Instructor’s Guide to Accompany Digital Electronics

Chapter 3

Chapter 3: Basic Principles of Digital Systems

Teaching Outline

Describe some differences between analog and digital electronics.

Teachable Moments
Analog signals are continuous, like a sine wave, and can have any value. Digital signals
can only have specific values. In the simplest case, the digital signal can either be ON or OFF;
however, we often use digital signals that can be one of four values, one of 32 values, or one of
65,536 values or more. Digital values are also discrete, or sampled every so often.
For example if someone asks how old you are, you might say “32”, but probably not “32
years, 3 months, 6 days, 10:09:01; 32 years, 3 months, 6 days, 10:09:02, 32 years, 3 months, 6
days, 10:09:03…” Your age is really continuous, but you just ‘sample’ your real, continuous
age. We usually ‘sample’; once a year, but we could sample monthly. “I’m 387 months old.”
Remember when music came on albums? The needle passed over an album and
transmitted vibrations that went to a speaker. If you scratch the surface, the needle found the
scratch and ‘thumped’. Albums were replaced by CDs, which stores music digitally. The music
is encoded by a group of 1’s and 0’s. How is this done? Every so often (actually, 44,000 times
each second) the signal is sampled and encoded. If we draw a straight line from one sampled
value to the next, and continue to the next, and the next, we can come close to reconstructing the
original waveform. Storing digital (or discrete) values is much easier than storing an analog
waveform. For example, a record album stored around 14 songs while an MP3 player can store
thousands.
Classroom Strategies
Ask the class for examples of analog vs. digital and/or continuous vs. discrete. Some
examples:
 Temperature: Continuous
 Exam scores: Continuous (while you wouldn’t usually see a score of 93.35%, it is possible)
 Height: Continuous
 Number of moons of a given planet: Discrete (you cannot have 2.4 moons)
 Satisfaction on a Likert scale: Discrete (“How satisfied were you?” 5 4 3 2 1)

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Chapter 3

You may find that some variables can be vague: for example, speed on a speedometer. A
digital speedometer only displays speed in mph; 55.1 mph would be shown as 55. Technically,
speed would be continuous; the instrumentation would display it as a discrete value.

Understand the concept of HIGH and LOW logic levels.

Teachable Moments
This is a key concept from which the rest of the course is built. Digital signals have 2
discrete values: ON or OFF, also known as:

ON OFF
1 0
HIGH LOW
+5 Volts 0 Volts (Some voltages for High are lower: 3.3V, 1.7V, etc)
Active* Inactive* (Some circuits are Active Low, in which case Inactive
would be High)
Classroom Strategies
A simple demonstration for this concept is to turn off the lights in the room. Ask the
students if the lights are ON or OFF. Turn them on and off and continue; then ask “What if they
are neither ON nor OFF?” The question doesn’t make sense – in a typical classroom (without
dimmable light), they are ON or OFF – period. This is the concept we use in digital electronics.

Explain the basic principles of a positional notation number system.

Teachable Moments
We are all familiar with positional numbers using base-10. We know that the number 1,259 has
1 in the 1000’s column, 2 in the 100’s column, 5 in the 10’s column and 9 in the 1’s column.
The base-2 number system should also seem straightforward as the class progresses. It may
seem strange to have a 32’s column, 16’s column, 8’s, 4’s, 2’s and 1’s column, but realizing that
these are powers of 2, or that each column doubles the last column will soon help these numbers
become easy to work with. As we begin to use octal (base-8) or hexadecimal or hex (base-16)
numbers, these will be easiest to treat as special cases of binary (base-2) numbers.

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Chapter 3

Classroom Strategies
Figures 3.3 and 3.4 in the text show how to demonstrate positional number systems. Any
number can be shown: base-10 numbers use the thousands – hundreds – tens – ones column,
while base-2 numbers use powers of 2 (32’s – 16’s – 8’s – 4’s – 2’s – 1’s columns). Reviewing a
few numbers should be sufficient. Most inexpensive calculators have binary conversion, which
allow students (and teachers) to check their work. Encourage students to convert without
calculators at first – this will prove helpful in later chapters where binary numbers are
manipulated.

Translate logic HIGHs and LOWs into binary numbers.

