WBI Instructor Resource Series

Managing the Implementation of Development Projects

Module 3: Building the Team

Session 3.1, Lecture 3.1.1: Principles of Teambuilding
Visual 1
Title Slide
This module discusses the human aspects of project
Module 3. Building the Team management. Projects often fail because project man-
Session 3.1 Team Building agers do not pay enough attention to planning and
managing the human relations that are inherent in any
Lecture 3.1.1 Principles of Team Building significant project.

Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 1

Visual 2
Module Objective Module Objective
The overall objective of this module is to help project
• Working in teams, learners will be able to managers develop leadership and teambuilding strate-
develop leadership and team-building strategies gies and plans that incorporate best practices derived
and plans for projects that incorporate best from experience and from social science research.
practices derived from experience and social
science research.

Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 2

Module 3: Building the Team

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Visual 3
Module Structure (Sessions) Module Structure (Sessions)
1. Principles of Team Building In the module’s first session, we introduce some ba-
sic principles of teambuilding and discuss why pro-
2. Leadership, Power, and Influence
ject managers should plan for managing the human
3. Communication and Motivation Strategies aspects of their projects. In sessions 2 through 5, we
4. Meeting Management, Group Dynamics, and look at specific aspects of group behavior and group
Problem Solving
dynamics and discuss how project managers can in-
5. Conflict Management fluence group performance, especially within the core
6. Using a Workshop Approach for Project Launch management team (that is, those individuals upon
whom the project manager must rely in the process of
7. Comprehensive Case Study
implementation). In session 6, we introduce a method
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 3
for building a larger, much more extended team of
people (or stakeholders) who understand the project's
objectives and who are committed to attaining those
objectives. Session 7 provides an opportunity for par-
ticipants to apply the lessons to the comprehensive
case study.

Visual 4
Instructional Objectives (Session 1) Instructional Objectives (Session 1)
Learners will be able to: The main instructional objectives of session 1 are to
1. Characterize a project team and list three enable the learners to
attributes of a team.
1. Characterize a project team and list at least three
2. Describe at least 5 common performance
problems.
attributes of a team.
2. Describe at least five common problems that af-
3. Explain the importance of having a team-building
strategy. fect the performance of project teams.
4. Use model for team building and troubleshooting.
3. Explain why it is important for the project man-
ager to have a teambuilding strategy and plan.
5. Describe utility of core team start-up workshop.
4. Use a teambuilding model to plan for building
6. Describe personal experience with teams.
the project team and to address team perform-
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 4
ance issues.
5. Describe how a project core team start-up work-
shop helps build the core team.
6. Describe situations from the learners’ own (pro-
ject) experience where (project) teambuilding
principles were (or were not) successfully ap-
plied and the effects this had on the project.

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Visual 5
The Challenge The Challenge
Virtually every significant development project will
Making Individuals into a Team involve a group of people who must work together in
a coordinated manner for a limited period of time to
accomplish an objective. Normally, the members of
the group will not have worked together as a team
before. One of the project manager’s greatest chal-
lenges is to transform these various individuals with
their different personalities, professional disciplines,
life experiences, work assignments, and organiza-
tional affiliations into a coordinated, efficiently func-
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 5
tioning team, which is focused on a shared set of ob-
jectives and the common goal of making the project
succeed.

How project managers accomplish this depends, to a

large extent, on how well they understand the people
with whom they have to work. It also depends on
how well the project manager can convert this under-
standing into actions (strategies, plans, and behav-
iors) that bring about the desired results. In this mod-
ule, we call that process building the project team.

Visual 6
The Core Team The Core Team
Building a project team, whether small or large,
Individuals from different departments in an should always begin with the
organization who must work together project's core team.
• Reporting structure is often a matrix
• Members’ motivations/interests may vary The core team consists of those individuals from vari-
• Not really a team at first ous parts of an organization who must work closely
with the project manager on a daily basis to plan and
Challenge: To make into a team execute the implementation of the project. These are
the people on whom the project manager relies.
This would include all task managers for each project
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 6
component or subcomponent.
Some of these people will report directly and for-
mally to the project manager. Most, however, espe-
cially in a matrix organization, will come from func-
tional groups in the organization. Some may have
requested the assignment; others may not. Some may
even be representatives of key external organizations
that have an interest or stake in the project because it
will affect these representatives either negatively or
positively.

