Article

Decoding ISO 19650 Through Process Modelling for Information

Management and Stakeholder Communication in BIM
Fonbeyin Henry Abanda 1, * , Bharathi Balu 2 , Selorm Emmanuel Adukpo 3 and Adeyemi Akintola 2

1 Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Travaux Publics, Yaoundé B.P 510, Cameroon
2 Oxford Institute for Sustainable Development, School of the Built Environment, Oxford Brookes University,
Oxford OX3 0BP, UK; [email protected] (B.B.); [email protected] (A.A.)
3 The Bartlett School of Sustainable Construction, University College London, 1-19 Torrington Place,
London WC1E 7HB, UK; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Poor information management is predominant in construction projects and tends

to have a negative effect on project outcomes. The use of technology, in particular building
information modelling (BIM), has been promoted to address information management
issues. However, the adoption of BIM is fraught with challenges, such as a lack of standard-
isation and difficulties in effectively adopting standards such as ISO 19650. This research
aims to deepen knowledge and improve the management of BIM standards, particularly
in using ISO 19650 to collaboratively deliver construction projects by applying process
modelling techniques. By employing a mixed-methods approach that combines docu-
ment analysis and qualitative interviews, this study critically examines the principles and
requirements of ISO 19650 and their practical implications. It focuses on how process mod-
elling can clarify complex concepts and improve information management. The findings
indicate that process modelling significantly aids in comprehending ISO 19650, making
its intricate concepts more accessible to multidisciplinary teams, enhancing stakeholder
communication, improving project execution efficiency, and reducing errors and rework.
Furthermore, this research emphasises the need to distinguish ISO 19650-derived elements
from those adapted from other sources to ensure transparency and integrity in project
management practices. The main implications of this study are two-fold. From a research
Academic Editor: Antonio Caggiano perspective, it contributes to the academic discourse by addressing a critical gap in the
Received: 23 November 2024 literature, which has largely focused on BIM technology implementation rather than the
Revised: 15 January 2025 processes and workflows necessary for effective standard adoption. From a practical per-
Accepted: 26 January 2025
spective, this study promotes transparency and integrity in project management practices,
Published: 29 January 2025
enabling organisations to adopt and adhere to standardised practices more effectively in
Citation: Abanda, F.H.; Balu, B.;
collaborative environments.
Adukpo, S.E.; Akintola, A. Decoding
ISO 19650 Through Process
Keywords: BIM; common data environment; integrated project delivery; ISO 19650; process
Modelling for Information
Management and Stakeholder
modelling; project collaboration
Communication in BIM. Buildings 2025,
15, 431. https://doi.org/10.3390/
buildings15030431

Copyright: © 2025 by the authors.

1. Background
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. The construction industry is critical to global infrastructure development but is fraught
This article is an open access article with several challenges that lead to poor project delivery outcomes [1]. These include
distributed under the terms and
process and supply chain fragmentation, design issues, and poor coordination [2]. Poor
conditions of the Creative Commons
information management is also rife and significantly impacts project costs and schedules.
Attribution (CC BY) license
(https://creativecommons.org/
For instance, in 2020, poor project data and miscommunication were responsible for 48% of
licenses/by/4.0/). all reworks in the United States, with the global cost of rework estimated to represent 5%

Buildings 2025, 15, 431 https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15030431

Buildings 2025, 15, 431 2 of 31

of all construction spending, or approximately USD 625 billion [3]. An estimated 25% of
construction time is lost due to rework caused by information inefficiencies [4]. Additionally,
bad data have a profound financial impact on the construction industry. In 2020, bad data
cost the global construction industry over USD 1.84 trillion [3]. Additionally, a McKinsey
study found that 43% of organisations do not consistently make accurate decisions, and
one out of every three poor decisions result from bad data [3]. This suggests that decisions
made based on bad data may have had a global rework cost of USD 88.69 billion, or 14% of
all reworks performed in 2020 [3].
Technology, particularly digital technology such as building information modelling
(BIM), has been crucial in addressing these challenges [5–11]. BIM is a transformative
process that enables the generation, storage, and management of digital representations of
construction project elements’ physical and functional characteristics [12]. By leveraging
this capability, effective information management in construction streamlines project deliv-
ery and yields substantial financial benefits. Prior research has documented the benefits
of BIM for projects, including time savings, cost savings, improved quality, and reduced
reworks [8,9]. For example, a study by Li et al. [13] demonstrated that implementing
BIM in a Disaster Recovery Centre project in Shanghai led to time-savings of 65.6 days
when resolving mechanical, electrical, and plumbing (MEP) design clashes and shortened
the construction schedule by three months. This saving is quite significant considering
the monetary value of time. A KPMG [14] study highlights the potential for significant
efficiency gains, where every GBP 1 invested in information management could result in
GBP 5.10 to GBP 6.00 in direct labour productivity improvements and GBP 6.90 to GBP 7.40
in direct cost savings, alongside cost reductions across various asset lifecycle stages ranging
from 1.6% to 18%, depending on the stage.
Despite BIM’s potential and increasing uptake, the construction industry still encoun-
ters substantial challenges. It is asserted that the construction sector still has one of the
lowest productivity growth rates, averaging only 1% annually over the past two decades,
compared with a 2.8% global average across all industries [15]. This slow growth is of-
ten exacerbated by inadequate information management, with estimated costs of poor
data miscommunication and data fragmentation costing up to USD 1.8 trillion globally in
2019 [4]. Additionally, earlier implementations of BIM to address issues of information
management suffered common challenges, such as the lack of standardisation of processes
and procedures and uncertainties about roles and responsibilities, among others [16]. These
challenges limit the benefits achieved by adopters of BIM.
ISO 19650, which evolved from the British Standard BS 1192 and PAS 1192-2, offers
a structured framework for managing information across the lifecycle of built assets. It
provides standards for information creation, exchange and storage processes and enhances
collaboration among team members. Although studies of the quantitative benefits of
complying with ISO 19650 are rare, a recent study indicates a reduction of BIM coordination
and management costs by about 70%, project management costs by about 10%, and overall
data management costs during the design and construction phase by about 15% [17]. The
same study reveals a time saving of up to 50% during programming and project ramp up
phases, and an increase in internal productivity by up to 40% [17].
The ISO 19650 standard is, however, text-based and complex. Notably, Malla et al. [18]
argued that these contribute significantly to professionals’ having difficulties in interpreting
and understanding it. This issue is further exacerbated by the limited training in BIM and
the relevant standards guiding its implementation. For instance, a survey by the National
Building Specification (NBS) in 2021 indicated that only 30% of construction professionals
feel adequately trained to utilise BIM to its full potential [19]. The existing body of research
predominantly addresses BIM technology implementation and associated challenges but
Buildings 2025, 15, 431 3 of 31

lacks a detailed exploration of the processes and methodologies for effective information
management as prescribed by ISO 19650. The ISO 19650 standards focus on the information
management process, providing a comprehensive framework for managing BIM-related
information throughout project lifecycles.
Understanding BIM standards, particularly ISO 19650, is crucial for effective imple-
mentation [12,18], and one way to demystify its complexity is through graphical process
and knowledge representation understanding. Ref [20] demonstrated that a graph-based
approach for unpacking construction processes, sequence analysis and evaluating schedules
significantly improved efficiency. Another study by Kulkarni et al. [21] showed that trans-
forming text into visual representations, such as mind maps, flowcharts, and summaries,
significantly enhances information retention, overcoming the challenges of remembering
and digesting information from multiple sources. Thus, there has been growing interest in
using process models to represent knowledge within the construction discipline. Specifi-
cally, BPMN has gained significant popularity in this context. For instance, the integration
of BIM, BPMN, and decision model and notation (DMN) has been employed to model
knowledge in railway design [22]. Despite being in existence for over four years, ISO 19650
remains relatively nascent and has recently garnered attention among researchers. This
growing interest has also highlighted limited but emerging research on BPMN applications
in this domain. Ref [23] used BPMN to model the steps an appointing party must follow to
comply with ISO 19650, culminating in the creation of a dozen technical guide templates
outlining the appointing party’s BIM journey. Similarly, a study by Meschini et al. [24]
utilised BPMN 2.0 to propose a model-based, open-source redefinition of the process for
the Italian design-build procurement approach. These studies underscore the potential of
BPMN in addressing aspects of ISO 19650. However, they also reveal a scarcity of compre-
hensive research that thoroughly addresses the challenges and complexities involved in
understanding and implementing ISO 19650.
This research investigates and demonstrates how knowledge elicitation and represen-
tation using process modelling deepens knowledge and facilitates the operationalisation of
complex text-based BIM standards based on ISO 19650, offering significant contributions to
both academic discourse and industry practice. Systematically representing and visualising
BIM processes enables the formulation of more effective and efficient information man-
agement strategies for construction project delivery [22]. Process modelling is an aspect of
design science or design research. Theories that influence design science research can be
either descriptive or prescriptive, that is, kernel (contributing to problem understanding or
design theories which help in developing guidance, methods or processes [25]. This study
combines aspects of both. The first objective focuses on investigating the challenges and
issues that are likely to be encountered when undertaking information management during
the lifecycle of construction projects and understanding how ISO 19650 can be applied to
address these challenges. The second objective focuses on identifying and mapping out the
concepts and processes of information management using ISO 19650. The third objective
identifies the interdependencies and deliverables between the main ISO 19650 standards.
The last objective identifies the benefits and challenges in representing ISO 19650 workflows
as process models.
The rest of the paper is structured as follows: Section 2 reviews the relevant literature,
focusing on the information flows, roles and responsibilities of stakeholders in information
management, as well as the concepts and requirements outlined in ISO 19650. Section 3 out-
lines the methodology, emphasising the iterative design and evaluation process. Section 4
presents the findings and discussion. Finally, Section 5 concludes the paper, highlighting
key implications, limitations, and directions for future research.
 2. Literature Review
Buildings 2025, 15, 431 4 of 31
2.1. Information Flow in Building Lifecycle
According to ISO 19650-1, information is a reinterpretable representation of struc-
2. Literature
tured data for easyReview
communication, understanding, or processing. Information can be cat-
2.1. Information Flow in Building Lifecycle
egorised as structured (such as geometric models, schedules, and databases)—which fa-
cilitates According
automated to processing
ISO 19650-1,and information is a reinterpretable
analysis—and unstructuredrepresentation of struc-
(such as documentation
tured data for easy communication, understanding, or processing. Information can be
and recordings)—which lacks a predefined structure, posing systematic processing and
categorised as structured (such as geometric models, schedules, and databases)—which
interpretation challenges. This differentiation underscores the complexity of managing
facilitates automated processing and analysis—and unstructured (such as documentation
information across variouslacks
and recordings)—which contexts within structure,
a predefined the construction industryprocessing
posing systematic and the necessity
and for
clearinterpretation
and accessible data presentation.
challenges. Information
This differentiation management,
underscores as outlined
the complexity of managing in the UK
BIMinformation
Framework across various
[26], contexts
involves within the
ensuring construction
timely industrydelivery
and accurate and the necessity for infor-
of specific
clearto
mation and
theaccessible
intended data presentation.
location Information management,
for a predetermined purpose.asInformation
outlined in the UK
management
BIM Framework [26], involves ensuring timely and accurate delivery of specific informa-
is crucial in maintaining or improving construction projects’ efficiency, productivity, and
tion to the intended location for a predetermined purpose. Information management is
level of success. Effective information management practices enable better decision-mak-
crucial in maintaining or improving construction projects’ efficiency, productivity, and level
ing, of
streamline project information
success. Effective workflows,management
and reducepractices
costly errors
enableand rework
better [14].
decision-making,
The process
streamline of workflows,
project information andflow relates
reduce costlytoerrors
information
and rework management.
[14]. The concept of
information flow within
The process a building
of information flowlifecycle
relates toencompasses the systematic
information management. The generation,
concept of man-
agement, and application of data from the initial design phase to construction,man-
information flow within a building lifecycle encompasses the systematic generation, operation,
agement, and application of data from the initial design phase to construction,
maintenance and eventual building decommissioning [27]. Figure 1 illustrates the data operation,
maintenance and eventual building decommissioning [27]. Figure 1 illustrates the data
flow in each stage of the lifecycle, providing a visual representation of how information
flow in each stage of the lifecycle, providing a visual representation of how information
movesmovesseamlessly
seamlesslyand andisis managed
managed across acrossthethe different
different phases
phases of theofbuilding
the building lifecycle
lifecycle,
thereby highlighting
thereby highlighting the vital
the vitalrole
roleofofeffective
effective information management
information management inin enhancing pro-
enhancing
ject project
outcomes.outcomes.