Teachable Moments
Binary numbers are base-2, and therefore, they use 2 digits: 0 or 1. Logic levels are
either HIGH or LOW, represented by 1 and 0. If we consider logic level HIGH (or +5V) as 1,
and logic level 0 (or 0 Volts) as 0, these logic levels translate to binary digits (binary digits are
also known as bits).
Classroom Strategies
This concept will become clear throughout the course with continued examples. Bring It
Home number 3.7 is very useful for illustrating this concept.

Distinguish between the most significant bit and least significant bit of a binary
number.
Teachable Moments
The Most Significant Bit (or MSB) is always the leftmost bit; the Least Significant Bit (LSB) is
the rightmost.
Classroom Strategies
A simple way to illustrate this is using salary or payment. You might say “Suppose I offer to pay
you $125 to mow my yard (or shovel snow, spread gravel…) Now, I also let you add 1 to one of
these digits: would you rather change the 1 to a 2, or the 5 to a 6 ($225 or $126)?” The ‘biggest
number’ in this case is the Most Significant Digit – a change to the most significant gives us a
more significant change.

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Chapter 3

Count in binary, decimal, or hexadecimal.

Teachable Moments
This is a key concept in this chapter. Counting in decimal (base-10) is easy: we would like to get
to the point where counting in binary would be easy as well. As we count in decimal, we use
each digit:
14
15
16
17
18
19 … and we run out of digits; we have to increment the next more-significant digit
20 … and start over with 0
21 … and so on.

Counting with binary is the same (except we only have 2 digits – 0 or 1):
0
1 … we have run out of digits; we must increment the next more-significant bit
10
11 … again, increment the next, which has also run out; increment the next
100
101 … and so on

Counting in hexadecimal (more commonly called ‘hex’) is the same, except we have 16 digits
available. We represent these as: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E and F.
18
19
1A
1B
1C
1D
1E
1F … and we’ve run out of digits. Increment the next more significant
20
21 … and so on.

Classroom Strategies
This concept is best seen on the board. Demonstrate by first doing a sequence of decimal
numbers (perhaps 45 to 61, then 92 to 111), then using Bring it Home numbers 3.9 and 3.10,

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Instructor’s Guide to Accompany Digital Electronics
Chapter 3

further demonstrate by finding the sequence between any two other binary numbers (perhaps 110
through 1011, then 1010101 through 1011111). Having students demonstrate on the board –
perhaps in teams – would also be effective. Finally, the text emphasizes the importance of
counting from 0000 to 1111 (0 to 16) in binary: assigning this in class as a quiz may be
effective.

Convert a number in binary, decimal, or hexadecimal to any of the other number

bases.
Teachable Moments
Converting between decimal and binary is probably the other most important concept in this
chapter.
Decimal to Binary: Sum of powers of 2
Find the largest power of 2 number that is smaller than the number to convert.
Put a "1" in that column
Subtract the "power of 2" number from the original number
Is the next smallest "power of 2" number smaller than the new number?
If so, write a "1" and subtract the "power of 2" number
If not, write a "0" and repeat.

Example:
Convert 563 to binary

highest power of 2 which is smaller than 563 is 512 (29 = 512).

... therefore, put a "1" in the 29 column, subtract 563-512 = 51.
001xxxxxxxxx
(like a car odometer, we really don't need the leftmost "leading"
29 ... 20
0's -
they are shown on the animated image on the right)
next smaller power of 2 is 28 = 256. Not smaller than 51, put in
10xxxxxxxx
a 0 & repeat.
next smaller power of 2 is 27 = 128. Not smaller than 51, put in
100xxxxxxx
a 0 & repeat.
next smaller power of 2 is 26 = 64. Not smaller than 51, put in a 1000xxxxxx

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Chapter 3

0 & repeat.
next smaller power of 2 is 25 = 32. Smaller than 51, put in a 1,
10001xxxxx
subtract (51-32=19) & repeat.
next smaller power of 2 is 24 = 16. Smaller than 19, put in a 1,
100011xxxx
subtract (19-16=3) & repeat.
next smaller power of 2 is 23 = 8. Not smaller than 3, put in a 0
1000110xxx
& repeat.
next smaller power of 2 is 22 = 4. Not smaller than 3, put in a 0
10001100xx
& repeat.
next smaller power of 2 is 21 = 2. Smaller than 3, put in a 1,
100011001x
subtract (3-2=1) & repeat.
next smaller power of 2 is 20 = 1. Same as 1, put in a 1, done. 1000110011
... the final answer is 56310 = 10001100112. Feel free to double check this with a calculator.

