multimeters.
Because of dc test signal the measured resistance is also called dc
resistance.
The alternative method for dc resistance measurement is bridge
method.
The word bridge was originally used for a null indicator (NI) bridging
the two points of balancing arms.
The main advantages of the bridges are high accuracy, low costs,
dependence of results only on passive reference components and
independence of results on test signal source quality and nonlinearity
of null indicator.
The disadvantage of resistive bridges is need of manual balancing
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R, L, C, & Z measuring instruments
Figure: Principal resistance bridge with null indicator (NL)
When the bridge is balanced the voltage VDB will be zero
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R, L, C, & Z measuring instruments
We can measure capacitance or inductance individually by simple
technique at low frequencies using multimeter ignoring complex
structure and behavior of real electronic component.
Real-world devices have parasitic - unwanted inductance in resistors,
unwanted resistance in capacitors, unwanted capacitance in inductors,
etc.
Different materials and manufacturing technologies produce varying
amounts of parasitics.
In real electric circuit especially on higher frequencies these parasitic
quantities cannot be simply separated from the complex properties of
an electronic element.
Therefore the complex impedance is measured instead of simple
capacitance, inductance, or resistance.
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R, L, C, & Z measuring instruments
Impedance varies depending on the operating conditions of the
components such as test signal frequency and level, temperature, dc
bias, etc.
Moreover measured value differs from real value by an error. The
error reflects the instruments inherent residuals and inaccuracies.
Traditional impedance test methods are based on bridges.
A variety of bridges have been implemented depending on the
applications.
The main disadvantages are the need to be manually balanced and
narrow frequency coverage with a single instrument.
More over balancing is step by step process requiring iterative
balancing manipulation of real and imaginary parts compensation
components
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R, L, C, & Z measuring instruments
KELVIN BRIDGE
The Kelvin double bridge is one of the best devices available for the
precise measurement of low resistances.
It is the modification of wheatstone bridge by which the errors due to
contact resistance and lead resistances are eliminated.
This bridge is named double bridge because it contains a second set
of ratio arms.
An interesting variation of the Wheatstone bridge is the Kelvin
Double bridge, used for measuring very low resistances (typically less
than 1/10 of an ohm)
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R, L, C, & Z measuring instruments
The r is the resistance of the contacts that connect the unknown
resistance R to the standard resistance S.
The m and n show the range between which the galvanometer is
connected for obtaining a null point.
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R, L, C, & Z measuring instruments
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R, L, C, & Z measuring instruments
Kelvin Double Bridge
The ratio of the arms p and q are used to connect the galvanometer
at the right place between the point j and k.
The j and k reduce the effect of connecting lead. The P and Q is the
first ratio of the arm and p and q is the second arm ratio.
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R, L, C, & Z measuring instruments
Schering Bridge
Figure: Example of impedance bridge principal Schering bridge.
C1 = capacitance is to be determined, r1 = a series resistance,
representing the loss of the capacitor C1, C2 = a standard capacitor, R3 =
a non-inductive resistance, C4 = a variable capacitor, R4 = a variable
non-inductive resistance
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R, L, C, & Z measuring instruments
When the bridge is in the balanced condition, zero current passes
through the detector. Z1 /Z2 = Z3 /Z4 => Z1 Z4 = Z2 Z3
Nowadays auto-balancing bridge is probably the most often used
method.
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R, L, C, & Z measuring instruments
A single instrument can cover wide frequency range from tens Hz up
to hundreds MHz as well as wide range of measured impedances.
The process of measurement is fully automated with digital readout
not only in the form of complex impedance but result may be also
recalculated to various equivalent circuits.
Figure: Principal block diagram of auto-balancing bridge
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R, L, C, & Z measuring instruments
Maxwells Bridge
The bridge used for the measurement of self-inductance of the circuit
is known as the Maxwell bridge.
It is the advanced form of the Wheatstone bridge.
The Maxwell bridge works on the principle of the comparison, i.e., the
value of unknown inductance is determined by comparing it with the
known value or standard value.
Two methods are used for determining the self-inductance of the
circuit. They are
1. Maxwells Inductance Bridge
2. Maxwells inductance Capacitance Bridge
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R, L, C, & Z measuring instruments
Maxwells Bridge
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R, L, C, & Z measuring instruments
Individual Assignment # 1: Max. Mark 15%
Explain the working principle, derive the formula and discuss the
advantage/disadvantage of the below listed bridge measuring circuits (
With hand writing document )
AC & DC Bridge
Wheatstone Bridge
Keliven bridge/Kelvin double Bridge
Schering Bridge
Maxwells Bridge
Hays Bridge
Andersons Bridge
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Time and frequency domain representation
Measured electrical quantities, particularly voltage and current as well
as multiplication equals to power can vary in time.
