Module – 4

More SQL: Complex Queries, Triggers, Views,

and Schema Modification
• More Complex SQL Retrieval Queries
• Specifying Semantic Constraints as Assertions and Actions as Triggers
• Views (Virtual Tables) in SQL
• Schema Modification in SQL

Slide 7- 3
More Complex SQL Retrieval Queries

• Additional features allow users to specify more complex

retrievals from database:
• Nested queries, joined tables, and outer joins (in the FROM clause),
aggregate functions, and grouping

Slide 7- 4
 Comparisons Involving NULL
and Three-Valued Logic
• Meanings of NULL
• Unknown value
• Unavailable or withheld value
• Not applicable attribute
• Each individual NULL value considered to be different from every other
NULL value
• SQL uses a three-valued logic:
• TRUE, FALSE, and UNKNOWN (like Maybe)
• NULL = NULL comparison is avoided

Slide 7- 5
Comparisons Involving NULL
and Three-Valued Logic (cont’d.)

Slide 7- 6
Three-Valued
Logic

Slide 1- 6
Comparisons Involving NULL
and Three-Valued Logic (cont’d.)
• SQL allows queries that check whether an attribute value is NULL
• IS or IS NOT NULL

Slide 7- 7
• All examples discussed below refer to the COMPANY database shown
here.
Nested Queries, Tuples,
and Set/Multiset Comparisons
• Nested queries
• Complete select-from-where blocks within WHERE clause of another query
• Outer query and nested subqueries
• Comparison operator IN
• Compares value v with a set (or multiset) of values V
• Evaluates to TRUE if v is one of the elements in V

Slide 7- 8
Nested Queries (cont’d.)

Make a list of all project numbers for projects that involve

employee Smith either as worker or as a manager of the
department that controls the project:
Nested Queries (cont’d.)

• Use tuples of values in comparisons

• Place them within parentheses
 Nested Queries (cont’d.)
• Use other comparison operators to compare a single value v
• = ANY (or = SOME) operator [equivalent to IN]
• Returns TRUE if the value v is equal to some value in the set
• Other operators that can be combined with ANY (or SOME): >, >=, <, <=, and <>
• ALL: value must exceed all values from nested query
 General Form of ALL, ANY, SOME

SELECT [column_name ]
FROM [table_name]
WHERE expression operator
{ALL | ANY | SOME} ( subquery )
Nested Queries (cont’d.)

• Avoid potential errors and ambiguities

• Create tuple variables (aliases) for all tables referenced in SQL query
 Understanding a nested (correlated query

For each E tuple,

Evaluate the nested query
which retrieves the Essn values of all D tuples
with the same sex and name as E tuple
If the Ssn value of E tuple is in the result,
then select the E tuple
Correlated Nested Queries

• Queries that are nested using the = or IN comparison

operator can be collapsed into one single block:
• Q16A: SELECT E.Fname, E.Lname
FROM EMPLOYEE AS E, DEPENDENT AS D
WHERE E.Ssn=D.Essn AND
E.Sex=D.Sex AND
E.Fname=D.Dependent_name;

• Correlated nested query

• Evaluated once for each tuple in the outer query
The EXISTS and UNIQUE Functions in SQL for correlating queries

• EXISTS function
• Check whether the result of a correlated nested query is empty
or not. They are Boolean functions that return a TRUE or FALSE
result.
• EXISTS and NOT EXISTS
• Typically used in conjunction with a correlated nested query
• SQL function UNIQUE(Q)
• Returns TRUE if there are no duplicate tuples in the result of
query Q
USE of EXISTS

List the managers who have at least one dependent

Q7:

SELECT Fname, Lname

FROM Employee
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT *
FROM DEPENDENT
WHERE Ssn= Essn)

AND EXISTS (SELECT *

FROM Department
WHERE Ssn= Mgr_Ssn)
Explicit Sets and Renaming of Attributes in SQL

• Can use explicit set of values in WHERE clause

Q17: SELECT DISTINCT Essn
FROM WORKS_ON
WHERE Pno IN (1, 2, 3);

• Use qualifier AS followed by desired new name

• Rename any attribute that appears in the result of a query
Specifying Joined Tables in the FROM Clause of SQL