Binary to Decimal - Add powers of 2 where a '1' appears.

Example:
Convert 101011001 to decimal...

28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 = 28 + 26 + 24 + 23 + 20 = 256 + 64 + 16 + 8 + 1 = 345
Binary to Hex and Hex to Binary:
One hex digit can easily be converted to 4 binary digits (be sure to start with the least significant
digit!) Likewise, 4 binary digits (bits) can be directly converted to one hex digit.
Decimal to Hex and Hex to Decimal:
While there are methods to do this, we would typically convert decimal > binary > hex or hex >
binary > decimal as the binary/decimal conversions become easier.
Classroom Strategies
Demonstrate! Multiple examples allow this concept to final ‘click’ and become straightforward.
Examples on the board, homework and in class give the necessary practice. Note that one danger

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Chapter 3

of simply assigning homework is the prevalence of calculators. These must be converted by

hand at this point. In later, more complex designs, the end result (the fact that 100101102 =
15010) is not important, but the conversion process (being able to convert 10010110 to 150) is
necessary.
There are quite a few Bring It Home examples in this chapter – these may certainly be
used to demonstrate and practice.
Of course, calculators may be used to be sure the conversion was done correctly.

Describe the difference between periodic, aperiodic, and pulse waveforms.

Teachable Moments
Periodic waveforms repeat. Aperiodic waveforms don’t repeat – if you cannot find the
repeating sequence, the waveform is not periodic (aperiodic).
Pulse waveforms, or simply a pulse, is a signal that goes HIGH for a certain amount of
time when something ‘triggers’ it.
Classroom Strategies
See Classroom Strategies below.

Calculate the frequency, period, and duty cycle of a periodic digital waveform.

Teachable Moments
Frequency, period and duty cycle only apply to periodic waveforms. The frequency (f) is
the number of times a pattern appears per second. The period (T) is the time it takes for this
pattern. When we find one, the other can be found by: f = 1/T
The duty cycle is the percentage of time that a wave is HIGH.
Note that a clock is a special kind of periodic waveform we will see later in the chapter.
It’s a repeating signal, usually with a duty cycle around 50%; basically, it’s a signal that goes
HIGH – LOW – HIGH – LOW – etc.
Classroom Strategies
Again, demonstrations and examples are key to recognizing these signals. Draw a
waveform on the board and find the frequency, period and duty cycle. Note that you must give
the time (best done on the X-axis) in order to find frequency and period; duty cycle is a

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Chapter 3

percentage, so it’s possible to calculate without knowing the time (but it often helps students
grasp the concept if times are given.)

Calculate the pulse width of a digital pulse.

Teachable Moments
Figure 3.11 in the text shows a pulse – the pulse width is the time from the rising to the falling
edge.
Classroom Strategies
Once more: examples are the best way to describe the concept of pulse width. Be sure to give
the time on the x-axis!

Answers to Your Turn Activities

3.1 What is the basic difference between analog and digital audio reproduction?
Answer: An analog audio system makes a direct copy of the recorded sound waves. A digital
system stores the sound as a series of binary numbers.
3.2 Which would produce a more accurate reproduction of the original analog signal:
more samples or fewer samples? Why?
Answer: More samples would give a more accurate representation. The more samples we
record, the closer the signal is to an audio recording.
3.3 How many different binary numbers can be written with 6 bits?
Answer: 64 (=26)
3.4 How many can be written with 7 bits?
Answer: 128 (=27)
3.5 Write the sequence of 7-bit numbers from 1010000 to 1010111.
Answer: 1010000
1010001
1010010
1010011
1010100
1010101

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Chapter 3

1010110
1010111
3.6 Write the decimal equivalents of the numbers written for the previous problem.
Answer: 1010000 = 80
1010001 = 81
1010010 = 82
1010011 = 83
1010100 = 84
1010101 = 85
1010110 = 86
1010111 = 87
3.7 List the hexadecimal numbers from FA9 to FB0, inclusive.
Answer: FA9
FAA
FAB
FAC
FAD
FAE
FAF
FB0
3.8 List the hexadecimal numbers from 1F9 to 200, inclusive.
Answer: 1F9
1FA
1FB
1FC
1FD
1FE
1FF
200
3.9 Convert the hexadecimal number A30FH to its decimal equivalent.
Answer: 41,743