To describe the time behaviour of electrical quantities and to define
measured parameters and characteristics of the quantities the signal
theory is applied.
Time domain
Time behaviour of electrical quantities affects methods and
determines instrumentations convenient for the measurement.
The simplest circumstance is when voltage and current are steady in
time.
Label dc (Direct Current) is usually used for such quantities and
capital letters are used for symbols, e.g., Vdc.
If the quantities vary in time, the label ac (Alternating Current) is
usually used e.g., Vac.
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Electrical Quantity in time & frequency domain
Measured electrical quantities, particularly voltage and current as well
as multiplication equals to power can vary in time.
To describe the time behavior of electrical quantities and to define
measured parameters and characteristics of the quantities the signal
theory is applied.
Figure: Common used parameters of ac quantity
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Electrical Quantity in time & frequency domain
Effective value has been defined as equivalent dc value of the quantity
that produces in the load the same heating effect as the measured ac
quantity.
For periodic signal, e.g., voltage v(t), with period T the effective
value Vrms is:
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Electrical Quantity in time & frequency domain
RMS value of time varying quantity depends not on its amplitude
about also on shape of quantity time variation (waveform).
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Electrical Quantity in time & frequency domain
Frequency domain
Measurement of electrical quantities in frequency domain (spectrum)
is often required to determine some quantity parameters.
The spectrum describes distribution of the quantity to its frequency
components (harmonics) and it can be calculated by applying Fourier
transformation.
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Electrical Quantity in time & frequency domain
Spectrum is usually plotted in two graphs:
Magnitudes of the frequency components versus frequency and phase
shifts versus frequency (phase spectrum).
Magnitude is mathematical term for a object size. e.g., effective
values, peak values, peak-to-peak values, etc.
The magnitude spectrum is usually expressed in decibels (dB).
The dB is logarithmic relative unit derived from ratio of powers and
defined as follows:
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Measurement methods and instrumentations
Voltage, current and resistance measuring instruments
Electrical quantities measuring instruments and methods of
measurement differs according to measurement quantity, required
parameter, its size and frequency range, required uncertainty, etc.
Many measurement methods are very complex.
Therefore only a short overview of basic electrical quantities measured
method and instrumentation is presented in following chapters.
Meters
Voltage, current (both ac and dc), and resistance are the most
common measured electrical quantities.
Meters are the easiest to use instruments for performing these
measurements.
In the simplest case, each measurement type is performed by an
individual instrument a voltmeter measures voltage, ampermeter
measures current and ohmmeter measure resistance.
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Measurement methods and instrumentations
These instruments have many components in common that enable
very effective integration of a few measurements into one instrument
multimeter.
Multimeter is general purpose meter that combines measurement
instruments into simple generalpurpose instrument.
Multimeters often offer also other measuring functions such as
capacitance and inductance measurement, measurement of frequency,
temperature, etc.
Classical instruments very equipped by analogue electromechanical
indicator.
Modern digital multimeters (DMM) convert analogue measurement
quantity to number indicated on a digital display.
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Measurement methods and instrumentations
Figure: Principal block diagram of digital multimeter
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Measurement methods and instrumentations
Capacitance and inductance measurement are usually based on
converting the quantity to the square pulses with mean (dc) voltage
proportional to unknown measured capacitance or inductance.
Measurement of ac quantities requires changing them into a dc
voltage proportional to the measured parameter of ac quantities.
This required parameter is usually effective value (RMS).
The type of ac voltage to dc voltage converter employed in a meter is
very critical.
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Measurement methods and instrumentations
Oscilloscopes
The word oscilloscope has evolved to describe any of a variety of
electronic instruments used to observe, measure, or record time
varying physical quantities and present the results in graphic form.
The most typical application of oscilloscope is producing a two
dimensional graphs with voltage presented at the input terminal
plotted on the vertical axis and time plotted on horizontal axis.
The measured voltage can be also something else than only a voltage
directly scanned in an electrical circuit.