• Joined table
• Permits users to specify a table resulting from a join
operation in the FROM clause of a query
• The FROM clause in Q1A
• Contains a single joined table. JOIN may also be called INNER
JOIN
 Different Types of JOINed Tables in SQL
• Specify different types of join
• NATURAL JOIN
• Various types of OUTER JOIN (LEFT, RIGHT, FULL )

• NATURAL JOIN on two relations R and S

• No join condition specified
• Is equivalent to an implicit EQUIJOIN condition for each pair
of attributes with same name from R and S
NATURAL JOIN

• Rename attributes of one relation so it can be joined with

another using NATURAL JOIN:

Q1B: SELECT Fname, Lname, Address

FROM (EMPLOYEE NATURAL JOIN
(DEPARTMENT AS DEPT (Dname, Dno, Mssn,
Msdate)))
WHERE Dname=‘Research’;

The above works with EMPLOYEE.Dno = DEPT.Dno as an

implicit join condition
INNER and OUTER Joins

• INNER JOIN (versus OUTER JOIN)

• Default type of join in a joined table
• Tuple is included in the result only if a matching tuple exists in
the other relation
• LEFT OUTER JOIN
• Every tuple in left table must appear in result
• If no matching tuple
• Padded with NULL values for attributes of right table
• RIGHT OUTER JOIN
• Every tuple in right table must appear in result
• If no matching tuple
• Padded with NULL values for attributes of left table
Aggregate Functions in SQL

• Used to summarize information from multiple tuples into a single-

tuple summary
• Built-in aggregate functions
• COUNT, SUM, MAX, MIN, and AVG
• Grouping
• Create subgroups of tuples before summarizing
• To select entire groups, HAVING clause is used
• Aggregate functions can be used in the SELECT clause or in a
HAVING clause
Renaming Results of Aggregation

• Following query returns a single row of computed values from

EMPLOYEE table:

Q19: SELECT SUM (Salary), MAX (Salary), MIN (Salary), AVG (Salary)
FROM EMPLOYEE;
• The result can be presented with new names:

Q19A: SELECT SUM (Salary) AS Total_Sal,

MAX (Salary) AS Highest_Sal,
MIN (Salary) AS Lowest_Sal,
AVG (Salary) AS Average_Sal
FROM EMPLOYEE;
Aggregate Functions in SQL (cont’d.)
• NULL values are discarded when aggregate functions are applied to a
particular column
Grouping: The GROUP BY Clause

• Partition relation into subsets of tuples

• Based on grouping attribute(s)
• Apply function to each such group independently
• GROUP BY clause
• Specifies grouping attributes
• COUNT (*) counts the number of rows in the group
 Examples of GROUP BY
• The grouping attribute must appear in the SELECT clause:
Q24: SELECT Dno, COUNT (*), AVG (Salary)
FROM EMPLOYEE
GROUP BY Dno;
• If the grouping attribute has NULL as a possible value, then a
separate group is created for the null value (e.g., null Dno in the
above query)

• GROUP BY may be applied to the result of a JOIN:

Q25: SELECT Pnumber, Pname, COUNT (*)
FROM PROJECT, WORKS_ON
WHERE Pnumber=Pno
GROUP BY Pnumber, Pname;
Grouping: The GROUP BY and HAVING Clauses

• HAVING clause
• Provides a condition to select or reject an entire group:
• Query 26. For each project on which more than two employees work,
retrieve the project number, the project name, and the number of
employees who work on the project.

Q26: SELECT Pnumber, Pname, COUNT (*)

FROM PROJECT, WORKS_ON
WHERE Pnumber=Pno
GROUP BY Pnumber, Pname
HAVING COUNT (*) > 2;
Combining the WHERE and the HAVING Clause

• Consider the query: we want to count the total number of

employees whose salaries exceed $40,000 in each
department, but only for departments where more than five
employees work.