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Chapter 3

3.10 Convert the decimal number 137 to its hexadecimal equivalent.

Answer: 89H
3.11 Convert the hexadecimal number 934BH to binary.
Answer: 1001001101001011
3.12 Convert the binary number 11001000001101001001 to hexadecimal.
Answer: C8349H
1.13 A digital circuit produces a waveform that can be described by the following
periodic bit pattern: 0011001100110011.
a. What is the duty cycle of the waveform?
Answer: First, check to see if the waveform is periodic, and it is: the pattern 0011 repeats. The
percentage of time the waveform is HIGH is 50%, thus, the duty cycle is 50%.
b. Write the bit pattern of a waveform with the same duty cycle and twice the
frequency of the original.
Answer: Assuming each bit represents a certain amount of time, a waveform with a 50% duty
cycle and twice the frequency would appear as:
01010101
c. Write the bit pattern of a waveform having the same frequency as the original
and a duty cycle of 75%.
Answer: 011101110111

Answers to Bring It Home Activities

3.1 Digital Versus Analog Electronics
3.1 Which of the following quantities is analog in nature and which digital? Explain your
answers.
a. Water temperature at the beach
b. Weight of a bucket of sand
c. Grains of sand in a bucket
d. Waves hitting the beach in one hour
e. Height of a wave
f. People in a square mile
Answer:
Analog quantities: Digital quantities:
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Chapter 3

a. Water temperature at the beach c. Grains of sand in a bucket

b. Weight of a bucket of sand d. Waves hitting the beach in one hour
e. Height of a wave f. People in a square mile

Generally, any quantity that can be expressed as

“the number of...” is digital.
3.2 Which of the following quantities is analog in nature and which digital? Explain your
answers.
a. Number of students in a classroom
b. Winning score of a basketball game
c. Height of the tallest player on a team
d. Speed of a roller coaster
e. Roller coaster riders per hour
Answer:
Analog quantities: Digital quantities:
c. Height of the tallest player on a team a. Number of students in a classroom
d. Speed of a roller coaster b. Winning score of a basketball game
e. Roller coaster riders per hour
3.2 Digital Logic Levels
3.3 A digital logic system is defined by the voltages 3.3 volts and 0 volts. For a positive
logic system, state which voltage corresponds to a logic 0 and which to a logic 1.
Answer: 1 corresponds to +3.3V; 0 corresponds to 0 Volts.
3.4 A digital logic system is defined by the voltages 1.8 volts and 0 volts. For a positive
logic system, state which voltage corresponds to a logic 0 and which to a logic 1.
Answer: 1 corresponds to +1.8V; 0 corresponds to 0 Volts.
3.3 The Binary Number System
3.5 Calculate the decimal values of each of the following binary numbers:
a. 100 e. 10101
b. 1000 f. 11101
c. 11001 g. 100001
d. 110 h. 10111001

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Answer:
a. 100 = (1 x 4) + (0 x 2) + (0 x 1) = 410
b. 1000 = (1 x 8) + (0 x 4) + (0 x 2) + (0 x 1) = 810
c. 11001 = (1 x 16) + (1 x 8) + (0 x 4) + (0 x 2) + (1 x 1) = 2510
d. 110 = 4 + 2 + 0 = 610
e. 10101 = 16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1 = 2110
f. 11101 = 16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1 = 2910
g. 111011 = 32 + 16 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 = 5910
h. 1011101 = 64 + 0 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1 = 9310
3.6 Calculate the decimal values of each of the following binary numbers:
a. 101 e. 11101
b. 1001 f. 111011
c. 10110 g. 1010101
d. 111 h. 100001
Answer: Each answer is in base 10 (in other words, 5 is actually 510)
a. 101 = (1 x 4) + (0 x 2) + (1 x 1) = 5
b. 1001 = (1 x 8) + (0 x 4) + (0 x 2) + (1 x 1) = 9
c. 10110 = 16 + 4 + 2 = 22
d. 111 = 4 + 2 + 1 = 7
e. 11101 = 16 + 8 + 4 + 1 = 29
f. 111011 = 32 + 16 + 8 + 2 + 1 = 59
g. 1010101= 64 + 16 + 4 + 1 = 85
h. 100001 = 32 + 1 = 33
3.7 Translate each of the following combinations of HIGH (H) and LOW (L) logic levels
to binary numbers using positive logic:
a. H H L H c. H L H L
b. L H L H d. L L L H
Answer:
a. 1101 b. 0101 c. 1010 d. 0001
3.8 Translate each of the following combinations of HIGH (H) and LOW (L) logic levels
to binary numbers using positive logic:

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a. H L L L c. H H H L L
b. L L L L d. H L L H H L
Answer:
a. 1000 b. 0000 c. 11100 d. 100110
3.9 List the sequence of binary numbers from 101 to 1000.
Answer: 101
110
111
1000
3.10 List the sequence of binary numbers from 10000 to 11111.
Answer: (notice: cover the most significant bit and you see the binary pattern
1000 0000 through 1111)
100010
10010
10011
10100
10101
10110
10111
11000
11001
11010
11011
11100
11101
11110
11111
3.11 What is the decimal value of the most significant bit for the numbers in Problem
3.10?
Answer: 32
3.12 Convert the following decimal numbers to binary. Use the sum-of-powers-of-2
method for parts a, c, e, and g. Use the repeated-division-by-2 method for parts b, d,
f, and h.
a. 7510 e. 8310
b. 23710 f. 6410
c. 19810 g. 408710
d. 6310 h. 819310
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Chapter 3

Answer:
a. 1001011 e. 1010011
b. 11101101 f. 1000000
c. 11000110 g. 111111110111
d. 111111 h. 10000000000001
3.13 Convert the following decimal numbers to binary. Use the sum-of-powers-of-2
method.
a. 6510 d. 9810
b. 24910 e. 3210
c. 18910 f. 217710
Answer:
a. 1000001 d. 1100010
b. 11111001 e. 100000
c. 10111101 f. 100010000001
3.14 Convert the following decimal numbers to binary. Use the repeated-division-by-2
method.
a. 3510 d. 8910
b. 19410 e. 12810
c. 31110 f. 324710
Answer:
a. 100011 d. 1011001
b. 11000010 e. 10000000
c. 100110111 f. 110010101111
3.4 Hexadecimal Numbers
3.15 Write all the hexadecimal numbers in sequence from 308H to 321H inclusive.
Answer:
308 315
309 316
30A 317
30B 318
30C 319
30D 31A
30E 31B
30F 31C

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Chapter 3

310 31D
311 31E
312 31F
313 320
314

3.16 Write all the hexadecimal numbers in sequence from 9F7H to A03H inclusive.
Answer:
9F7
9F8
9F9
9FA
9FB
9FC
9FD
9FE
9FF
A00
A01
A02
A03
3.17 Convert the following hexadecimal numbers to their decimal equivalents:
a. 1A0H
b. 10AH
c. FFFH
d. F3C8H
e. D3B4H
f. C000H
Answer:
a. 416 d. 62408
b. 266 e. 54196
c. 4095 f. 49152

3.18 Convert the following hexadecimal numbers to their decimal equivalents:

a. 2BCH
Answer: 700
b. 10FH
Answer: 271
c. 1000H
Answer: 4096

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Instructor’s Guide to Accompany Digital Electronics
Chapter 3

d. A38DH
Answer: 41869
e. A222H
Answer: 41506
f. 30BAFH
Answer: 199599
3.19 Convert the following decimal numbers to their hexadecimal equivalents.
a. 70910
Answer: 2C5 H
b. 188910
Answer: 761 H
c. 422510
Answer: 1081 H
d. 1012810
Answer: 2790H
e. 3200010
Answer: 7D00 H
f. 3276810
Answer: 8000H
3.20 Convert the following decimal numbers to their hexadecimal equivalents:
a. 90710
Answer: 38B H
b. 178910
Answer: 6FD H
c. 409510
Answer: FFF H
d. 409610
Answer: 1000H
e. 3199910
Answer: 7CFF H
f. 3300010