Figure
Figure 1. Informationflow
1. Information flowacross
across building
buildinglifecycle phases
lifecycle (Source:
phases [28]). [28] ).
(Source:
Effective information management is vital throughout the building lifecycle. Ref [29] (2021)
Effective information
underscores management
the interconnectedness of theisplanning,
vital throughout the building
design, construction, andlifecycle.
operationRef [29]
(2021) underscores the interconnectedness of the planning, design, construction, and op-
eration phases, emphasising the need for seamless communication among stakeholders
BIM is a digital tool that captures and represents all building data throughout its lifecycle
Unlike traditional CAD, BIM designs include more than geometrical design information
Buildings 2025, 15, 431 5 of 31

phases, emphasising the need for seamless communication among stakeholders. BIM is a
digital tool that captures and represents all building data throughout its lifecycle. Unlike
traditional CAD, BIM designs include more than geometrical design information. They
may include design, cost, material, spatial data, and more, enabling information-driven
decision-making by providing insights into real-life structures [30]. Zhang et al. [31] em-
phasise the adoption of BIM and digital twins as a cornerstone for this process, facilitating a
cohesive and interactive data ecosystem that supports real-time analytics, predictive main-
tenance and collaborative stakeholder engagement. Ref [12] emphasised the importance of
embracing digital tools such as BIM and implementing standardised processes to bolster
construction project outcomes. This approach facilitates enhanced coordination, minimises
rework, and significantly boosts project efficiency and reliability [6,32].

2.2. Roles and Responsibilities of Stakeholders in Information Management

As there have been some changes to traditional roles in implementing BIM, the im-
portance of adequately delineating roles and responsibilities in managing information in
BIM-enabled projects has been argued in the literature [33,34]. The ISO 19650 standard
emphasises responsibility for collaboration across project teams, prescribing specific roles
such as the appointing party (e.g., client), lead appointed parties (e.g., main contractors),
and appointed parties (e.g., subcontractors), each tasked with specific responsibilities
within the information management function [26]. Elaborating on this, the UK BIM Frame-
work [26] specifies that the appointing party is accountable for assigning this information
management, ensuring clear and coherent role execution. Lead-appointed parties focus
on information management at an appointment level and are tasked with developing BIM
execution plans and sustaining robust information delivery plans. Meanwhile, appointed
parties have the responsibility for creating, reviewing, and delivering information by estab-
lished requirements and standards. Therefore, it is crucial for all stakeholders involved in
implementing BIM to clearly understand their roles and develop the necessary skills and
capacity to fulfill these responsibilities effectively.

2.3. Managing Construction Information Using CDEs

The common data environment (CDE) is a dynamic central digital repository intended
to be the single source of ‘truth’ about project information. This platform eases data
handling throughout the project lifecycle [35] and supports collaboration by ensuring
all project-related information is consistent, accessible, and accurate [36–38]. The CDE
comprises components essential for effective construction project management, integrating
process workflows and technical elements such as software tools. This integration allows
for the collection, maintenance, sharing, and management of data in a single repository [29].
Important elements of the CDE include the information container, which can take several
forms. Each container/sub-container has the necessary metadata essential for accurate
data classification and access control [35]. Collaborating on a CDE significantly enhances
construction project management by streamlining data transfers, reducing coordination
time and costs, and minimising the need for manual rechecks [39]. Additionally, CDEs
facilitate effective knowledge transfer throughout the building lifecycle, promoting a
dynamic system that adapts and evolves [40].
Despite the benefits of CDEs, implementing them is challenging ([5,10,41]). Issues
include limited database synchronisation, data isolation, and interoperability problems
among domain-specific tools, which affect data quality and software compatibility ([38,42]).
Vendor-specific BIM data access and the need for APIs further complicate open format
initiatives [43]. Additionally, construction SMEs (small and medium enterprises) often
lack the technical skills to effectively use cloud-based systems and BIM software [38].
Buildings 2025, 15, 431 6 of 31

Security concerns about privacy and unauthorised access, alongside the high costs linked
with CDE tools, also hinder investment [38,42]. Lastly, the information structure of most
CDEs does not align with ISO 19650. These challenges highlight the need for training,
interoperability, and technology adoption to fully exploit the benefits of CDEs in managing
construction information.

2.4. ISO 19650-2 as a Solution for Effective Information Management

The ISO 19650 is designed to support the collaboration of stakeholders in a construction
process, ensuring that information is available when needed, thereby reducing waste and
increasing efficiency. BS 1192, before the publication of the ISO 19650 series, provided
guidelines for managing digital construction data, mainly focusing on collaboration and
the CDE [44]. While now superseded, its principles continue to influence current practices,
emphasising collaborative work practices and the importance of clear data structures
and naming conventions [45]. Shillcock [44] and Ford [45] delve into the complexities
of adopting ISO 19650, emphasising that moving from PAS 1192 to this new standard
requires considerable modifications in the industry’s existing processes. Integrating ISO
19650 into pre-existing systems demands a transformation of the tools and procedures used
and necessitates a cultural shift within organisations. This underlines the necessity for
thoroughly comprehending the standard’s real-world application and adopting a deliberate
strategy for its implementation [45].
To facilitate understanding, examining the principal components of the ISO 19650
series is imperative. ISO 19650-1: Concepts and principles related to BIM [46] establishes
the concepts and principles for information management. It outlines the framework for
managing information, including creating, operating, and maintaining built assets based
on BIM principles [12]. ISO 19650-2: Delivery phase of the assets [46] focuses on the delivery
phase of construction projects, detailing the management processes and production of
information models. It guides the collaborative production of information, ensuring it
meets quality, time, and cost requirements [12]. ISO 19650-3: Operational phase of the
assets [46] provides guidance on using information management processes to support
asset management. This phase is crucial for maintaining and utilising built asset data
over their lifecycle [47]. ISO 19650-4: Information exchange [46] details the mechanisms for
exchanging information between involved parties, promoting interoperability and efficient
data exchange throughout the asset lifecycle [47]. ISO 19650-5: Security-minded approach to
information management [46] introduces a security-minded approach to managing building
information models and other related information. This part is essential for ensuring that
sensitive information is appropriately protected, considering the increasing cyber threats in
digital information management [47].
It is essential to highlight another cornerstone of BIM standards—data exchange stan-
dards, particularly the Industry Foundation Classes (IFC). Developed by buildingSMART,
IFC is pivotal for enabling interoperable data exchange within the building and facility
management industry [48]. By establishing a common language for describing the building
and civil engineering project data, IFC allows diverse software applications to seamlessly
communicate and exchange information across the entire lifecycle of a building, from
conception through to demolition [49]. IFC data can be represented in various formats,
including XML, JSON, and STEP, and can be utilised through different mediums such as
web services, files and databases [49].
ISO 19650-1 & 2 primarily focus on a project’s design and construction stages. They
are designed for individuals and organisations involved in the procurement, design, con-
struction, and commissioning of built assets and those engaged in asset management
activities, encompassing operations and maintenance [12]. ISO 19650-2 emphasises the
Buildings 2025, 15, 431 7 of 31

role of information management in the delivery phase of construction projects, focusing

on the structured and systematic handling of information. It outlines the responsibilities
and processes necessary to ensure efficient, accurate, and interoperable exchange of infor-
mation across project teams. At its core, part 2 advocates for a methodical approach to
managing project information, leveraging digital technologies to enhance communication,
coordination and collaboration among stakeholders [26].
The standard introduces a framework for appointing and delegating the information
management function, underlining the need for clear accountability and responsibility
across the project hierarchy. This includes establishing an information assignment matrix, a
tool designed to comprehensively delineate tasks and responsibilities related to information
management activities. A critical aspect of ISO 19650-2 is the focus on developing and
implementing project-specific information standards, including the project’s information
production methods and procedures. These standards are crucial for maintaining consis-
tency and quality in information exchange, ensuring all project participants are aligned
with the agreed-upon protocols and formats [26]. Furthermore, the standard addresses
the generation, quality assurance, and sharing of information models, emphasising the
importance of a collaborative and integrated approach to producing and managing digital
representations of a project’s physical and functional characteristics. This approach extends
to information model review and authorisation processes, ensuring they meet the project
requirements [26].

