Shoutout to Valen Amarasingham and Ruth Khan

Table of Contents:
1: Foundations - History
2: Foundations - Methods and Approaches
3: Biological Bases - The Brain and Nervous System
4: Biological Bases - Consciousness
5: Sensation and Perception
6: Learning
7: Cognitive Psychology
8: Cognitive Psychology - Intelligence
9: Developmental Psychology
10: Motivation and Emotion
11: Personality
12: Clinical Psychology - Disorders
13: Clinical Psychology - Treatment
14: Social Psychology

1: Foundations - History

History:
psychology
behavior
mind and brain
René Descartes and dualism
John Locke and empiricism
tabula rasa
Thomas Hobbes and materialism
Charles Darwin and evolutionary theory
natural selection
Wilhelm Wundt and structuralism
Edward Titchener and introspection
William James and functionalism
Dorothea Dix
Mary Whiton Calkins
Margaret Floy Washburn
G. Stanley Hall

Approaches:
biological psychology
behavioral genetics
Behaviorism
John Watson and classical conditioning
B.E. Skinner and operant conditioning
behavior modification
cognitive psychology
humanistic approach
Abraham Maslow and self actualization
Carl Rogers and unconditional positive regard
psychodynamic/psychoanalytic
approach
Sigmund Freud and psychoanalysis theory
conscious mind vs. unconscious mind
repressed
sociocultural approach
evolutionary approach
biopsychosocial approach

Domains:
biological
social
clinical
cognitive
counseling
developmental
educational
experimental
industrial-organizational
personality
psychometric
Positive

2: Foundations - Methods and Approaches

Esperimental, Correlational, and Clinical Research:
experiment
independent variable
dependent variable
control variables
population
representative sample
representativeness
experimental group
control group
random sampling
randomly assigned
Biases
bias of selection
self-selection bias
pre-screening/advertising bias
healthy user bias
single-/double-blind design
placebo
correlational research
confounding/third/extraneous variable
surveys
longitudinal studies
cross-sectional studies
clinical research
case studies
generalizable
conceptual definition
operational definition
internal validity
external validity
reliability
inter-rater reliability
naturalistic observation

Statistics:
descriptive statistics
inferential statistics
central tendency
mean
mode
bimodal
median
normal curve
range variability
standard deviation
percentile
positive skew
negative skew
correlation coefficient
Pearson correlation coefficient
positive correlation
negative correlation
sample size
null hypothesis
alternative hypothesis
alpha
Type I error
Type II error
P-value

Ethics in Research:
deception
Stanley Milgram
confederates
Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)
informed consent
debriefing
Confidentiality

3: Biological Bases - The Brain and Nervous System

physiological psychology

Imaging Techniques:
EEG (electroencephalogram)
CAT scans (computerized axial tomography scans)
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
Functional MRI (fMRI)
PET scans (positron emission tomography)

Functional Organization of the Nervous System:

nervous system
central nervous system (CNS)
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
neurons
afferent
efferent
reflexes
somatic nervous system
autonomic nervous system
sympathetic nervous system
fight-or-flight reaction
parasympathetic nervous system

Neuroanatomy:
hindbrain
cerebellum
medulla oblongata
reticular activating system (RAS)
pons
midbrain
tectum
tegmentum
forebrain
limbic system
thalamus
hippocampus
anterograde amnesia
amygdala
hypothalamus
lateral hypothalamus
ventromedial hypothalamus
cerebral cortex
sensory cortex
motor cortex
left and right cerebral hemispheres
corpus callosum
Paul Broca
Broca's area and expressive aphasia
Carl Wernicke
Wernicke's area and receptive aphasia
Roger Sperry
split-brain patients
contralateral processing
association areas
apraxia
agnosia
alexia
agraphia
frontal lobe
parietal lobe
temporal lobe
occipital lobe
optic chiasm

Neural Transmission:
nerves
neurons
soma
dendrites
axon
myelin sheath
nodes of Ranvier
terminal buttons
Synapse
neurotransmitters
resting membrane potential
leak channels
nerve impulse (action potential)
excitatory
inhibitory
enzymes
reuptake
acetylcholine
serotonin
dopamine
GABA
glutamate
norepinephrine
endorphins
neuroplasticity
Michael Gazzaniga

Endocrine System:
hormones
pituitary gland
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
adrenal glands
epinephrine
norepinephrine
thyroid gland
Thyroxine

Heredity and Environment - Behavioral Genetics:

traits
dominant trait
recessive trait
genotype
phenotype
heritability
environmentality
nature versus nurture debate
Down Syndrome
Huntington's chorea

4: Biological Bases - Consciousness

Consciousness:
state of consciousness - allows an individual to examine their environment and
filter information all while being aware of this process
Alertness - being in a state of arousal
Arousal - state that allows the ability to remain attentive to an environment
altered state of consciousness - not alert, usually due to drugs, alcohol or
injuries
William James and stream of consciousness - the thoughts that flow through an
individual's mind, taking into account senses and memory
Robert Sternberg and mental reality - reality we create in order to adapt to the
world
Unconscious level - level of consciousness that deals with automatic processes
such as breathing and heartbeats
preconscious level - contains information that is available to the conscious mind,
but not always in conscious awareness. It can be retrieved when needed. Includes
automatic behaviors or directions to a place.
controlled processing - Where we are very aware of what we are doing
automatic processing - tasks are performed mechanically, such as brushing teeth