• INCORRECT QUERY:
SELECT Dno, COUNT (*)
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE Salary>40000
GROUP BY Dno
HAVING COUNT (*) > 5;
 Combining the WHERE and the HAVING Clause
Correct Specification of the Query:
• Note: the WHERE clause applies tuple by tuple whereas HAVING
applies to entire group of tuples
Use of CASE

• SQL also has a CASE construct

• Used when a value can be different based on certain conditions.
• Can be used in any part of an SQL query where a value is expected
• Applicable when querying, inserting or updating tuples
EXAMPLE of use of CASE

• The following example shows that employees are receiving different

raises in different departments (A variation of the update U6)

• U6’: UPDATE EMPLOYEE

SET Salary =
CASE WHENDno = 5 THEN Salary + 2000
WHENDno = 4 THEN Salary + 1500
WHENDno = 1 THEN Salary + 3000
EXPANDED Block Structure of SQL Queries
Specifying Constraints as Assertions and Actions as
Triggers
• Semantic Constraints: The following are beyond the scope of the EER
and relational model
• CREATE ASSERTION
• Specify additional types of constraints outside scope of built-in relational model
constraints
• CREATE TRIGGER
• Specify automatic actions that database system will perform when certain events
and conditions occur
 Specifying General Constraints as Assertions
in SQL
• CREATE ASSERTION
• Specify a query that selects any tuples that violate the
desired condition
• Use only in cases where it goes beyond a simple CHECK
which applies to individual attributes and domains
• Salary of an employee must be less than the manager
Introduction to Triggers in SQL
• CREATE TRIGGER
• Specify automatic actions that database system will perform
when certain events and conditions occur

• CREATE TRIGGER statement

• Used to monitor the database
• Typical trigger has three components which make it a
rule for an “active database “
• Event(s)
• Condition
• Action
 USE OF TRIGGERS

CREATE TRIGGER SALARY_VIOLATION

BEFORE INSERT OR UPDATE OF Salary, Supervisor_ssn
ON EMPLOYEE

FOR EACH ROW

WHEN (NEW.SALARY > ( SELECT Salary
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE Ssn =NEW.Supervisor_Ssn))
INFORM_SUPERVISOR (NEW.Supervisor.Ssn, New.Ssn)
Views (Virtual Tables) in SQL

• Concept of a view in SQL

• Single table derived from other tables called the defining tables

• Considered to be a virtual table that is not necessarily populated

Specification of Views in SQL
• CREATE VIEW command
• Give table name, list of attribute names, and a query to
specify the contents of the view
• In V1, attributes retain the names from base tables.
• In V2, attributes are assigned names
Specification of Views in SQL (cont’d.)

• Once a View is defined, SQL queries can use the View relation in the
FROM clause
• View is always up-to-date
• Responsibility of the DBMS and not the user
• DROP VIEW command
• Dispose of a view
Schema Change Statements in SQL

• Schema evolution commands

• DBA may want to change the schema while the database is operational
• Does not require recompilation of the database schema
The DROP Command

• DROP command
• Used to drop named schema elements, such as tables, domains, or constraint
• Drop behavior options:
• CASCADE and RESTRICT
• Example:
• DROP SCHEMA COMPANY CASCADE;
• This removes the schema and all its elements
including tables, views, constraints, etc.
• RESTRICT: drops only nothing in it
 The ALTER table command
• Alter table actions include:
• Adding or dropping a column (attribute)
• Changing a column definition
• Adding or dropping table constraints
• Example:
• ALTER TABLE COMPANY.EMPLOYEE ADD COLUMN Job
VARCHAR(12);
Adding and Dropping Constraints

• Change constraints specified on a table

• Add or drop a named constraint
Dropping Columns, Default Values
• To drop a column
• Choose either CASCADE or RESTRICT
• CASCADE would drop the column from views etc. RESTRICT is possible if no
views refer to it.
ALTER TABLE COMPANY.EMPLOYEE
DROP COLUMN Address CASCADE;

• Default values can be dropped and altered :

ALTER TABLE COMPANY.DEPARTMENT

ALTER COLUMN Mgr_ssn
DROP DEFAULT;

ALTER TABLE COMPANY.DEPARTMENT

ALTER COLUMN Mgr_ssn
SET DEFAULT ‘333445555’;
Table 7.2 Summary of SQL
Syntax

continued on next slide

Table 7.2 (continued) Summary
of SQL Syntax
Summary

• Complex SQL:
• Nested queries, joined tables (in the FROM clause), outer joins, aggregate
functions, grouping
• Handling semantic constraints with CREATE ASSERTION and
CREATE TRIGGER
• CREATE VIEW statement
• Schema Modification for the DBAs using ALTER TABLE , ADD
and DROP COLUMN, ALTER CONSTRAINT etc.
Thankyou