2.5. Applying BIM Standards in CDE

ISO 19650-2 requires the use of a CDE to facilitate the collaborative generation and
dissemination of information among project teams and stakeholders [36]. An information
container progresses through various stages, each with a defined purpose and set of
permissions. These stages ensure information moves coherently and securely throughout
the project lifecycle [12]. Figure 2 explains the progression of an information container
through distinct phases within the CDE.
An information container’s lifecycle begins in the work-in-progress (WIP) stage (Figure 2),
where task teams develop information independently. When the information is deemed to
be the required standard for that stage of the work, it is checked, reviewed, and approved to
move to the shared stage, allowing for collaborative refinement. Information that satisfies
the requirements then progresses to the published stage, marking its readiness for use
in construction. Finally, the archive stage is a repository for past versions and changes,
maintaining a comprehensive audit trail of the information’s development [35].
ISO 19650 outlines a structured workflow within the CDE with gateways at critical
points, such as transitioning from WIP to shared or published, where authorisation controls
ensure information quality [36]. Metadata assignment to information containers is an
important process, facilitating the transition of information through the CDE workflow and
ensuring that each piece of data is appropriately classified and utilised according to the
project phase it supports [35]. Incorporating ISO 19650 principles into CDE establishes a
foundation for information management that promotes efficiency, minimises errors, and
underpins secure collaboration throughout the project lifecycle.
 container progresses through various stages, each with a defined purpose and set of per-
missions. These stages ensure information moves coherently and securely throughout the
Buildings 2025, 15, 431 project lifecycle [12]. Figure 2 explains the progression of an information 8container
of 31
through distinct phases within the CDE.

Figure 2. The framework of common data environment (CDE) (Source: [50]).

Figure 2. The framework of common data environment (CDE) (Source: [50]).
2.6. Process Modelling
AnProcess
information container’s
modelling lifecycle
tools, including beginsprocess
business in the modelling
work-in-progress (WIP)
and notation stage (Fig-
(BPMN)
and unified modelling language (UML), are quite important in the representation
ure 2), where task teams develop information independently. When the information is process
of the ISO 19650 workflows. For example, BPMN provides a standard way of capturing
business processes through a graphical representation for discussion among stakeholders
in a bid to define workflows. Similarly, UML is used in general domains and in the BIM
environments to assist in the modelling of information requirements so as to increase the
interoperability of the different systems [51]. These tools are useful in understanding com-
plicated processes because they provide visual representations that ease communication
and analysis of the same [52]. Using BPMN and UML to model ISO 19650 workflows
can enable formally manually operated and time-consuming processes to be automated.
With the help of these tools, the organisation can define, execute, and verify processes
efficiently [53]. Additionally, the incorporation of BPMN and UML as part of software engi-
neering approaches supports the development of platform requirements and specifications
for governance systems in, for example, the construction domain [54]. Furthermore, object-
oriented modelling techniques such as UML augment the mapping of design models and
performance simulations attached to the BIM applications [55]. This approach further im-
proves the quality of data translation and supports the development of BIM standards [56].
Additionally, by integrating BPMN and decision model and notation (DMN), engineering
knowledge is formalised with transparency during design processes [22].
BPMN 2.0 has complex and extensive features that present excellent benefits for
managing complex projects in the built environment. According to the object management
group (OMG), BPMN 2.0 is developed using a standard notation that is highly intuitive and
can be understood by all business users, from the business analysts who create preliminary
process drafts to the technical developers who implement these processes and finally,
Buildings 2025, 15, 431 9 of 31

the project managers who manage these processes [57] (OMG, 2016). In view of this,
standardisation is crucial in ensuring effective communication that is smooth and well-
managed in the workflow of a construction project, which normally comes with great
complexity and involves many stakeholders. BPMN 2.0 comes with a host of graphical
elements, each with varying functionalities when incorporated in a process diagram: flow
objects (events, activities, gateways), connecting objects (sequence flow, message flow,
association), swim lanes, and artefacts [57].

2.7. Representing ISO 19650 1-2 Knowledge Using BPMN 2.0

Modelling ISO 19650-1 & 2 knowledge using BPMN 2.0 can effectively improve the
understanding of their requirements. ISO 19650 describes the methodologies for managing
digital information over the life cycle of the constructed asset. Using BPMN to document
these processes can ensure that the necessary data exchange or project coordination proce-
dures are represented graphically and simplified. Additionally, BPMN’s flexibility allows it
to adapt to the peculiarities of construction projects, catering to distinctive workflows and
interfacing with other project management tools.
The literature underscores significant challenges in information management across
construction project lifecycles, including inefficiencies in project delivery, cost management,
and quality assurance. For example, 52% of global rework is attributed to poor project data
and miscommunication, which resulted in a staggering USD 280 billion in costs in 2018 [4].
While BIM, particularly through ISO 19650, offers a framework to address these challenges
by enhancing information flow and collaboration [58], critical research gaps persist. These
gaps hinder the effective adoption and implementation of ISO 19650, thereby limiting its
full potential in improving project outcomes.
One major gap lies in the inconsistent adoption of ISO 19650 among stakeholders. A
lack of understanding and familiarity with its processes often leads to misinterpretation
of roles and responsibilities, such as those of appointing parties, lead-appointed parties,
and appointed parties [12,14]. This inconsistency not only affects project coordination
but also undermines the standardisation necessary for effective information management.
Furthermore, the resistance to adopting new technologies, coupled with the construction
industry’s slow digital transformation, exacerbates these challenges, leaving many projects
reliant on outdated and inefficient methods.
Another significant challenge is the ineffective management of structured and unstruc-
tured information. While ISO 19650 provides guidance on handling structured data, such
as geometric models and schedules, the systematic processing of unstructured data, like
documentation, remains problematic [26]. This gap creates inconsistencies in the accuracy
and accessibility of information, particularly in large-scale and complex projects. Addi-
tionally, the limited exploration of interoperability and automation in workflows further
compounds these inefficiencies. Current approaches to coordination lack the integration
of tools and systems that facilitate seamless data exchange and automated processing,
resulting in bottlenecks and errors [52].
Existing approaches to workflow representation also exhibit weaknesses, primarily
due to fragmented and inconsistent practices. While process modelling tools such as
BPMN and UML are identified as valuable for representing workflows, their application
in the construction sector is limited. This underutilisation hinders the standardisation
and clarity needed for effective collaboration [57]. Furthermore, existing research tends to
focus predominantly on technical aspects, often neglecting the critical role of stakeholder
engagement and training. This oversight leaves many stakeholders—particularly those less
technologically adept—ill-prepared to implement and benefit from ISO 19650 workflows.
Buildings 2025, 15, 431 10 of 31

Given these persistent gaps and weaknesses, there is a pressing need for a new
approach to BIM-based information management. This approach should prioritise the
standardisation of workflow representation through advanced process modelling tools like
BPMN and UML, which can create clear, actionable workflows aligned with ISO 19650.
Additionally, integrating automation and interoperability into information management
practices is essential to reduce manual errors and improve data translation quality. Address-
ing the human and organisational aspects, such as stakeholder engagement and targeted
training, is equally important to ensure broader and more consistent adoption of ISO 19650.
This study adopts a process-oriented perspective, emphasising the use of process mod-
elling tools to decode ISO 19650 workflows and address existing coordination challenges.
By focusing on automation, interoperability, and stakeholder engagement, the research
seeks to bridge the divide between theoretical frameworks and practical applications. This
perspective is essential for overcoming current limitations and paving the way for more
efficient, standardised, and collaborative construction project delivery.