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Although we refer to these people as the core team, they typically are
not much of a team when the project begins. Rather they are just a
group of individuals who have become affiliated with the project.
The project manager may know few, if any, of them. Some may not
want to be assigned to the project, and most will know little about the
project. They may represent different organizations that are engaged
in fierce political battles, or they may have bosses who are opposed
to the project. It is even possible that some of the people assigned to
the project do not like each other or the project manager! Yet, it is the
project manager's challenge to quickly transform these people into an
effective team.

Visual 7
What Is a Team? What is a Team?
What is a team? Think of a team, such as a football team. What
• What is a team?
makes it a team? Now think of a team in the workplace, such as the
management core team for a project. What makes it a team?
• What makes a football team a team?

• What makes a project core team a team?

Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 7

Visual 8
What Is a Team? What is a Team?
A football team is composed of people with different roles (forward,
Football Project defender, keeper, captain, and so forth). Members of the team apply
People X X
Different roles/backgrounds X X
their knowledge and skills in a coordinated way within a framework
Members apply knowledge X X of rules and regulations in order to score goals and win a competition
and skills
Coordination required X X
(which is the goal they want to attain). Furthermore, they are de-
Framework X X pendent on one another for success.
Shared goal X X
Shared success X X
Interdependent X X A project management core team (when it is functioning as a team)
is like a sports team. It is a group of people with different back-
grounds and personalities who play a variety of roles, such as job
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 8
specialties and organizational affiliations (for example, a health plan-
ner in the Ministry of Health). These people apply their knowledge
and skills in a coordinated manner within a framework of rules, regu-
lations, and self-imposed agreements and understandings called
norms in order to achieve a shared goal: the successful completion of
the project. As with a sports team, the actions of the team members
are interdependent so that the success of the entire team depends on
the performance of all its members.

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Visual 9
Characteristics of Effective Teams Characteristics of Effective Teams
A great deal of research has been done on what
• Shared perception of and commitment to makes an effective project management team. In re-
objectives cent years, the growing popularity in industry of
• Agreement on roles and responsibilities various types of short-term and long-term teams for
• Mutual trust and respect quality improvement, systems development, and
• Open communication product development has added to the body of litera-
• Efficient conflict resolution procedures ture at a fast rate. In general, the research demon-
strates that effective project management core teams
share the following characteristics:
• A shared perception of the team's objectives
• A strong commitment to the team's objectives
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 9

• Agreement on the roles and responsibilities of

team members
• Mutual trust and respect among team members
• Open communication among team members
• Efficient conflict resolution procedures.

Visual 10
Characteristics of Effective Teams Characteristics of Effective Teams (Continued)
Additional characteristics of effective teams include:
• Consensus-based decisionmaking
• Ability to make decisions and to resolve prob-
• Well-defined ground rules, processes, and
procedures lems through consensus
• Individual’s goals satisfied along with team’s
• Well-defined and understood ground rules
(norms), processes, and procedures (for example,
• Pride and enjoyment
in managing meetings)
• Effective leadership
• Satisfaction of individual needs (individuals are
• Effective administrative support
able to satisfy their own goals while helping to
satisfy the group's)
• Pride and enjoyment in group activity
• An effective leader
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 10

• Effective administrative support.

You may have noticed that a number of these charac-

teristics form the basis for the next several sessions in
this module.

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Visual 11
Characteristics of Ineffective Teams Characteristics of Ineffective Teams
(Problems) Research has identified characteristics that contribute
to effective project teams. The research also provides
• Differing outlooks and priorities us with considerable information about the problems
• Role conflicts that project teams frequently encounter and how
• Ambiguous objectives these problems can impede a project's success. Wise
• Dynamic environments/frequent change project managers seek to prevent these problems
through careful planning or to resolve them through
swift interventions. The following are typical prob-
lems that affect teams:
• Differing outlooks, priorities, interests, and val-
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 11
ues of team members
• Role conflicts (that is, participants disagree about
their roles in the project and argue over their rela-
tive authority within the project)
• Ambiguous project objectives or disagreement
over project objectives
• Dynamic project environments (frequent changes
in direction, scope, resources, and personnel
make a mockery of project planning, disrupt im-
plementation, and undermine morale).