Sleep and Dreaming:

sleep - altered state of consciousness that is essential for recovery and growth
melatonin - neurochemical that plays a role in stimulating sleep
hallucinations - images created by the mind caused by three consecutive sleep
cycles missed
delusions - unrealistic beliefs also caused by three missed consecutive sleep
cycles
circadian rhythm - day to night pattern that controls sleep as well as body
temperature, arousal and metabolic processes
pineal gland - gland in the brain responsible for melatonin production, stimulated
by light
electroencephalograms (EEGs) - device that provides pictures of electrical
activity in the brain
beta wave - produced when the brain is awake and focused
alpha waves - produced when one is relaxed but still awake
theta wave - produced during light sleep
sleep spindles - appear during stage 2 of sleep, tall, thin spikes
K complexes - large slow waves that break up sleep spindles
delta waves - occur during stage 4 of sleep, similar to k-complexes
rapid eye movement (REM) (paradoxical sleep) - sleep outside of the other four
stages, characterized by rapid eye movement and dreaming
Eugene Aserinsky - did work with Nathaniel Kleitman on REM sleep
Nathaniel Kleitman - ^^^
William Dement - Studied effects of the deprivation of REM sleep
REM rebound - higher amounts of REM sleep after a period of REM deprivation
manifest content - storyline of the dream, offers insight into important symbols
Latent content - emotional significance and overall importance of the dream
activation-synthesis hypothesis of dreaming - dreams are the products of our
awareness of neural activity during sleep, especially from the senses
problem-solving theory of dreaming - dreams are ways for the brain to sort out
problems
nightmare - elaborate dream sequence that produces anxiety or fear from the
dreamer
dyssomnias - abnormalities in the amount, quality or duration of sleep
insomnia - most common sleep disorder, simply inability to fall asleep or
maintain sleep
Narcolepsy - inability to stay awake, individuals may fall asleep
unexpectedly for a few minutes, and is mostly REM sleep
sleep apnea - a person repeatedly stops breathing during sleep and this
causes them to wake up
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) - linked to sleep apnea, infants suddenly
die when they fall asleep on their stomachs
parasomnias - abnormalities of movement during sleep
somnambulism - sleepwalking, caused by absence of sleep paralysis during
REM stages
night terrors - when an individual wakes up during deep sleep or transition
stages

Hypnosis:
neodissociative theory - theory about hypnosis
Hilgard's theory of the hidden observer - hypnosis somehow divides the mind,
so that one part of the brain observes everything that happens, while the other
part is exposed to suggestion
posthypnotic suggestion - suggestions given in people under hypnosis to be
implemented upon awakening

Psychoactive Drug Effects:

drugs
Alcohol - CNS depressant, decreases dopamine, causes dizziness, impaired
speech and judgment
barbiturates - CNS depressant, inhibit neural arousal centers, decreases
anxiety, increases relaxation, very addictive, very dangerous when mixed with
alcohol
tranquilizers - CNS depressant, ex: Xan’, inhibit neural arousal centers,
reduce anxiety without inducing sleep
caffeine - CNS stimulant, accelerates heart rate, constricts blood vessels,
reduces adenosine, can cause irritability, anxiety and insomnia
 amphetamines - CNS stimulate, increases body temp and heart rate,
increases dopamine and norepinephrine, causes addiction and euphoria
cocaine - CNS stimulant, stimulates heart rate and blood pressure,
increases dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, highly addictive
nicotine - CNS stimulant, stimulates acetylcholine transition and heart rate,
euphoria, dizziness, and depressant behavioral effects
narcotics - CNS depressant, activates receptors for endogenous endorphins,
can reduce pain, cause euphoria and relaxation, highly addictive, sweating and
nausea
Hallucinogens - Distorts CNS sensory perception, increase serotonin,
sensory synesthesia in which stimuli from one sense affect other senses, can be
unpleasant
effects
Dependence - when an individual must take a drug to avoid withdrawal
effects
tolerance - increasingly larger doses are required to receive the same effect
Withdrawal - the processes of weaning off a drug, usually causes physical
or psychological symptoms that are highly unpleasant

5: Sensation and Perception

Introduction to Sensation and Perception:

sensation
Perception

Thresholds:
psychophysics
absolute threshold
Gustav Fechner
detection thresholds
signal detection theory (SDT)
hit
miss
false alarm
correct rejection
discrimination threshold
just noticeable difference (JND) (difference threshold)
Ernst Weber
Weber's law
subliminal perception
priming
tip-of-the-otngue phenomenon

Receptor Processes:
receptor cells
receptive field
transduction
contralateral shift

Sensory Mechanism:
sensory coding
qualitative dimension
quantitative dimension
single-cell recording
visual sensation
distal stimulus
proximal stimulus cornea lens
accommodations
retina
rods
cones
fovea
bipolar cells
amacrine cells
optic nerves
blind spot
optic chiasm
serial processing
parallel processing
feature detector
convergence
David Hubel
Torsten Wiesel
critical period
Young-Helmholtz theory (trichromatic theory)
opponent process theory
afterimage
color blindness
dichromats
monochromats
auditory input
tympanic membrane
ossicles
malleus
incus
stapes
cochlea
vestibular sacs
place theory
frequency theory
deafness
conductive deafness
sensorineural deafness
olfaction
gustation
cutaneous
receptors
tactile receptors
cold fibers
warm fibers
vestibular sense
kinesthesis synesthesia

Sensory Adaptation:
Adaptation
habituation
Dishabituation

Attention:
selective attention
shadowing
cocktail party phenomenon
filter theories
attentional resource theories
divided attention
inattentional blindness