The classical oscilloscope in analogue form, characterised by the use
of a special tube (CRT) as a direct display device, is rather obsolete
at the present. The modern digital oscilloscopes based on sampling,
digitising, memorising, and digital processing of measured signals are
more powerful,handy, and offers much wide variety of functions for
user.
Computer colour screen and soft buttons simplified meaningfully the
analysis of measured signals and control of the scope.
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Measurement methods and instrumentations
Figure: Principal block diagram of conventional digital oscilloscope (DSO) with
optional extension for capturing signals on digital lines (MSO).
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Electrical power and energy measuring instruments
Power meter called also watt meter may be used to measure the
electrical power.
Many factors influence the selection of a power measurement
technique such as frequency range, power level, the spectral content
of the signal, and the required accuracy.
No single instrument satisfies all these requirements, and a wide
variety of power meters and measurement methods are used by
engineers.
Transition power meters
Transition power meter is to be connected between a source and a
load.
For low frequency application the meter contains voltage and current
sensing elements.
Outputs of sensing elements are processed (digitally in modern
instrumentation) to produce the power measurement.
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Electrical power and energy measuring instruments
The simplest variant is measurement of dc power when instead of
sensing elements a dc voltmeter and ampermeter may be used and dc
power is then calculated according equation.
Transition power meters play very important role in producing,
distribution, and consuming electrical energy.
The voltage and the current vary in a low frequency sinusoidal
manner and the voltage and current sine waves may have a phase
shift (time shift).
Three-phase power refers to three voltages that are offset from each
other by 120 or one third of a cycle.
These voltages and currents are usually carried on 3 wires.
Three phase power is the standard throughout the world because it
uses fewer and smaller conductors than multiple single phase systems
to provide the same power.
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Electrical power and energy measuring instruments
The maximum amount of work can be accomplished when the voltage
and current are exactly in phase (zero phase shift).
The more out of phase the voltage and current are, the less useful
work can be accomplished.
The degree to which the voltage and current are in phase is expressed
by the power factor that cosine of phase shift between voltage and
current.
Apparent power is a power calculated simply by multiplication of rms
voltage and current in ac power system.
But the apparent power is not real active power that can perform a
work. The active power can be calculated from equation;
Pa = Vrms ∗ Irms ∗ Cosφ
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Electrical power and energy measuring instruments
where φ is the phase shift between the voltage and current sine
waves. Nonworking power is the reactive power:
Pr = Vrms ∗ Irms ∗ Sinφ
To measure active and reactive power the meter has to be phase
sensitive or a phase metering component must be integrated in power
meter.
Nowadays the measurement of power in power distribution systems is
bound with power quality measurement.
Power quality measurement covers not only measurement of power
factor but also various distortion, and imperfection in voltage and
current sine wave such as harmonic distortion, short and long
interruptions, dips and swells, flickers, transients surges, etc.
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Electrical power and energy measuring instruments
Absorption power meters
Absorption type of power meter generally comprises artificial load
with power sensor and power meter.
The load is connected instead of operating load.
Dissipated power in the load is sensed by the sensor that produce dc
or low frequency signal proportional to average power applied in the
load.
Power meter processes the sensor signal (amplifies and digitizes the
signal) and produces readout of the power level.
Figure: Principal block diagram of absorption power meter
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Electrical power and energy measuring instruments
This technique is typical for high frequency power measurements up
to tens GHz.
Because of load and sensor various imperfections the calibration of
absorption power meter is required before each new measurement to
ensure accurate results.
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Instrument transformers
Instrument transformers are used in connection with measurement of
voltage, current, energy and power in ac circuits.
There are principally two reasons for use of instrument transformers in
measurement: first, to extend (multiply) the range of the measuring
instrument and second, to isolate the measuring instrument from a
high-voltage line.
There are two types of Instrument transformers;
(a) current transformer or CT
(b) voltage or potential transformers or PT.
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CURRENT TRANSFORMERS (CT)
The primary winding of a current transformer is connected in series
with the line carrying the main current.
The secondary winding of the CT, where the current is many times
stepped down, is directly connected across an ammeter, for
measurement of current; or across the current coil of a wattmeter, for
measurement of power.
Figure: CT for (a) current, and (b) power measurement
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POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS (PT)
Measurement of voltage, power, etc., of high voltage lines requires
the high level of voltage being stepped down before being applied to
the measuring instrument. This is essential from the point of view of
safety of operating personnel, reduction in size of instrument and
saving in insulation cost.
Figure: Use of PT for high voltage measurement 52 / 53
The End!
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