3. Research Methods
Figure 3 depicts the research process used for the study and the relationships between
the steps for easy understanding.
The main methods used in undertaking this study are document analysis and qual-
itative in-depth interviews. Employing the document analysis approach, a systematic
approach was used to review and/or evaluate documents—both printed and electronic
versions of ISO 19650-1 & 2. The UK BIM Framework for Guidance documents (printed
and electronic) were used to clarify the concepts in the standards. The printed version
allowed for themes to be made bold-marked in different colours to facilitate organisation
and understanding, while electronic versions allowed for the rapid search of terms. The
identified concepts were examined and interpreted in order to elicit meaning, gain under-
standing, and develop empirical knowledge. Upon completion of the elicitation process,
the modelling process was undertaken using BPMN 2.0 and MS Visio 2024.
Once the authors were satisfied with the key concepts and their interdependencies,
the process models were validated through in-depth interviews with experts. A qualitative
approach enables a nuanced exploration of the process models and offers an opportunity
to engage the participants in in-depth discussions about their practical understanding of
ISO 19650 standards application in a real-world setting and how well the process models
represent the requirements, facilitating a better understanding of the concepts, requirements
and procedures [59,60].
The interviewees were selected using purposive sampling, targeting respondents who
had extensive experience in ISO 19650 and active involvement in BIM projects. Out of
the 20 professionals approached, eight agreed to participate, providing valuable input
from diverse professional roles. While there is no universally agreed-upon benchmark for
the number of interviewees in a qualitative study [61,62], Guest et al. [62] observed that
saturation is often achieved within the first 12 interviews, with core themes emerging as
early as six interviews. In this study, the participation of eight interviewees, exceeding the
minimum threshold identified for thematic emergence, is deemed sufficient and acceptable.
Each participant offered a unique perspective on the applicability and challenges of
BIM and ISO 19650 standards, enriching the study with a broad range of insights. The list
of the interviewees is presented in Table 1.
 3. Research Methods
Buildings 2025, 15, Figure
3 depicts the research process used for the study and the relationships be-
431 11 of 31
tween the steps for easy understanding.

Document
Abstract Information from Analysis
ISO 19650

Refer to UK BIM
Sketch a Conceptualised Framework for Guidance
Redraw
process map

Review

Set up Microsoft Visio

with the necessary Yes
BPMN 2.0 stencils.
Develop the initial
process map
Create process maps
using BPMN symbols
and notations
Check for clarity of
the representation
Choose different stencil for
clarity of each roles and
No
reponsibilites and follow the Develop Final holistic
BPMN symbols and notation Yes process map
to explain the process map Is it?

Develop Final holistic process Develop detailed process maps for Update the Process Map
map in cross functional Important documents in Information
Not Satisfied

flowchart stencil management in ISO 19650 part 2

Validate the process

models
In-depth
Interviews

Review

Satisfied

Publish

Figure 3. Research design.

Buildings 2025, 15, 431 12 of 31

Table 1. Participant Profile. [Source: authors’].

Participants Experience Current Role Organisation Type

Participant 1 6 Years MSc BIM graduate student BIM Consultancy
Participant 2 6 Years Digital Coordinator Multi-Disciplinary Consultancy
Participant 3 3 Years BIM Coordinator BIM Consultancy
Participant 4 5 Years BIM consultant BIM Consultancy
Participant 5 12 Years Founder of a BIM firm BIM/Sustainability Consultancy
Participant 6 20 Years Senior lecturer School of Built Environment
Participant 7 6 Years BIM Architect Architectural Firm
Participant 8 14 Years BIM Manager Architectural Firm

To ensure the interviews are fit for purpose given the technical nature of the domain,
the process maps and a video about their development were sent to prospective inter-
viewees [63]. BPMN 2.0 is used in the process maps to show all the steps outlined in
ISO 19650-2 [64]. To ensure optimal visibility, the models were developed on A3-sized
sheets. Reducing them to A4 size may impact their clarity. To address this, all original
A3 files have been uploaded to a GitHub repository [64]. Additionally, metadata about
the process models are included in the file DTR-DTG within the same repository [64].
Readers are therefore encouraged to consult the GitHub repository if Figures 4–10 in this
manuscript appear unclear.

3.1. ISO 19650 Information Delivery Phase of the Assets Process Model
Figure 4 shows the full process model for the assets’ information delivery phase. The
model is structured to clearly show decision points and how information flows during
key stages such as task initiation, information production, and collaborative production
of information are mapped out (ISO 19650-2 [50]; clause 5.1–5.8). Figure 4 [64] depicts the
whole ISO 19650-2 process model.

3.2. Process Model of Information Requirements

The steps for establishing information requirements according to ISO 19650-2 are
detailed in Figure 5. It includes project information requirements (PIRs), employer’s
information requirements (EIRs), asset information requirements (AIRs), and organisational
information requirements (OIRs). Each section shows the flow and structure of information
required at different stages of a project’s lifecycle. Also, each information requirement
shows what information needs to be defined, as ISO 19650-2 requires, with additional
guidance from the UK BIM Framework and templates provided by the Centre for Digital
Built Britain. Refer to Figure 5 [64] for the information requirements process model.

3.3. Process Model of Pre and Post-Appointment BIM Execution Plan

Figure 6 states the steps involved in the pre-appointment BIM execution plan process.
It starts with the delivery team’s pre-appointment and going through different strategic
and operational tasks like assigning roles and responsibilities, developing delivery strat-
egy, identifying information container structure and establishing information production
methods and procedures as specified in ISO 19650-2, with additional guidance from the
UK BIM Framework and templates provided by the Centre for Digital Built Britain. Refer
to Figure 6 [64]—pre-appointed BIM execution plan process model.
Buildings 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 34
Buildings 2025, 15, 431 13 of 31

Information Management Process During the Delivery Phase of Assets – ISO 19650:2
5.6 Collaborative production of
5.1 Assessment and need 5.2 Invitation to tender 5.3 Tender Response 5.4 Appointment 5.5 Mobilization 5.7 Information model delivery 5.8 Project Closeout
information

New Project Appoint an For New Appointment

individual. Either
third party or adding
responsibility to lead
5.1.1 Appoint Info appointed party
5.2.1 Establish Archive of
Manager CDE and PIM
Appointing party
EIR PIM to AIM
requirements
5.1.2 5.1.3 Establish Lessons
Learned record
Project delivery Lead appointed party
Appointing Party

Establish PIR
milestone R-5.2 not selected .
5.2.2 Assemble 5.2.3 Establish tender
reference info and response req and Documents Process repeated R-5.4 D-5.4
R-5.1 to be referred
5.1.4 5.1.5 Establish shared resources evaluation criteria Documents Documents
5.1.6 Establish
Establish Information Documents to be referred to be generated
Project reference 5.7.4 Review and accept 5.8.1 Archive
Project production to be referred
information and 5.2.4 Compile the information model the PIM
Information methods and
shared resources invitation to Selection
5.4.1 Confirm 5.8.2 Capture
Standard procedures D-5.2
tender infromation delivery team s BEP lessons learnt for
Documents
5.1.7 Establish future project
5.1.8 Establish Project to be generated Appointment PIM review
Project Common Document
Information Protocol report
Data Environment Accepted
D-5.1 5.4.6 Complete lead appointed 5.5.2 Mobilize
partys appointment documents information Technology
Documents
End of Project

CDE Information
to be generated End of milestone

for publishing
Invitation To Tender Package

Any changes need to be updated and agreed by appointing party

Procure, configure, implement and test software, hardware and IT infrastructure

5.3.1 Nominate individual
for IM function
Prospective Lead Appointed Party

R-5.3
5.3.2 Establish Documents
delivery team pre- to be referred

Selected
appointment BEP

Information Model Rejected

5.3.4 Establish delivery team
capability and capacity

5.3.5 Establish delivery 5.3.6 Establish delivery D-5.3

team s mobilization plan team s risk register Documents
to be generated
5.3.7 Compile the delivery s
team tender response

Tender Response Package

APPOINTMENT

5.4.1 Confirm
5.5.1 Mobilize
delivery team s BEP
resources
R-5.4 R-5.5
Lead Appointed Party

5.5.2 Mobilize
yes 5.4.2 Establish delivery team s Documents information Technology Documents 5.8.2 Capture
detailed responsibility matrix to be referred to be referred lessons learnt

5.4.3 Establish the lead Task teams

appointed party s EIR submittals and

Before any information is generated within task teams

PIM review report
5.5.3 Test Projects D-5.5 Information Model Rejected
D-5.4
5.4.5 Establish the master information production Documents

Must be agreed between both party

Procure, configure, implement and test

information delivery plans Documents methods and procedures to be generated Approved
to be generated

Must be communicated with each party

5.4.7 Complete appointed partys Model
review 5.7.2 Review and authorize
appointment documents Reject and Report
Repeat the information model

5.6.5 Information Model

CDE Information
for publishing
review
Information Milestone

Task team is
not selected 5.5.3 Test Projects 5.6.1 Check availability
5.7.1 Submit information
Appointment information production of reference information
Document model for lead appointed
Selection NO R-5.4 methods and procedures and shared resources
party authorization

Information
CDE Shared
R-5.3 5.4.4 Establish the task 5.5.2 Mobilize
Documents 5.6.2 Generate information
5.3.3 Assess task information delivery plans information Technology
Documents to be referred 5.7.3 Submit PIM for

Not App
team capability appointing party
to be referred 5.6.3 Undertake Quality
and capacity 5.4.1 Confirm acceptance
5.5.1 Mobilize resources
Appointed Party

delivery team s BEP assurance Check

D-5.4 Covers three core activities Approved Submittal

D-5.3 1. confirm resource availability of List
Documents each team
2. Develop and deliver education 5.6.4 Review Information and Submittal
Documents to be generated List
3. Develop and deliver training
to be generated Approve for Sharing

Task Team 1 Task Team 2 Task Team n Task Team 1 Task Team 2 Task Team n

5.6.5 Information
Model review
Note: All activities in Note: All activities in
appointed party section appointed party section
Access should be carried by each should be carried by each
check
report the task teams and reports the task teams and reports
produced respectively. produced respectively.