Perceptual Processes:
bottom-up processing
top-down processing
visual perception
monocular depth cues
relative size
texture gradient
interposition
linear perspective
vanishing point
aerial perspective
relative clarity
motion parallax
binocular depth cues
stereopsis
retinal convergence
binocular disparity
Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk
visual cliff
Gestalt approach
top-down theory
proximity
Similarity
symmetry
continuity
closure
Law of Prägnanz
feature detector approach
constancy
motion detection
apparent motion
phi phenomenon
stroboscopic effect
autokinetic effect

6: Learning

Learning

Nonassociative Learning:
sensitization
desensitization
desensitization therapy
systematic desensitization

Classical Conditioning:
classical conditioning (Pavlovian conditioning)
Ivan Pavlov conditioned stimulus (CS)
unconditioned stimulus (US)
unconditioned response (UR)
conditioned response (CR)
forward conditioning
delay conditioning
trace conditioning
generalization
spontaneous recovery
second-order conditioning
contiguity approach
contingency approach

Operant Conditioning:
operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning)
B.F. Skinner
Edward L. Thorndike
shaping (differential reinforcement of successive approximations)
natural reinforcement
primary reinforcement
secondary reinforcement
positive reinforcement
negative reinforcement
omission training
schedule of reinforcement
continuous reinforcement
schedule partial (intermittent) reinforcement
schedule fixed-ratio schedule
variable-ratio schedule
fixed-interval schedule
variable-interval schedule
punishment
escape
avoidance
behavior modification
token economy
learned helplessness

Biological Factors:
Donald Hebb
Eric Kandel
neuromodulators
long-term potentiation

Social Learning:
social learning (observational learning/vicarious learning)
Albert Bandura
confederate
Bobo Doll Experiment
modeling
social and emotional learning

Cognitive Processes in Learning:

cognitive
conditioned taste aversion (CA) (Garcia effect)
stimulus generalization
Edward Tolman
cognitive map
latent learning
biofeedback
insight learning

7: Cognitive Psychology

Memory:
modal model - memory is divided into separate storage areas
sensory memory - gateway between perception and memory, storage is quite
limited, constantly being replaced, only a few items entering short term memory
short-term memory - holds information for a few seconds up to a minute,
primarily acoustically coded, holds about 7 items, +-2
long-term memory - repository of all lasting memories and knowledge, organized
as a massive network of interrelated information. Capable lifetime retention
iconic - visual memory, lasts a few tenths of a second
echoic - auditory memory, lasts three or four seconds
visual persistence - the speed of input causes sensory information to run
together
George Sperling - experimented with memory and partial report
partial report - ability to partially recall information from iconic memory
short-term visual memory (iconic memory) - visual memory that decays very
quickly
George Miller - discovered that information in STM is primarily acoustically coded
maintenance rehearsal - simple repetition to keep an item in STM
elaborative rehearsal - organization and understanding of information to transfer
it to LTM
effortful processing - a conscious effort to retain information
automatic processing - unconscious engagement with practical skills (bike riding)
mnemonic device - methods of organizing information to remember them
dual-coding hypothesis - it is easier to remember words with images than either
alone
method of loci - imagine moving through a familiar place and leaving a visual
representation of the item to be remembered at various locations
self-reference effect - we have excellent recall for information that we can
personally relate to
Encoded - items are stored and able to be retrieved later
Decay - items are forgotten or exit short term memory through the passage of
time
interference - alteration of memories by displacement of new information
retroactive interference - new information replaces old information
proactive interference - old information makes it hard to learn new information
primacy effect - tendency to remember the last few items of a set
recency effect - the tendency to remember the first few items of a set
serial position effect - the combination of primacy and recency effects
chunking - method of memory involving grouping information into units
semantically encoded - encoded in the form of word meanings
visually encoded - stored as images
acoustically encoded - stored as sounds
episodic memory - memory of events we have experienced
semantic memory - memory of facts, figures and general knowledge
procedural memory - skills and habits
declarative (explicit) memory - memory a person can consciously consider and
retrieve
nondeclarative (implicit) memory - information beyond conscious consideration,
including priming, procedural memory, and classical conditioning
context-dependent memory - information more likely to be recalled in a situation
similar to the one in which it was encoded
state-dependent memory - information memorized while in a specific state of
mind will be remembered more easily while under that same state of
consciousness
working memory - theoretical type of memory between sensory registry and short
term memory that can last up to 30 seconds. Can be manipulated in a way that
echoic memory cannot. Many psychologists believe that working memory is just a
part of STM
spreading activation - the search for a neuron starts from just one and pathways
that are stronger carry the signal in the direction we are trying to go, until the
target is reached. Explains why hints are helpful
flashbulb memory - a deep, vivid memory in the form of a visual image
associated with a particularly emotionally arousing event
reconstruction - the process of fitting together likely information to reform an
event
Source confusion - attributing memory to a different source than it actually came
from
Elizabeth Loftus - states that repeated suggestion can create false memories
Framing - the process by which false memories can be implanted
Hermann Ebbinghaus - studies the phenomenon of forgetting