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Answer: 80E8H
3.21 Convert the following hexadecimal numbers to their binary equivalents:
a. F3C8H
Answer: 1111001111001000
b. D3B4H
Answer: 1101001110110100
c. 8037H
Answer: 1000000000110111
d. FABDH
Answer: 1111101010111100
e. 30ACH
Answer: 0011000010101100 (or simply 11000010101100)
f. 3E7B6H
Answer: 00111110011110110101 (or simply 111110011110110101)
3.22 Convert the following hexadecimal numbers to their binary equivalents:
a. 3FFFH
Answer: 11111111111111
b. FACEH
Answer: 1111101011001110
c. A123H
Answer: 1010000100100011
d. 3214H
Answer: 11001000010100
e. 3F36BH
Answer: 111111001101101011
f. 4952FEH
Answer: 10010010101001011111110
3.23 Convert the following binary numbers to their hexadecimal equivalents:
a. 1011110100001102
Answer: 5E86 H
b. 1011011010102

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Answer: B6A H
c. 1100010110112
Answer: C5B H
d. 1101011110001002
Answer: 6BC4 H
e. 101010111100001012
Answer: 15785 H
f. 110011000101101112
Answer: 198B7 H
3.24 Convert the following binary numbers to their hexadecimal equivalents:
a. 1101101011012
Answer: DAD H
b. 10010101010102
Answer: 12AA H
c. 11111011100112
Answer: 1F73 H
d. 101100110011001012
Answer: 16665 H
e. 1100000001000011012
Answer: 3010DH
f. 1010000000000000002
Answer: 28000H
3.5 Digital Waveforms
3.25 Calculate the time LOW, time HIGH, period, frequency, and percent duty cycle for
the waveforms shown in Figure 3.14. How are the waveforms similar? How do they
differ?
Answer:
Waveform tL tH period (T) frequency (f) duty cycle
a 4µs 1µs 5µs 0.2 MHz 20%
b 8µs 2µs 10µs 0.1 MHz 20%
c 12µs 3µs 15µs 66.67 kHz 20%

Each waveform is periodic (repeating) and has a 20% duty cycle

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3.26 Calculate the time LOW, time HIGH, period, frequency, and percent duty cycle for
the waveform shown in Figure 3.15c.
Answer:

Waveform tL tH period (T) frequency (f) duty cycle

c 2 3 5 0.2 40%

3.27 Which of the waveforms in Figure 3.15 are periodic and which are aperiodic?
Explain your answers.
Answer: Periodic: b., c., e. Each of these waveforms repeats itself in a fixed period of time. (Note
that waveform b. may not immediately appear to be periodic. However, if we count the sequence
of short pulse, short space, medium pulse, medium space, short pulse, long space, we will find
that each repetition of this sequence takes the same time.)
Aperiodic: a., d. Neither of these waveforms repeats in a fixed period of time. Waveform a. has
three equally spaced pulses of equal width, but this pattern does not repeat in the time shown.
Waveform d. has pulses of equal duration, spaced at increasing (i.e., unequal) intervals.
3.28 Sketch the pulse waveforms represented by the following strings of 0’s and 1’s. State
which waveforms are periodic and which are aperiodic.
a. 11001111001110110000000110110101
b. 111000111000111000111000111000111
c. 11111111000000001111111111111111
Answer:

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3.29 Draw a timing diagram for the signals represented by the following strings of 0’s
and 1’s. State which waveforms are periodic and which are aperiodic.
a. 01100110011001100110011001100110
b. 011101101001101001011010011101110
c. 11111111000000001111111111011111
Answer:

3.30 Classify each of the waveforms in Figure 3.16 as aperiodic or periodic. For the
periodic waveforms, calculate time HIGH, time LOW, period, frequency, and duty
cycle.
Answer:

3.31 For each of the periodic waveforms shown in Figure 3.17, calculate the period,
frequency, time HIGH, time LOW, and percent duty cycle. (The time scale is shown
in nanoseconds; 1 ns = 10-9 seconds.)
Answer:
Waveform tL tH period (T) frequency (f) duty cycle
a 20ns 20ns 40ns 25 MHz 50%
b 10ns 10ns 20ns 50 MHz 50%

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Instructor’s Guide to Accompany Digital Electronics
Chapter 3

c 14ns 6ns 20ns 50MHz 50%

d 2ns 14ns 16ns 62.5MHz 87.5%
e 2ns 2ns 4 ns 250 MHz 50%
3.32 Describe each of the periodic waveforms shown in Figure 3.17 as a clock signal,
specifying its speed.
Answer:
Waveform
a. 25 MHz clock
b. 50 MHz clock
c. 50MHz clock
d. 62.5MHz clock
e. 250 MHz clock
3.33 Calculate the pulse width of the pulse shown in Figure 3.18.
Answer: 40 µs

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