PROCESS MAP KEY

Figure 4. Holistic Process Model of ISO 19650-2—Information delivery phase of assets. [Content derived from ISO 19650-1& 2 [50,65], UK BIM framework [26,35].
Process Start Event Intermediate Collapsed sub-
start/end Process

Process End Event

Guidance or
Decision Point Explanation

Sent Sequence
Received
Package Package Message Flow
Association Documents
Documents
to be referred to be
Model
Graphical Data
Non Graphical
TASK Group generated
data
Buildings 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 34
Buildings 2025, 15, 431 14 of 31

Intended Decisions that Key

Prepared by Appointing Party

Project Purpose for which Project Plan Key Decision Key Delivery
Procurement needs to be taken performance BIM Uses
Scope information will be used of Work points questions Milestone
Route by appointing party indicator
PIR

What is required. Use

as key performance
PIR are partly derived from OIR
indicator (KPI)
PIR Contributes to EIR PIR

Contract Information Outline CDE Workflow and Identify information container

Managerial req.

Terms exchange frequency identify metadata requirements breakdown structure

Define Information Provide project Information Information

Outline Spatial
collaboration specific identification identification
coordination
process standards conventions conventions

Answer
Define Strategic
Appointing Party EIR

Define project Set information business operation

Commercial req.

Contract Define Define shared Establish key

scope and delivery

Prepared by Appointing Party

Terms Deliverables resources decision points
constraints milestones

Define Strategic
Provide information Define Information
Capture existing Asset management
security collaboration
asset information

OIR
requirements process

OIR Portfolio Planning

Define
information Define CDE Define CDE Assign Level of
Software Model Expected
software requirements requirements Information Need (LOI/
Versions Quality file formats
Technical req.

Platform and details and details LOD) Define regulatory

duties or policy
making

What and when with a little bit of

how information needed to meet
OIR and PIR AIR Contributes to EIR
EIR_APOP
Managerial req.

Standards, Warranties and

Type of planning and
OIR provides input to AIR

Data structure processes and guarantee

asset work schedule
procedures periods
Prepared by Appointing Party

Commercial req.
AIR

Details of Information production

Description Information Standards Key performance indicator
suppliers methods and procedures
AIR
Technical req.

Operational Commissioning Services

data dates and data requirements

Figure 5. Information requirements process model. [Content derived from UK BIM

Figure 5. Information requirements process model. [Content
framework ([26,31]; ISO 19650-1 & 2 [50,65], CDBB [66]). derived from UK BIM framework
([26,31]; ISO 19650-1&2 [50,65], CDBB [66]).
 Buildings 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 34
Buildings 2025, 15, 431 15 of 31

Information Management Process During the Delivery Phase of Assets – ISO 19650:2
5.3 Tender Response

Delivery team’s (pre-appointment) BIM Execution Plan

Introduction

Project
Description
Delivery team
Assign information management scope and
roles and responsibilites collab goals
Information
mangemnet
responsibilities

Delivery team
Delivery team detailed
organistatinal
Information Delivery Strategy

responsibility
structure

Objectives for the collaborative

production of information

Proposed federation strategy

R-5.3
Documents PIM delivery strategy
to be referred
Information delivery plan

Deivery teams infromation risk

register
Information Standards

Information container
identification conventions

Health and safety and design

construction risk management
Information production methods and

Special coordination strategy

Information management key D-5.3

performance indicators (KPI)
Documents
procedures

to be generated
Information model quality

Information security
requirements

PRE-BEP
Main document

Figure6.6. Pre-appointment
Figure Pre-appointmentBIM BIM execution planplan
execution process modelmodel
process [content derivedderived
[content from UKfrom
BIM frame-
UK BIM
work [26,35];
framework CDBB
[26,35]; [66], ISO
CDBB [66],19650-1 & 2 [50,65].
ISO 19650-1 & 2 [50,65].

Figure 7 outlines the sections that need to be included after the delivery team’s
appointment, detailing the expanded roles and responsibilities of the delivery team under
Buildings 2025, 15, 431 16 of 31

the updated EIRs. It covers a wide array of activities, from project information management
and coordination standards to security requirements and data publishing protocols as
specified in ISO 19650-2. This is also complemented by additional guidance18from
Buildings 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 34
the UK
BIM Framework and templates provided by the Centre for Digital Built Britain. Refer to
Figure 7 [64]—post-appointment BIM execution plan process model.

Information Management Process During the Delivery Phase of Assets – ISO 19650:2
5.4 Appointment

Delivery team’s (Post-appointment) BIM Execution Plan

1. Introduction

1.1 Project Information 1.2 BEP use

R-5.4
1.3 Strategic BIM
1.4 Brief Schedule Documents
Goals
to be referred
Management

2.1 Information 2.2 Information management 2.3 High Level Detailed

management individuals list Assignment Matrix Responsibility matrix responsibility matrix
2.

TIDP MIDP

Level of information
Project scope 3.1 Appointing party need manual
Intended
3. Updated requests

EIR (Updated)
purpose
Intended Milestone schedule
procurement route
3.2 Reference infromation
and shared resources Library guide Shared resources
Projects CDE standards
and methods Projects reference
3.3 Projects information information
Updated training protocol
requirements

Projects Classification 4.1 Information Naming

Requirements Project Designators File Type Designators
system
Originator(Design Phases) Discipline Desihnators
4. Information standards

Metadata Zone & SUB Zones Workset namings

4.2 Means of structuring &
Classifying information Levels Number Designators

4.3 Exchange of 4.4 Method of 4.6 Sheets and

Information assignment for LOIN Annotations

4.7 Collab and modelling Modelling Standards

Exchange 4.5 Level of Accuracy
publishing standards
Formats withing CDE
Publishing Standards
Information Exchange/
Attribute Data

5.1 Spatial Coordination

5. Information production
methods and procedures

Modelling Methods and

5.2 Information container 5.4 Security procedures
breakdown structure Requirements Communication
procedures
5.3 Capture of existing 5.5 CDE publishing
methods and procedures Change Log
asset inforamtion

BIM Test Mock-up

5.6 The Delivery of Information
to Appointing party
delivery strategy
6. Information

6.1 Appointment 6.2 Delivery Teams Risk 6.3 Information delivery

Related Requirements Register strategy

7.2 Hardware & IT

7. IT Solutions

7.1 Sofware
infrastructure
D-5.4
Documents
to be generated

Figure
Figure 7.7.Post-appointment
Post-appointment BIM
BIMexecution plan
execution [content
plan derived
[content fromfrom
derived UK BIM
UKframework ([26,35];([26,35];
BIM framework
CDBB (2022) [66]; Archimco [67], ISO 19650-1 & 2 [50,65]).
CDBB (2022) [66]; Archimco [67], ISO 19650-1 & 2 [50,65]).
Buildings 2025, 15, 431
3.4. Process Model of Lead Appointed Party Exchange Information Requirement and MI
17 of 31

Figure 8 shows what the lead-appointed party needs to do to define and ma

3.4. Process Model of Lead Appointed Party Exchange Information Requirement and MIDP
EIRs. This includes defining levels of information need (LOIN), levels of accurac
Figure 8 shows what the lead-appointed party needs to do to define and manage the
and model information
EIRs. This summary
includes defining (MIS). This
levels of information process
need (LOIN), map was
levels of developed
accuracy (LOA), using
BIM and
Framework guidance
model information and(MIS).
summary available templates.
This process map was Refer
developed to using
Figure 8 [64]—L
the UK
pointed party EIR process model.
BIM Framework guidance and available templates. Refer to Figure 8 [64]—Lead-appointed
party EIR process model.

Consider any additional requirements

that appointed party should meet
EIR_APOP

R-5.4 Define each information

requirement
Documents INS_2
INP_2
Lead Appointed Party EIR

to be referred
LOIN_2 Establish the level of ACR_1
information need PMP_2
LOA_1 REF_1

Establish the date that

MIS_2
needs to be met
PoW_1
Establish the Acceptance
criteria for each information
requirement
AIR Establish Supporting
REF_1
SUP_APP
information which might
MIS_2 need for appointing party
PMP_2 SUP-App

EIR-LEAP

Figure 8. Lead appointed party EIR process model [content driven from UK BIM framework [26,35];
Figure 8. Lead appointed party EIR process model [content driven from UK BIM framewo
CDBB [66], ISO 19650-1 & 2 [50,65].
CDBB [66], ISO 19650-1 & 2 [50,65].
Figure 9 displays the workflow between task teams, creating task information deliv-
ery plans and combining them into an MIDP. The TIDP determines information require-
Figure 9 displays the workflow between task teams, creating task informati
ments, scope, formats, and tools. The MIDP aggregates all TIDPs to identify gaps and
ery plans and combining
misalignments them
and determine theinto
final an MIDP. The
deliverables, whichTIDP determines
comprise information
models, drawings,
ments, scope, formats,
specifications, and astools.
and timelines The
per ISO MIDP
19650-2. Referaggregates all TIDPsand
to Figure 9 [64]—MIDP toTIDP
identify g
process model.
misalignments and determine the final deliverables, which comprise models, d
specifications, and timelines as per ISO 19650-2. Refer to Figure 9 [64]—MIDP a
process model.
Buildings 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 35
Buildings 2025, 15, 431 18 of 31

Task information delivery plan TIDP

Task Team Task Team Task Team

Identify Information Identify Information Identify Information

requirements requirements requirements
Define scope of Define scope of Define scope of
information delivery information delivery information delivery
Decide format and Decide format and Decide format and
tools for information tools for information tools for information
delivery delivery delivery
Define what to be Define what to be Define what to be
delivered and specify delivered and specify delivered and specify
when it will be deliver when it will be deliver when it will be deliver

TIDP TIDP TIDP

Rejected revise and resubmit

Identify gaps Specify

Collate Reviewed Prepare list of Reviewed
and information
Initial TIDPs by IM deliverables by IM
Start of misalignment Author
MIDP process

Information Deliverables
vs Agreed Data Drops Regularly
maintain
and update
Models Drawings Specs. Final MIDP