Language:
phonemes - smallest units of speech sound in a given language
morphemes - smallest meaningful parts of a given language
grammar - the set of rules by which a language is constructed
Syntax - the set of rules to arrange morphemes into meaningful sentences
Semantics - word meaning or word choice
prosody - rhythm, stress or intonation of speech
Holophrases - infancy, single words used to convey demands and desires
Overextension - generalization of a word to a group it does not represent, ex: an
infant may call any woman “mama”
underextension - making a word too specific, ex: an infant may think that their
“mama” is the only “mama”
telegraphic speech - 1-2 years, two or three word groups that lack many parts of
speech
Overgeneralization - 3, when the rules of grammar are overextended ex: “I goed to
the store”
Noam Chomsky - system for organizing language based on transformational
grammar
transformational grammar - differentiates between surface structure and deep
structure
surface structure of language - superficial way in which words are arranged in
text or speech
deep structure of language - underlying meaning of words
language acquisition device - innate instinct that allows children to learn
languages
critical period - a period in which a child must learn a language before they no
longer can
B.F. Skinner - adds onto Chomsky’s theory by stating that a language-rich
environment supports a child’s reception to languages
Benjamin Lee Whorf - worked with Edward Sapir to create theory of linguistic
relativity
Edward Sapir - ^^^
theory of linguistic relativity - speakers of different languages develop different
cognitive systems as a result of differences in language

Concepts:
concept - way of grouping or classifying the world around us ex: the concept of
houses
typicality - the degree to which an object fits the average
prototype - the first thing an individual thinks of when presented with a concept
superordinate concept - very broad concept that encompasses a large group of
items, such as the concept of food
basic concept - smaller and more specific concept, such as bread
subordinate concept - even more specific concept, such as sourdough

Cognition:
Cognition - mental processes involving acquiring, organizing, remembering, using
and constructing knowledge
Reasoning - The drawing of conclusions from evidence
deductive reasoning - the process of drawing conclusions from general
statements
Syllogisms - deductive conclusions drawn from two pieces of information
inductive reasoning - drawing general inferences from specific observations
Problem-Solving and Creativity:
divergent thinking - problem solving process used when there are multiple
solutions, ex: brainstorming
convergent thinking - problem solving processes used when there is only one
answer, ex: what is the square footage of this room?
Heuristics - mental shortcuts formed from experience that may lead to incorrect
ideas
availability heuristic - conclusions are based on how readily conclusions
come to mind
representativeness heuristic - conclusions are drawn from how closely
something matches the prototype of that object of event
algorithms - systematic, mechanical approaches that guarantee an eventual
solution
Insight - the sudden understanding of a problem or a potential strategy. Research
shows that insight occurs easier with physical or mental separation from the
problem
Wolfgang Köhler - researcher who experimented with insight learning in chimps
mental set - fixed frame of mind used when approaching a problem
functional fixedness - the tendency to assume that an object can only be
used for one purpose, or the purpose it was created for
confirmation bias - the search for information that supports a specific view
hindsight bias - the belief that one knew what the outcome would be
belief perseverance - a person sees only the evidence that supports a specific
belief
Framing - the way a question is phrased can alter the objectivity of decision
making
Creativity - the process of producing something novel, but worthwhile

8: Cognitive Psychology - Intelligence

Standardization and Norms:

standardization sample
norms
Flynn effect

Reliability and Validity:

reliability
test-retest method
split-half reliability
equivalent-form reliability
validity
internal validity
external validity

Types of Tests:
projective tests
inventory-type tests
Rorschach Inkblot Test
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
power tests
speed tests
achievement tests
aptitude tests

Intelligence:
Francis Galton
speed of processing
Alfred Binet
Lewis Terman
Stanford-Binet Test
intelligence quotient (1Q)
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
abstract and verbal measures
Charles Spearman
g factor
factor analysis
Robert Sternberg
analytical intelligence
practical intelligence
creative intelligence
Louis Thurstone
Howard Gardner
verbal intelligence
mathematical intelligence
musical intelligence
spatial intelligence
kinesthetic intelligence
environmental intelligence
interpersonal intelligence
intrapersonal intelligence
Daniel Goleman
emotional intelligence
fluid intelligence
crystallized intelligence
heritability coefficient
Human Diversity
savant syndrome
Ethics in Testing
psychometrics
stereotype threat

9: Developmental Psychology

Life-Span Approach:
Developmental psychology - Psychology that focuses on the changes in a
person’s abilities and behaviors as they age. Development is in the realms of
physical, cognitive and social.
life-span psychologists - Study development across the lifespan
child psychologists - Study development in the beginning of the lifespan
Erik Erikson - First life-span psychologist
normative development - Psychologists try to define the universal development
of humans, usually through use of generalizable stages (different from
cross-sectional method - Method of studying development that tests subjects of
different age groups on tasks to see how well they perform
longitudinal method - Studies a group of subjects across their entire lives,
assessing them at set intervals. More expensive and difficult, but rules out some
confounding variables

Developmental Issues:
nature-nurture debate - how much development is influenced by environment or
biological factors
maturationists - believe that genetic factors cause development and
preprogrammed physiological development of the brain allows for complex
reasoning
maturation - biological readiness, what maturationists believe in
environmentalists - believe that environmental factors cause an individual to
develop the way it does. Extreme form is Locke’s Tabula Rasa theory
continuous - Gradual development that occurs slowly over time - especially with
skill building
discontinuous - Leaps and bounds that cause developpement, stages
critical period - Time in which a skill or ability must develop, lost otherwise
culture - A particular society and the ideas in which it adheres to
collectivist culture - culture in which needs of society are placed before individual
individualist cultures - cultures in which personal needs are promoted over
societal needs.