Schedules Room data

sheets etc..
Master information delivery plan MIDP

Figure 9. Process model of MIDP and TIDP [content derived from UK BIM framework [26,35];
Figure
CDBB9. Process
[66], ISOmodel of&MIDP
19650-1 and TIDP [content derived from UK BIM framework [26,35]; CDBB
2 [50,65].
[66], ISO 19650-1 & 2 [50,65].
3.5. Process Model of Workflow in Common Data Environment
Figure 10 shows the ISO 19650 collaboration workflow for project information mod-
3.5. Process Model of Workflow in Common Data Environment
elling (PIM) production using the CDE. This method streamlines BIM data sharing and
Figure 10
approval shows
during the ISO 19650
a construction collaboration
project. workflow
The start of for project
PIM Production: information
Each model is ap-mod-
elling (PIM)
praised forproduction
its LOIN and using the CDE.
submitted This method
for verification. streamlines
Based on comments,BIMmodels
data sharing
may be and
approval
updated,during a construction
resubmitted, project.
or progressed The start Shared
for approval. of PIMSection:
Production: Each model
An interface manager is ap-
praised for its
spatially LOIN and
coordinates submitted
models fordisputes
to resolve verification.
in the Based on comments,
shared section. To ensuremodels may be
integrated
models, proposed solutions must be authorised by the lead designer
updated, resubmitted, or progressed for approval. Shared Section: An interface manager or contractor. The
CDE publishes
spatially coordinates models if thetoinformation
models managerinapproves
resolve disputes them.
the shared The delivery
section. man-inte-
To ensure
ager either certifies models as complete or requests adjustments. CDE’s published part
grated models, proposed solutions must be authorised by the lead designer or contractor.
receives certified models for wider availability. Project information models are sent to the
The CDE publishes models if the information manager approves them. The delivery man-
CDE repository to complete the procedure. The common data environment’s information
ager either certifies models as complete or requests adjustments. CDE’s published part
management cycle is completed by storing all documents for future reference. BS EN ISO
receives
19650-2certified
does not models for wider
encompass availability.
information Projectroles.
management information
Instead,models are
the entire sentof
range to the
CDE repository
operations to complete
involved the procedure.
in the information The common
management processdata
will environment’s
be carried out byinformation
a single
management
“information cycle is completed
management by storing
function.” all documents
Different real-world for future
roles reference.
like interface BS EN ISO
manager
19650-2 does not encompass
and information manager have information
been usedmanagement roles. Instead,
to better understand the entire
the workflow. Referrange
to of
Figure 10involved
operations [64]—workflow in common data
in the information environment.
management process will be carried out by a single
“information management function.” Different real-world roles like interface manager
and information manager have been used to better understand the workflow. Refer to
Figure 10 [64]—workflow in common data environment.
Buildings 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 34
Buildings 2025, 15, 431 19 of 31

Collaboration workflow through the Common Data Environment

PIM Production

Revise and
Comments Comments
resubmit
No
No
Work in Progress

Initial Model by Compiled Task Team

Yes Yes
Design task team inforamtion model Manager to
Start of PIM Information approve
Production manager to
verify

Not approved
Arch model
Arch model LOIN Non Graphical Stru model
LOIN Non Graphical data LOIN Non Graphical Comments
data data

Mep model
LOIN Non Graphical
data Rejected

Ready to be issued to CDE shared section

Interface manager Certified Delivery

Shared Volume Coordinated
To do Spatial No Clashes Yes Information Manager to
Model Coordination Model
Model Accept/Reject
Information Manager to
Clashes found approve information
exchange
Shared

Arch model
LOIN Non Graphical
data
Clash Report and Construction
Model LOIN
proposed
Mep model solutions Coordinated
Model LOIN Non Graphical
LOIN Non Graphical Lead design/ data
data
contactor to 4D simulation 5D simulation nD simulation
approve clashes
Struc model resolution
LOIN Non Graphical
data

Only required
Information is transferred No
Published

PIM Asset
Certified Ready to be issued to CDE Published section
Information Yes
Model
Project Close out Model
Asset informarion
manager to review
4D simulation 5D simulation nD simulation
Archive

Copy to Copy to Copy to Copy to

Archive Archive Archive Archive

Figure 10.Workflow
Figure10. Workflowinincommon
commondata
dataenvironment
environment[content
[contentdriven
drivenfrom
fromUK
UKBIM
BIMframework
framework[26,35];
[26,35];CDBB
CDBB[66],
[66],ISO
ISO19650-1
19650-1&&2 2[50,65].
[50,65].
Buildings 2025, 15, 431 20 of 31

3.6. Data Analysis

The data analysis process involved a detailed examination of the data collected through
multiple stages. First, the documents were carefully reviewed to identify and extract
relevant concepts. These concepts were structured and organised using BPMN to create
process models. The BPMN models were then refined and validated through in-depth
interviews with stakeholders, ensuring that they accurately reflected the processes and
interactions within the study’s focus area.
During the interviews, rich qualitative insights were gathered from the participants,
capturing their perspectives, experiences, and feedback on the proposed models. These
insights were systematically compared and contrasted to identify commonalities and
divergences across the responses. The alignment and disparities among the interviewees’
inputs were critically analyzed to refine the models further and ensure their relevance and
comprehensiveness. Additionally, the findings were evaluated against existing literature to
situate the study’s outcomes within the broader academic and professional context. This
comparison with prior research helped validate the findings, highlight innovative aspects,
and identify areas of alignment or departure from established knowledge. This multi-step
analytical approach ensured a thorough and robust interpretation of the data, combining
empirical insights with theoretical grounding.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Challenges to the Application of ISO 19650-1 & 2 in Construction Project
Information Management
An objective of this study was to evaluate the practical challenges and issues encoun-
tered in managing information during the lifecycle of construction projects and how ISO
19650 can be utilised to mitigate these challenges. Analysis of interview data combined
with insights from the literature offers insight into how effectively ISO 19650 standards are
perceived and implemented in real-world settings to mitigate these challenges.
Data from the interviews suggest that participants recognise the value of ISO 19650
in structuring and clarifying information management processes. However, they also
acknowledged the difficulty in understanding its usage. One reason for this is its textual
format. All the interviewees agreed that the textual format of ISO 19650 can lead to
difficulties in interpreting complex concepts, especially for individuals without a deep
technical background in BIM or standards management. The dense and detailed nature of
the document often results in varying and inconsistent interpretations of the requirements.
Additionally, all the participants stated that the linear and static nature of the ISO 19650
standard was a challenge. Participant 7 stated that: “the linear and static presentation of
information within a text-based document does not easily convey the dynamic interrelationships
between various elements of the standard.” The participant further stated: “This makes it
challenging for stakeholders to grasp the full scope of interdependencies, which is crucial for effective
project management and decision-making.” The lack of visual aids or interactive components
within the document further complicates the process of understanding how different parts
of the standard relate to each other in practice. This view corroborates a recent study by
Di Martino et al. [68], who stated that using standard process models—in other words,
text-based documents—can lead to ambiguities in task definitions, and communications
can lead to misinterpretations
Lastly, seven of the eight interviewees stated that the extensive and detailed nature of
ISO 19650 can be overwhelming, leading to challenges in efficiently locating and extracting
relevant information. This often necessitates a significant time investment to thoroughly
understand and apply the standards correctly, which can be a barrier to effective use,
particularly in fast-paced project environments.
Buildings 2025, 15, 431 21 of 31

Participant 8, for instance, remarked on the accuracy and clarity of the process models
based on ISO 19650:
“The process map for ISO 19650 is quite accurately represented. It clearly defines scope
and actions to be taken by various parties involved... It summarises the ISO 19650-2 in a
flowchart diagram, which is easy to follow.”
Similarly, Participant 5 commented on the utility of the process models:
“Your process maps for the ISO 19650 framework are really impressive in showing how
everything in our construction project is connected right from data sharing and role
assignments to how tasks flow from one to the next...and they give a clear picture of the
entire project lifecycle which is very helpful.”
Furthermore, Participant 7 underscored the advantage of graphical representation:
“It’s a great idea really to represent it graphically... It’s really hard to understand [ISO
19650] when it’s a lot of pages written. But when you see it graphically represented as
you put it in a table, I find it really helpful.”
Overall, feedback from the respondents recognised that the ISO 19650 framework
does enhance information management on construction projects. The respondents ac-
knowledged the clarity of the ISO 19650 framework. It makes the complex standards
understandable and operational through graphical process models. This becomes use-
ful in improving communication across the project teams and then, in turn, improving
coordination. This finding affirms that ISO 19650 provides a road map in a structured
and transparent way to manage project information to ensure successful construction
project delivery. This has brought out the practical benefits that the implementation of ISO
19650 assures, hence its capacity to bridge the gap between theoretical standards and their
practical implementation in the field.
Participant 8’s remark on the clarity of ISO 19650 process maps aligns with the prior
literature’s assertion that ISO 19650 provides a standardised approach for information
management, ensuring clarity and operational efficiency [12]. Participant 5’s comments on
the utility of process maps resonate with [12], emphasising the importance of structured in-
formation management processes to enhance project outcomes. Participant 7’s appreciation
for graphical representation reflects OMG [57], which discusses the benefits of graphical
notations like BPMN in improving the comprehension of complex standards such as ISO
19650. The respondents’ recognition of ISO 19650’s role in enhancing communication and
coordination supports [22], underscoring the value of effective information management
in reducing errors and rework. The acknowledgement of ISO 19650’s role in minimising
data silos and miscommunication is supported by Autodesk [4] and KPMG [14], both
highlighting the impact of poor data management on project inefficiencies and costs. The
enhanced collaboration and data management facilitated by ISO 19650, as noted by the
participants, is consistent with the UK BIM Framework [26] and Mahmood et al. [58],
which stress the benefits of BIM and ISO 19650 in improving productivity and project
delivery. ISO 19650 is felt to underpin the need for effective, interoperable, and structured
information exchange associated with the project at all stages of its lifecycle. Indeed, the
UK BIM Framework [26] and Ref [12] confirm that ISO 19650 furnishes a standardised way
of managing the information concerning projects during the stages of the projects; that is, it
deals with the creation, operation, and maintenance of built assets so that the deliverables
are of specified quality and are delivered on time and within cost [12]. Additionally, the
efficiency with which ISO 19650 reduces information fragmentation in itself—a nightmare
for the entire construction sector—is stressed. It helps to minimise common data manage-
ment problems, such as miscommunication and data silos, which are key drivers of project
delays and overruns [14].
Buildings 2025, 15, 431 22 of 31