Developmental Theories:
Stages - patterns of behavior that occur in a fixed sequence. The edges of stages
may blur
physical development - starts at conception
zygote - A fertilized egg. goes through three stages
germinal stage - zygote undergoes cell divisions and grows to 64 cells, about two
weeks
embryonic stage - organ formation, lasts until beginning of third month
fetal stage - Sexual differentiation begins and movement develops. Growth is
rapid
Teratogens - various harmful environmental agents
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) - fetuses exposed to alcohol may receive physical
abnormalities and cognitive deficiencies.
rudimentary movements - The first voluntary movements performed by a child,
including rolling, sitting, crawling, standing and walking. Birth to 2
fundamental movement - Occurs from 2 - 7. Child learns how to run, jump, throw
and catch
specialized movement - Child learns how to combine fundamental movements
to complete tasks
transitional substage - combination of movement occurs (throwing a
basketball)
application substage - Conscious decisions to apply these skills to
activities, developing skills in certain areas
environmental interaction - development of the brain is dependent on the
individual’s interaction with the environment, such as walking or crawling
cognitive development - development of learning, reasoning, problem solving and
related skills
Jean Piaget - creator of influential stage theory in child development based on
equilibration
equilibration - child’s attempt to balance what the child encounters and what the
child brings to the situation
assimilation - attempt to reach equilibration through assimilation of new
information into existing schemas
schema - mental representation model
accommodation - changing a schema to fit new information
sensorimotor stage - first two years of life. Repeated behaviors by which infants
manipulate their environment. Reflexive reactions and circular reactions. Child
does not have access to mental schemas. Development of goal-oriented behavior.
object permanence - infant’s believe that objects and people exist even
when they cant see them.
preoperational stage - 2-7, language development occurs as well as symbolic
thinking
symbolic thinking - use of words to represent objects
egocentrism - seeing the world in terms of how it relates to you - opposite
of theory of mind, which begins developing around age 4
artificialism - believing that all things are man-made
Animism - believing that all things are living
concrete operational stage - 7-11, mental operation and reverse cognition.
reversibility - reverse thinking to arrive back at a starting point, believe that
actions can be undone
Conservation - the amount of a substance has not changed even though
the arrangement/shape has
formal operational stage - 12, understanding of abstractions and symbiotic
relationships, hypothetical reasoning.
Metacognition - ability to recognize one’s cognitive processes and adapt
the, if they are unsuccessful
Lev Vygotsky - created theory of development by internalization
Internalization - absorption of knowledge from environment and social contexts
zone of proximal development - range between developed level of the child and
the potential level of development a child is capable of. Traversed by scaffolding
actual development level - the child's current capabilities
potential development level - child’s potential capabilities
wisdom - insight into life that results in good judgment about difficult problems
fluid intelligence - ability to think in terms of abstract concepts and symbolic
relationships
crystallized intelligence - specific knowledge of facts and information
social development - ability to interact with others. Explored in Erikson’s
psychosocial theories
psychosocial development - 8 stages that occur at different parts of life from
birth to death:
Trust vs. mistrust - first year of life, decide if world is friendly or hostile
Autonomy vs shame and doubt - 1-3, mastery of bodily functions and self
Initiative vs guilt - 3-6, learn to assert themselves socially, without
overstepping
Industry vs inferiority - 6-12, sense of competence in their work
Identity vs role confusion - develop fidelity and personal values
Intimacy vs isolation - learning how to love, could result in lack of intimacy
Generativity vs stagnation - individual tries to leave a mark on the world
Integrity vs Despair - old age, wisdom is gained or bitterness and despair
Fidelity - truthfulness to one’s self
generativity - Being productive and contributing to the next generation
stagnation - feelings of isolation and that you did not leave a mark on the world
Temperament - child’s behavior
Konrad Lorenz - says that child attachment behavior is innate.
Harry and Margaret Harlow - infant monkey studies on attachment. Found that
they need comfort and security as much as food
Attachment - tendency to prefer familiar individuals to strangers
John Bowlby - considered the father of attachment theory. Focused on
psychoanalytics
Mary Ainsworth - human infant attachment
strange situation - experiment that allowed her to see four types of
patterns
child attachment patterns:
secure, - child is happy in presence of caretaker, distressed when they
leave, but can be quickly consoled upon their return
avoidant, - child is inhibited in presence of caregiver, pretends to not be
distressed when they leave, but they are in fact quite stressed
ambivalent, - stormy relationship with caregiver, distressed when they leave
and difficult to console upon return
Disorganized - erratic relationship with caregiver and other adults, common
with severe neglect/abuse
Diana Baumrind - identified three types of parenting styles
parenting styles:
 authoritarian, - parents have high expectations and expect children to
comply without debate or explanation. Uses corporal punishment. Children are
socially withdrawn and lack curiosity and decision making ability.
authoritative, - parents expect compliance with rules but encourage
independence.
Permissive - parents have few expectations and consider themselves
friends of the child.
Elizabeth Kubler-Ross - theory of development in terms of death and mortality
moral development - development of values and fidelity
Lawrence Kohlberg - stages of moral development, expanded piaget’s theory
preconventional morality - fear of punishment is motivation for morals, children
work for their own interests
conventional morality - internalizing social rules and standards. Children
understand that the rules set forth by society are important and should be
followed.
postconventional morality - Internal values become equally as important as
societal laws
Carol Gilligan - revised Kohlberg stages in which development of relationships is
central

Sex Roles, Sex Differences:

psychosexual development - development of the awareness of one’s sexuality,
including gender identification
Gender identity - awareness of gender, typically occurs from 2-3
gender typing - 2-7, acquisition of sex-related roles
gender constancy - believe that gender is a fixed, unchangeable characteristic
Androgyny - when children begin to blur the lines between stereotypical gender
roles
Fixations - problems caused from unresolved problems in childhood
Sigmund Freud - main theories on psychoanalysis and psychosexual development
stages of psychosexual development:
oral, - 0-2, pleasure from sucking, fixations include: addictions to gum,
alcohol or cigarettes
anal, - 2-3, toilet training, fixations include: over controlling or under
controlling
phallic, - 3-6, the opposite sex parent is viewed as a potential partner,
fixations include being overly picky about partners that do not resemble parents.
latency, - 6-12, gender identification, association with same gender, fixations
include only associating with same gender as adults
 Genital - 12-death, genital area becomes primary source of pleasure
Albert Bandura -, states that sexual roles could be acquired through observation
Alfred Kinsey - work on attitudes of American adults pertaining to sexuality using
interviews
Kinsey Scale - states that sexuality is not binary and instead a continuum

10: Motivation and Emotion

Biological Bases:
Motivation - the need or desire that serves to energize or direct behavior
evolutionary theory - animals are motivated by critical needs to their survival
primary drives - hunger thirst, sleep and reproduction
secondary drive - learned reinforcers, such as money or social acceptance
Olds and Milner - discovered the connection between brain and motivation,
specifically the limbic system and associated dopamine
instinct theory - species-specific behavior motivates organisms to do what is
necessary to ensure survival. Ex: cats react to small movements to protect
themselves and offspring
arousal theory - the main reason people are motivated to perform a task is to
maintain ideal levels of physiological arousal
Yerkes-Dodson law - tasks of moderate difficulty elicit the highest level of
performance. Also states that high or low levels of arousal are detrimental to easy
tasks, but preferred for hard tasks.
opponent process theory - when pleasure centers are activated, opposing
processes in the brain bring an individual back to baseline. Explains addiction and
tolerance
drive-reduction theory - physiological needs put stress on the body and we are
motivated to reduce this negative feeling and return to homeostasis
homeostasis - state of regulatory equilibrium. When the balance shifts, we are
motivated to return to homeostasis
set point - the point that a certain variable is at homeostasis, such as
temperature being at 98.6° F

Hunger, Thirst, and Sex:

hypothalamus - area of the brain responsible for maintaining homeostasis
ventromedial hypothalamus - responsible for keeping body weight down
lateral hypothalamus - responsible for keeping body weight up
leptin - released in response to buildup of fat cells, tells body to stop eating
blood glucose - the level of glucose in blood, that many believe is what the body
measures to control eating and body weight
glucostatic hypothesis - hypothesis that glucostatic balance is what activates the
hypothalamus
insulin - neurochemical released by pancreas that rises when glucose levels
decrease
lipostatic hypothesis - fat is the measured and controlled substance in our
bodies that regulates hunger.
anorexia nervosa - more common in females, when one is 15% or more below
ideal body weight
body dysmorphia - distorted body image, key to understanding anorexia nervosa
bulimia nervosa - alternating periods of binging and purging
pituitary gland - stimulated by hypothalamus to produce androgens and
estrogens
androgens - male sexual hormones
Estrogens - female sexual hormones

Theories of Motivation:
Instinct - genetically programmed patterns of behavior
Abraham Maslow - proposed hierarchical system for organizing needs, base levels
must be met before those above can be attempted
self-actualization - top tier of M’sHoN, creatively and meaningfully fulfill own
potential
intrinsic factors - motivational factors that come from within oneself, associated
with creativity and enjoyment
extrinsic factors - motivational factors that come outside of oneself, associated
with societal pressures, such as getting an education
overjustification effect - intrinsic motivation may decrease if extrinsic rewards are
provided for completion of the task.
Self-determination - need to feel competent and in control, usually conflicts with
extrinsic factors, and a need for balance provides much decision making capability
self-efficacy - believe that we can or cannot attain a certain goal
achievement motivation- the need to reach realistic goals that we set for
ourselves
Henry Murray - although motivation is rooted in biology, individual differences and
varying environments can cause motivations and needs to be expressed in
different ways
need for affiliation - people tend to avoid conflict, like to be members of groups
and dislike being evaluated
cognitive dissonance - people are motivated to reduce conflicting thoughts, and
will change attitude to fit behavioral pattern
Kurt Lewin - four types of conflict
approach-approach - one must decide between two desirable options,
such as two similar colleges
Avoidance-avoidance - one must choose between two unpleasant
alternatives, such as doing math homework or studying for psychology
approach-avoidance - only one choice is presented, but it has both
positives and negatives, ex: only one college has a major that an individual
wants, but it is extremely expensive
multiple approach-avoidance -

Theories of Emotion:
James-Lange theory - states that the experience of emotion is caused by
physiological arousal to a situation
Cannon-Bard theory - states that the experience of emotion occurs
simultaneously with physiological arousal
Schachter-Singer two-factor theory - the emotion we experience is due to both
the physical responses as well as a label one applies to the emotion
Paul Ekman - discovered that facial expressions caused by emotions were
identical across cultures
facial feedback hypothesis - facial expressions can actually influence the
emotion being experienced

The Role of the Limbic System in Emotion:

flashback - recall of the memory of an experience when faced with similar
circumstances
prefrontal cortex - emotional inhibition and stress relief
autonomic nervous system - controls most organs and glands, and controls
arousal
sympathetic nervous system - provides body with brief, intense reactions (fight or
flight)
parasympathetic nervous system - calms organs after a stressful event,
conserving energy
fight-or-flight response - increase in physiological functions associated with SNS