4.2. Identification and Mapping of Key ISO 19650 1 & 2 Concepts

The concepts identified through document analysis were categorised into seven main
categories. The first category was a high-level process portraying all the high-level concepts
in the information delivery phase of assets (see Figure 4). The second was a process model
about the information requirement required in a BIM-compliant project (Figure 5). The
third and fourth process models were pre-appointment (Figure 6) and post-appointment
(Figure 7) BIM execution plans. The lead-appointed party EIR process model was the
fifth process model (Figure 8). The MIDP and TIDP were combined into one process
model (Figure 9). The sixth process model consisted of the workflow in the common data
environment (Figure 10). These concepts were then validated using in-depth interviews.

4.3. Identification and Mapping of Interdependencies in ISO 19650

The participants emphasised several critical aspects for accurately capturing inter-
dependencies. All participants agreed on the importance of standardised terminology,
efficient documentation management, and transparency in process models. Notably, two
participants recommended specific strategies to enhance clarity and effectiveness. The
following interview themes which emerged provide a cohesive understanding of how key
concepts, including their interdependencies, are recognised and managed in the developed
process models.

4.3.1. Standardised Terminology

All interview participants recognised the importance of standardised terminology in
improving the clarity and utility of process models. Five participants specifically mentioned
the shift from “level of detail (LOD)” to “level of information need (LOIN)” as a critical
change that aligns with ISO 19650 standards and enhances the focus on information
requirements. Participant 1 was very unequivocal about the use of standard terminologies:
“Moving from LOD to LOIN helps align our process models with ISO 19650’s focus on
information requirements rather than just detail, enhancing both clarity and utility in
our project management practices.”
This insight aligns with the UK BIM Framework, which stresses the importance of
using standardised terms for consistency and clarity [26]. The literature also supports
this shift, highlighting that ISO 19650 provides a comprehensive framework for infor-
mation management, emphasising the use of standardised terms to ensure clarity and
consistency [44].

4.3.2. Documentation in Common Data Environment (CDE)

Six participants highlighted the importance of efficient documentation management
within the CDE. Participants stressed the need for a container naming strategy in the BIM
execution plan, crucial for the efficient handling and retrieval of information:
“Incorporating a container naming strategy ensures that our documentation is organised
and traceable, significantly boosting our operational efficiency within the CDE.”
The literature supports this view, emphasising the role of BIM standards, including
CDE, in enhancing the structured and efficient sharing of project information, which is
crucial for managing interdependencies effectively [36]. The implementation of a CDE,
as discussed in the literature, facilitates the centralisation and accessibility of project data,
ensuring that all stakeholders have access to the most current information, thereby reducing
errors and inefficiencies [37].
Buildings 2025, 15, 431 23 of 31

4.3.3. Transparency and Integrity in Process Models

All the participants underscored the need to clearly delineate the origins of elements
in the process models, distinguishing those directly derived from ISO 19650 from those
adapted from other templates. This approach is crucial for maintaining the integrity and
transparency of the process models as reliable resources for project stakeholders. In fact,
Participant 6 was very unequivocal in their view and stated:
“It is important to delineate which aspects of our process maps are directly taken from
ISO 19650 and which are adapted to ensure users understand the framework thoroughly
and the basis of our methodologies.”
This necessity for clear and transparent processes when integrating ISO 19650 stan-
dards into existing frameworks is echoed in literature, emphasising the importance of
maintaining integrity and stakeholder trust ([44,45]). The literature stresses the impor-
tance of distinguishing between standardised practices and project-specific adaptations to
maintain clarity and trust among project stakeholders [45].

4.4. Benefits of and Barriers Representing ISO 19650 as Process Models

The fourth objective was to identify the benefits and barriers to representing
ISO 19650-1 & 2 using process models. The interviews captured stakeholders’ opinions re-
garding the benefits of using process models to represent the concepts defined in ISO 19650.
Multiple recurring themes show areas of consensus among participants on the usefulness
of process models for better project planning. Despite variations in responses, several key
themes emerged, indicating widespread agreement on the advantages of process models in
project planning according to ISO 19650. In total, five main themes were uncovered.

4.4.1. Enhanced Understanding and Clarity

All eight participants recognised that process models make the complex and often
abstract concepts of ISO 19650 more tangible and understandable. Six participants strongly
agreed that this clarity is particularly beneficial in multidisciplinary project teams where
not everyone may be familiar with ISO standards. This is exemplified by Participant 4,
who said:
“The visual representation of ISO 19650 through process models simplifies understanding
complex standards, making it easier for all stakeholders to grasp essential concepts and
their applications in real projects.”
This insight aligns with Rosser et al. (2018) [52], who emphasise the importance of
visual process models in breaking down complex standards into manageable parts for
effective implementation.

4.4.2. Better Communication Across Teams

Seven of the eight interviewees noted that visual representations facilitate clear com-
munication among teams, bridging understanding gaps and ensuring all members are
aligned regarding workflows and responsibilities. Amongst the seven, five participants
stated that process models support practice standardisation across projects, ensuring con-
sistent application of ISO 19650 standards and maintaining quality and conformance at all
project stages. This, in a way, contributes to enhancing communication amongst project
stakeholders. Participant 7 stated:
“Using process models to depict ISO 19650 helps in delineating roles and responsibili-
ties clearly, which streamlines project coordination and reduces conflicts.”
Nordemann et al. [53] highlight the role of visual process models in enhancing com-
munication and standardising project task execution, which is crucial for maintaining
Buildings 2025, 15, 431 24 of 31

consistency and ensuring quality. Another recent study by Polančič and Orban [69] re-
vealed BPMN enhances communication.

4.4.3. Efficiency in Project Execution

All the participants agreed that process models may facilitate project implementation,
reduce errors, and minimise rework by providing a clear map of processes and expected
outcomes. Among eight participants, five strongly highlighted the impact of process
models on improving project efficiency. In fact, in very strong terms, Participant 3 noted:
“Process models make everyone aware of the standards or the basic requirements needed
to ensure the project is done at a high level. This clarity helps reduce errors and
minimise rework.”
The UK BIM Framework [26] and Mahmood et al. [58] corroborate this, highlighting
that structured information management practices facilitated by visual process models
enhance productivity and quality, reduce errors, and minimise rework.

4.4.4. Training and Adoption

Six of the eight participants noted the benefits of using process models as training
aids, with four of these participants emphasising that visual representations help new team
members quickly grasp essential concepts and practices associated with ISO 19650. This
accelerates their learning curve and ensures they can contribute effectively to the project.
This is exemplified unequivocally by Participant 7, who stated:
“Representing something in a graphical mode is so much more helpful, especially
in our industry where we are used to working with graphic representations of buildings
and maps.”
The literature corroborates this, emphasising that visual tools enhance learning and
retention, making complex standards more accessible to diverse teams and promoting
smoother adoption of new practices [37].

4.4.5. Identifying Gaps and Improvements

Five of the eight participants mentioned that process models allow organisations to
identify gaps and inefficiencies in their information management processes. Four of these
participants emphasised that visualising these processes makes it easier to spot areas that
need improvement, enabling organisations to optimise workflows and enhance overall
performance. In the words of Participant 4:
“Process models allow organisations to identify gaps and inefficiencies in their infor-
mation management processes, making it easier to spot areas that need improvement and
optimise workflows.”
This finding is corroborated by the literature, which has found that continuous im-
provement and the iterative refinement of processes for identifying and bridging gaps can
lead to better project outcomes [26].
In summary, visualising ISO 19650 standards through process models has many
benefits. These benefits include enhanced understanding and clarity, better communication
across teams, increased efficiency in project execution, practical training and adoption,
and identifying gaps and improvements. This alignment underscores the value of process
models in making complex standards more accessible and operational, leading to more
effective project management and successful outcomes.
Additionally, participants’ opinions about the challenges of representing ISO 19650-1 & 2
standards through process models are identified and discussed. The findings from identify-
ing the challenges of representing ISO 19650-1 & 2 standards through process models can
be grouped into four main themes.
Buildings 2025, 15, 431 25 of 31

4.4.6. High Standards Complexity

All eight participants believe that ISO 19650-1 & 2 contains numerous complexities
that are difficult to express comprehensively and accurately through process models. Six
participants highlighted the challenge of capturing the full complexity of ISO 19650 in
process models, which can lead to information loss and potential issues. Participant 3 was
very unequivocal about this and noted:
“Sometimes, the models oversimplify things. You miss out on important details, which
can lead to problems down the line.”
This aligns with Ashworth et al. [56], who highlight the challenges of representing
deep technical content in process models, emphasising the risk of oversimplification. Suc-
car and Poirier [70] also discuss the inherent complexity of BIM standards like ISO 19650,
emphasising the difficulty of representing these standards in a simplified yet comprehen-
sive manner.