Stress:
stressors - everyday events that challenge an individual, such as a death of a
loved one or the birth of a child
transient - type of stressor that is only temporary, such as a traffic jam
Chronic - type of stressor that is long lasting, such as job-related stress
Walter Cannon - worked with Hans Selye to create general adaptation syndrome
Hans Selye - ^^^
general adaptation syndrome - three stage model for an organism's response to
stress
alarm - arousal of the SNS
corticosterone - used as physiological index of stress
resistance - result of parasympathetic rebound
Exhaustion - body’s resources are diminished and tissue cannot be repaired
Richard Lazarus - stress is minimized or maximized by an individual’s ability to
respond to it
Type-A pattern - competitiveness, time urgency, and elevated anger and
annoyance
Type-B pattern - easygoing, low stress, relatively low time concerns

11: Personality

Personality Theories and Approaches:

Personality - a person’s style of dealing with others in the world around them
Sigmund Freud - basic beliefs of psychoanalytic
psychoanalytic - the unconscious mind plays a major role in behavior
psychodynamic - psychological approach based on Freudian concepts with more
modern ideas
free association - a therapist actively listens while the patient relaxes and reports
anything that comes to mind
id - the sources of mental energy and drive
pleasure principle - the desire to maximize pleasure while minimizing pain
superego - internal representation of societies rules, morals, and obligations
Ego - part of the mind that allows person to function in the environment and be
logical
reality principle - set of desires that can only be satisfied if the mean to satisfy
them is available
repression - memories or desires are pushed into unconscious
displacement - a defense mechanism that directs anger away from the sources of
anger
reaction formation - ego reverses direction of disturbing desire, ie. person who
hates the poor might experience a strong desire to help the homeless
compensation - making up for failures
rationalization - creating logical excuses
regression - reverting to childish behaviors
denial - refusal to accept unwanted beliefs or actions
Sublimation - channeling feelings into a more acceptable outlet
Karen Horney - pointed out inherent male bias in Freudian psychology
basic anxiety - feeling of being alone
Carl Jung - mind comprises of pairs of opposing forces
persona - the mask the person presents to the outside world
shadow - the deep, passionate inner person
anima animus - a female and male side to our personality
Self -
personal unconscious -
collective unconscious -
Archetypes -
Alfred Adler -
inferiority complex -
humanistic -
Self-actualization -
Abraham Maslow -
Carl Rogers -
self-concept -
Incongruence -
conditions of worth -
unconditional positive regard -
collectivistic cultures -
individualistic cultures -
social-cognitive theories -
Albert Bandura -
self-efficacy -
explanatory styles -
locus of control theory -
Julian Rotter -
internal locus of control -
external locus of control -
Big Five
nomothetic analysis
idiographic analysis
Gordon Allport
cardinal traits
central traits
secondary traits
Raymond Cattell
source traits
surface traits
Walter Mischel
Assessment Techniques
Hans Eysenck
Eysenck Personality Inventory
16 PF (Personality Factor) Questionnaire
MMPI-2-RF

Self-concept, Self-esteem:
self-concept
self-esteem
physical self
active self
social self
psychological self
halo effect
social comparison theory

Temperament:
Mary Rothbart
surgency
negative affect
effortful control
Jerome Kagan

12: Clinical Psychology - Disorders

Definitions of Disorder:
disordered behavior - unusual, maladaptive, labeled as abnormal by society and
characterized by perceptual dysfunction

Theories of Psychopathology:
psychoanalytic school - interactions of unconscious parts of the mind were
responsible for disordered behavior, unconscious motives drive behavior
humanistic school - disordered behavior results from people being too sensitive
to criticism and judgements of others
cognitive perspective - disordered behavior is the result of faulty or illogical
thinking. Distortions in the cognitive process cause misperceptions of the world
behavioral approach - disordered behavior is learned. At some point it was
rewarded or enforced, and now it is an established pattern of behavior
biological view - disordered behavior is the manifestation of abnormal brain
function, supports medical treatment
sociocultural approach - society and culture help define what is normal behavior

Diagnosis of Psychopathology:
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) - manual that
describes how to treat mental disorders on five axis

Neurodevelopmental Disorders:
intellectual disability - delayed development in mental abilities which translate
into impairment of adaptive functioning in aspects of daily life
autism spectrum disorder - individuals have problems noticing social cues and
interacting with others verbally and non-verbally
attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) - interferes with an individual’s
ability to function throughout daily life with hyperactivity and impulsivity
communication disorders - language disorder, speech sound disorder, fluency
disorder
motor disorders - developmental coordination disorder, stereotypic disorder
specific learning disorders -

Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders:

Schizophrenia - disturbances in thought, perception and speech as well as motor
behavior and emotional experience
delusions - beliefs that are not based in reality, such as believing that one can fly
hallucinations - perceptions not based on reality, ex: feeling spiders on one’s skin
disorganized thinking - May switch from one thought to another randomly
disorganized speech - may produce words with no meaning, or sentences with
random words, known as word salad
positive symptoms - symptoms that cause something normal people do not have
negative symptoms - symptoms that removes something that normal people
have

Bipolar and Related Disorders:

bipolar disorders - involve movement between two poles, depressive and manic

Depressive Disorders:
depressive disorders - presence of a sad, empty or irritable mood

Anxiety Disorders:
anxiolytics - anti-anxiety med
panic disorder - recurring panic attacks, and the constant fear of the next one
panic attacks - last only a few minutes, high heart rate, sweating and being
paralyzed with fright
generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) - almost constant state of autonomic
Phobias - persistent irrational fears of common events or objects
Agoraphobia - fear of being in open places or public spaces

Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders:

obsessions - intrusive thoughts
compulsions - repetitive behaviors that one feels compelled to perform relating to
obsessions
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) - persistent maladaptive compulsions or
obsessions that individuals believe will prevent an outcome
body dysmorphic disorder - obsessive thoughts about bodily defects
hoarding disorder - obsessive thoughts about the need to save possessions

Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders:

post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) - intrusive thoughts or dreams related to
traumatic events, may cause sleep disturbances or social withdrawal
reactive attachment disorder - occurs in neglected children who are unable to
form attachments
adjustment disorders - maladaptive responses to particular stresses

Dissociative Disorders:
derealization - the sense that this is not really happening
depersonalization - the sense that this is not happening to me
dissociative amnesia - inability to recall life events, like far beyond normal
forgetting
dissociative identity disorder - one may manifest a separate personality, often
associated with significant trauma or abuse during childhood

Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders:

somatic symptom disorder - bodily symptoms combined with disordered
behaviors
illness anxiety disorder - one worries excessively about the possibility of falling ill
conversion disorder - involves changed motor function or changed sensory
function
psychogenic symptoms - created by the mind
factitious disorder - individual knowingly falsified symptoms in order to get
medical care

Feeding and Eating Disorders:

anorexia nervosa - involves intense fear of gaining weight and self starvation
behavior, can lead to life threatening medical conditions
bulimia nervosa - recurring episodes of binge eating followed by purging
binge eating - eating large amounts of food in short amounts of time
purging - self induced vomiting, laxatives, or exercising
binge-eating disorder - might be thought of as bulimia without purging, occurs in
normal and overweight people
Pica - regular consumption of non-nutritive substances, ie. plastic, paper, dirt

Personality Disorders:
Cluster A - includes paranoid, schizoid, or schizotypal disorders; individuals appear
odd or eccentric
paranoid personality disorder - general distrust of others
schizoid personality disorder - disturbances in feeling, ie. detachment from
social relationships and flat affect
schizotypal personality disorder - disturbances in thought, includes odd
speech, eccentric behavior, eccentric appearance
Cluster B - includes antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality
disorders, individuals appear dramatic, emotional and erratic
antisocial personality disorder - persistent pattern of disregard or violation
of the rights of others
borderline personality disorder - stormy relationship with the world and
with others, pattern of instability in relationships, alternates between extremes of
idealization and devaluation
histrionic personality disorder - pattern of excessive emotionality and
attention seeking
narcissistic personality disorder - overinflated sense of self-importance
Cluster C - includes avoidant, dependent, and OCD personality disorders,
individuals appear anxious or fearful
 avoidant personality disorder - patterns of social inhibition, feelings of
inadequacy, hypersensitivity to criticism
dependent personality disorder - excessive need to be cared for
obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD) - rigid concern with
order, perfectionism, and control

13: Clinical Psychology - Treatment

Treatment Approaches:
insight
psychoanalysis
free association
transference
countertransference
manifest content
latent content
client-centered therapy
Carl Rogers
genuineness
unconditional positive regard
accurate empathic understanding
Gestalt therapy
Fritz Perls
behavioral therapy
Counterconditioning
aversion therapy
systematic desensitization
extinction procedures
flooding
implosion
operant conditioning
behavioral contracting
modeling
rational-emotive behavior therapy
(REBT) / rational-emotive therapy (RET)
Albert Ellis
cognitive therapy
Aaron Beck
negative triad
arbitrary inference
dichotomous thinking
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
psychosurgery
prefrontal lobotomy
psychopharmacology
psychotropic drugs
antipsychotics
antidepressants
MAO inhibitors
tricyclics
selective reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
anxiolytics
benzodiazepines
lithium carbonate

Modes of Therapy:
group therapy
twelve-step programs
couples therapy
family therapy

14: Social Psychology

social psychology

Identities and Groups:

societies
culture
social identities
personal identities
intersectionality
primary group
secondary group
in-groups
out-groups
ethnocentrism
cultural relativism
assimilation
multiculturalism
culture shock
cultural lag
roles
role conflict
role strain
role exit

Social Institutions:
institutionalized discrimination
availability
accessibility
food desert

Group Dynamics:
social facilitation
social inhibition
social loafing
group polarization
GRIT (Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction)
Irving Janis
groupthink
Mindguard

Attribution:
dispositional attribution
situational attribution
self-serving bias
fundamental attribution error
self-fulfilling prophecy
Rosenthal Effect

Interpersonal Perception:
interpersonal attraction
positive evaluation
shared opinions
mere exposure effect

Conformity, Compliance, Obedience:

conformity
Solomon Asch
compliance reciprocity
foot-in-the-door phenomenon
door-in-the-face phenomenon
inoculation hypothesis
psychological reactance
obedience
Stanley Milgram

Attitudes and Attitude Change:

attitudes
cognitive dissonance
Leon Festinger
persuasion
elaboration likelihood model
central route
peripheral route

Altruism and Helping Behavior:

altruism
helping behavior
bystander effect
diffusion of responsibility

Organizational Psychology:
equity theory
human factors research
Hawthorne effect

Aggression/Antisocial Behavior:
antisocial behavior
prejudice
aggression
discrimination
contact hypothesis
stereotypes
outgroup homogeneity
illusory correlation
hostile aggression
instrumental aggression
Albert Bandura
dehumanization
Philip Zimbardo
Role-playing

YAYYYYYYYY