4.4.7. Human Error and Miscommunication

While process models aim to improve communication and understanding, three
participants noted that these models still risk misinterpretation if they oversimplify and
misrepresent the refined details of the standards. Participant 6 highlighted this issue:
“Even though models help in understanding, there’s always a risk of misinterpretation if
the details are oversimplified.”
Sacks et al. [71] discuss the potential for human error in creating and interpreting
process models, emphasising the need for accuracy to avoid miscommunication. Succar
and Poirier [70] note that while process models can improve communication, they also risk
misinterpretation if not accurately detailed.

4.4.8. Levels of Education and Training

Among eight participants, four identified the variation in expertise among team
members as a major challenge, leading to inconsistencies in the understanding and usage
of process models. Five participants emphasised the need for adequate training to ensure
consistent understanding and usage of process models across project teams. Participant 5
commented:
“Not everyone is on the same page about how to use these models, especially when they’re
new to the ISO standards or to modelling tools.”
Jeong and Kim [55] emphasise the importance of training in addressing variations in
expertise among team members.

4.4.9. Integration with Existing Systems

Out of the eight interviewees, six participants indicated the difficulty of integrating
process models with existing project management tools and systems, which reduces the
usefulness of the models. The six participants specifically mentioned that integration
issues significantly impact the adoption and effectiveness of process models. In fact,
Participant 5 noted:
“Integrating these models with our current project management systems is quite
challenging, which limits their use.”
Ashworth et al. [56] and Jeong and Kim (2016) [55] discuss the barriers to the effective
adoption of process models due to integration issues, highlighting the impact on usability
and effectiveness.
Buildings 2025, 15, 431 26 of 31

Summarily, from the aforementioned paragraphs, there are many challenges in repre-
senting/visualising ISO 19650 standards through process models. These challenges include
high standards of complexity, risks of human error and miscommunication, varying levels
of education and training, and difficulties in integration with existing systems. Addressing
these challenges is crucial for improving the usability and effectiveness of process models
in representing ISO 19650-1 & 2 standards, leading to more efficient project management
and better outcomes.
In addition to the findings discussed in the preceding section, it is imperative to
examine some main contributions to knowledge. The originality and novelty of this work
are rooted in its systematic approach to addressing the challenges of understanding and
implementing ISO 19650 standards through process modelling. This is demonstrated
through the following key contributions:
Simplification of Complex Concepts: This study tackles the inherent complexity and static
nature of ISO 19650 by utilising process modelling tools such as BPMN. Through graphical
representations, the research demystifies the standard, making workflows more accessible
and easier for stakeholders to understand and apply in construction projects.
The Value of Graphical Representations: This research underscores the significance of
graphical process models in enhancing both the comprehension and practical applica-
tion of BIM standards. By translating text-based standards into visual workflows, the
study improves clarity, fosters better communication, and enhances collaboration across
multidisciplinary project teams.
Revealing Interdependencies Within ISO 19650: Using BPMN models, the research ex-
poses the interdependencies between various concepts within ISO 19650, providing a level
of insight that is not readily apparent in the standard’s traditional text-based format. This
visualisation aids stakeholders in understanding how different components of the standard
interact, ultimately improving its usability.
Practical Utility of Process Models: The work demonstrates how BPMN-based process
models streamline information flow, improve project execution efficiency, and ensure
compliance with ISO 19650. This practical application bridges the gap between theoretical
standards and their real-world implementation, showing the models’ effectiveness in
achieving project goals.

5. Conclusions
This research aims to analyse the impact of process modelling on the comprehension
of BIM standards, particularly ISO 19650. The study employs a qualitative multi-method
approach to comprehensively capture theoretical frameworks and practical applications
of BIM processes and standards. The research integrates qualitative and simulation meth-
ods. In the qualitative phase, in-depth interviews with professionals experienced in BIM
and ISO 19650 provided rich contextual insights into their experiences and the practical
challenges encountered. These interviews yielded valuable qualitative data, shedding light
on the subjective experiences of professionals involved in BIM projects. In the simulation
phase, process models were developed to simulate the workflows prescribed by ISO 19650
standards, allowing for an examination of their practical applications and implications in
real-world settings. Through these visual models, the research demonstrated that process
modelling can enhance the understanding and management of BIM standards.
The first objective focused on understanding the challenges in information manage-
ment. Through qualitative data from interviews and an extensive literature review, key
issues such as interoperability and data integration were identified. The second objective
investigated how ISO 19650 could address these challenges by creating a process map for
information management using BPMN, which visually represents the flow of information
Buildings 2025, 15, 431 27 of 31

as prescribed by ISO 19650, making it easier to comprehend and implement. The inter-
dependencies within ISO 19650 were effectively represented through process modelling,
refined based on expert feedback. The final objective identified the benefits and challenges
of process modelling, highlighting improvements in information flow clarity, stakeholder
collaboration, and project execution efficiency while also noting issues like oversimplifi-
cation and varying levels of team understanding. This study significantly contributes to
the field of BIM by demonstrating how process modelling can facilitate the comprehension
and implementation of ISO 19650 standards, providing a valuable tool for connecting
theoretical frameworks with real-world construction management applications and serving
as a foundation for further development in both academia and industry.
This article predominantly focuses on ISO 19650-2, providing deep insights into
specific standards; however, this narrow scope does not encompass all the complexities
or potential of BIM across different standards and contexts. By limiting the exploration to
ISO 19650-2, the article may present an incomplete picture of the broader applications and
challenges associated with BIM, potentially overlooking significant aspects covered by other
related standards. Such a focused approach might restrict the audience’s understanding,
leading to an incomplete grasp of BIM’s multifaceted nature and its various implementation
scenarios in diverse projects.
In addition, the article acknowledges that the models used to represent ISO 19650
standards sometimes oversimplify the processes, missing out on important details. This
oversimplification can lead to problems down the line, as critical nuances might be lost in
translation. This challenge aligns with Ashworth et al. [56], who emphasise the difficulties
of representing deep technical content through process models, underscoring the risk of
undermining the effectiveness and accuracy of these models. Consequently, while process
models are useful for simplifying complex standards, they must be designed carefully to
avoid significant omissions that could impact the practical application of BIM standards.
Future research should broaden its scope beyond ISO 19650-1 & 2 to encompass other
relevant BIM standards. By investigating a wider range of standards, a more comprehen-
sive understanding of the complexities and potential of BIM across diverse contexts and
applications can be gained. This holistic approach would mitigate the limitations associated
with focusing on just two standards, providing a more inclusive perspective of BIM imple-
mentation and its various challenges. Considering the scope of this article, the proposed
process models were not applied within detailed case studies that could illustrate their
practical benefits in real-world construction projects. Future research should prioritise the
integration of these process models into comprehensive case studies, enabling a thorough
evaluation of their real-world applicability. Such studies would provide concrete evidence
of the model’s effectiveness in enhancing project workflows and ensuring adherence to
BIM standards, particularly ISO 19650. By validating both the strengths and limitations
of the process models, this research direction would bridge the gap between theoretical
development and practical implementation in the construction industry.
Additionally, there is a pressing need to develop advanced modelling techniques that
can accurately capture the intricate and complex nature of BIM standards. Future studies
should focus on creating sophisticated process models that minimise oversimplification and
retain critical details. Although the oversimplification of process models can be beneficial, it
can lead to several significant risks, particularly when dealing with complex systems. One
major risk is the loss of critical details, where important nuances and factors that influence
the system are omitted. This omission can result in overlooking key dependencies and
constraints, leading to ineffective or incomplete solutions. Furthermore, oversimplified
models often fail to adequately represent the complexities and interdependencies inherent
Buildings 2025, 15, 431 28 of 31

in real-world systems. As a result, they may produce unrealistic predictions, misguide

decision-making, and fail to address the intricacies of dynamic environments.
Another critical risk is the potential for misleading assumptions embedded in over-
simplified models. These assumptions, which may not hold true in all scenarios, can skew
the interpretation of results and undermine the credibility of the model. Additionally,
stakeholders might view oversimplified models as lacking depth or relevance, resulting in
resistance to adoption and limiting the model’s practical utility.
To mitigate these risks, an iterative refinement approach can be employed. Start-
ing with a basic model and gradually enhancing it based on stakeholder feedback and
additional data ensures a balance between simplicity and comprehensiveness. Another
effective strategy is modular modelling, where complex systems are divided into smaller,
manageable components. Each module can be simplified individually while maintaining
the ability to integrate them for a holistic analysis.
Stakeholder involvement is also crucial in overcoming oversimplification. By collab-
orating with key participants, it becomes easier to identify critical aspects that must be
retained in the model to ensure its relevance and practicality. This collaboration helps to
avoid the omission of vital components and ensures that the model aligns with real-world
applications.
Additionally, advanced tools such as simulation software or machine learning al-
gorithms can help manage complexity without sacrificing critical details. Incorporating
technologies such as artificial intelligence and machine learning can enhance the precision
and effectiveness of these models, making them more robust and reliable for practical appli-
cations. Such advancements would ensure that the models are not only theoretically sound
but also practically viable, supporting more effective BIM implementation in real-world
scenarios.

Author Contributions: F.H.A.: Led the overall research design and execution, contributing to the
conceptual framework and analysis of findings. B.B.: Assisted in data collection, particularly in
conducting qualitative interviews, and contributed to the development of the process models. S.E.A.:
Focused on the technical aspects of process modelling, particularly in the application of BPMN and
UML to ISO 19650 workflows. A.A.: Contributed to the interpretation of results and supported the
validation of process models through expert interviews. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.

Funding: This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, com-
mercial, or not-for-profit sectors. The study was conducted without any external financial support.

Data Availability Statement: The original contributions presented in the study are included in the
article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the
research, authorship, and publication of this article.

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