Visual 12
Characteristics of Ineffective Teams
Characteristics of Ineffective Teams (Continued)
(Problems)
Additional characteristics of ineffective teams in-
• Competition over team leadership
clude the following:
• Lack of team definition and structure • Competition over team leadership
• People problems • Lack of team definition and structure (that pre-
• Project leader is not credible vents the team from developing a sense of iden-
• Members are not committed tity, pride, commitment, and accomplishment)
• Communication problems • Project personnel that do not have adequate
• Lack of senior management support knowledge and skills, are not empowered to
• Lack of job security make decisions, or do not get along with one an-
other
• Project leader who lacks credibility
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 12

• Team members who lack commitment

• Communication problems
• Lack of senior management support
• Lack of job security.

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Visual 13
Problem Prevention Problem Prevention
• Prevention is the best solution!
It is always better to prevent potential problems than
to solve them after they occur. Consequently, a pro-
• PM should plan process of building
the core team ject manager should take an active role in the process
• Pick members if possible of building the project management core team. Under
• Use research as planning tool ideal circumstances, the project manager would be
• Do not despair!
able to hand pick the members of the core team.
However, this is unlikely to occur, especially in a
matrix organizational structure where senior func-
tional managers are likely to assign representatives to
serve on the core team. In this case, the project man-
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 13
ager may be able to select one or two people person-
ally, while perhaps only influencing the selection of
the other team members. Sometimes the project man-
ager has little or no influence on the selection proc-
ess. In such a case, the core team is a given, or a sort
of gift that the project manager receives when as-
signed to the project. Making the gift into something
useful becomes one of the project manager’s first
challenges.

Project managers should not despair! A body of re-

search exists on group dynamics and teambuilding
that provides practical, action-oriented tools to ad-
dress these issues.

Visual 14
Team-Building Model
Teambuilding Model
Elements (GRIPPE) Here is a two-dimensional model of teambuilding and
Interpersonal Process
group dynamics derived from a number of sources in
Goals Roles Environment
Relations Procedures the literature. The horizontal dimension (from left to
right) deals with five elements of team functioning
Process
that every project manager should manage and take
Forming into account:
Storming
Norming • Goals
Performing • Roles
Terminating
Source: B.W. Tuckman and M.C. Jensen 1977 • Interpersonal relations
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 14 • Processes and Procedures
• Environment (Organizational).

To help us remember these elements, think of them in

terms of the acronym, GRIPPE.

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The vertical (top-down) dimension represents a proc-

ess that occurs over time and that is divided into
stages or phases of team development:
• Forming
• Storming
• Norming
• Performing
• Terminating (Adjourning/Mourning)

Visual 15
Goals Goals
• Goals = Why the group exists = Deliverable
Goals pertain to why the group exists, that is, the
team's goals. The purpose of the core team is to guide
• Core Team’s Purpose = Guide project to the project so that it accomplishes it’s objectives.
successful completion Consequently, the team members must develop a
• Shared perception of project goals shared perception of the objectives and a commit-
(objectives) is essential ment to them. This may appear to be easy, but often it
is not. The two reasons for this are (a) goals are
• Shared commitment is essential
sometimes ambiguous and (b) team members have
• Personal goals and project goals must align! personal goals that may not align with the team's
goals. For a project to succeed, all team members
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 15
must understand and be committed to the team's
goals. This implies that their personal goals must
align with the team's goals.

Visual 16
Old Lady/Young Lady Visual
Old Lady/Young Lady Usual
You probably have seen this visual before? What do
you see in the picture? This is a famous perceptual
image that is used to show how people can look at the
same stimulus and interpret it differently. Do you see
a young woman? Do you see an old woman? Do you
see both?

People may interpret goals (objectives) differently!

Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 16

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Visual 17
Ambiguous Objectives Ambiguous Objectives
Here are some sample objectives for different pro-
• Improve the transportation system
jects. Do you see how people might interpret them
• Reform the mathematics curriculum differently?
• Introduce a program of early childhood • Improve the transportation system.
care and development • Reform the mathematics curriculum.
• Introduce a program of early childcare and devel-
• Reduce flood damage
opment.
• Reduce damage from flooding.

These objectives are very broad. They clearly need to

Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 17
be made more specific, and they probably would be
more specific for most projects. Nevertheless, even
very specific objectives can mean different things to
different people. It is essential that the project team
carefully considers and discusses the objectives of a
project so that all members of the team have the same
perception and understanding. The hierarchy of ob-
jectives, as discussed in session 1.3, helps clarify the
various levels of objectives.

Visual 18
Fostering Commitment
Fostering Commitment
Once team members understand the project objec-
• Team members must be committed to project
objectives tives, it is important for them to develop a commit-
• Project manager can influence members’
ment to those objectives. The project manager can
commitment encourage this commitment by making sure that each
• Understand personal priorities team member's personal objectives are satisfied in the
• Find ways to help satisfy personal priorities process of attaining the group's objectives. Therefore,
through team process the project manager must understand the personal
• Make satisfaction of personal priorities goals that each team member hopes to achieve and
contingent upon team success
then must find ways to make the attainment of those
personal goals and objectives contingent upon the
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 18
team's attaining its group objective. For example,
work on a project might allow a team member to gain
new skills or experience that will qualify the team
member for a promotion.

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Visual 19
Roles
Roles
After defining and aligning goals, it is important to
• Role = pattern of expected behaviors
develop a shared understanding of each person’s role
• Role Assignment/Identification
on a project. A role is a pattern of expected behav-
• Perceptions—our view of role
iors. It is the work or the job that we are expected to
perform. People in groups may have one or more
• Expectations—others’ view of role
roles, for example, accountant (subject matter exper-
tise) and group leader (structural role in group). Roles
in a group may be formal or informal. For example, a
group may have a formally appointed leader, but
members may turn to other people in the group for
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 19
guidance and leadership. These are informal leaders.

Three things influence our role-related behavior in a

group:
• The specific role(s) that we believe we have in
the group (role assignment and identification)
• Our perceptions of how we should behave as a
result of having a specific role
• Others’ expectations of how a person should be-
have when in a role.

Disagreement among members about any of these

elements can give rise to conflict in the group.

Role assignment. Members of a group need to under-

stand and agree to each other’s role assignments.
Each person's role(s) in the group should be clearly
defined and agreed upon by the group, or otherwise
conflict can develop. For example, if a person as-
sumes the role of technical expert without others in
the group knowing it, people may feel that they are
being lectured to and resent that person's behavior. If
others have also defined themselves as technical ex-
perts, clashes may occur over which expert the group
should listen to.

Role perceptions. In addition to understanding who

plays which role(s), the group also needs to under-
stand how a person is defining the obligations, re-
sponsibilities, and behaviors associated with that role.
The group can then provide the person with feedback
on whether or not it agrees with those perceptions.
This allows potential areas of disagreement to surface
and provides a way for the group to negotiate appro-
priate role behavior.

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Role expectations. Each role holder (as well as other

members of the group) needs to understand how the
other members of the group define a role and what
behaviors the group perceives as being legitimate for
that particular role. As with role perceptions, the team
needs to talk about each role and make clear its ex-
pectations. This provides an opportunity to uncover
and negotiate areas of potential disagreement before
misunderstandings lead to ill will.

Ideally, the group will reach a consensus that aligns

role assignment, perceptions, and expectations. In
this way, each team member will know (and agree
with) what role each team member is going to play
and how each team member intends to carry out his
or her role assignment.

Visual 20
Responsibility Matrix for Clarifying Roles
Responsibility Matrix for Clarifying Roles
House deliverable
The responsibility matrix that will be discussed in
Organizational unit module 6 of this course is a useful tool to help clarify
WBS
Owner Architect Government Contractor
Project roles. It is a grid that lists people along one dimen-
element manager
sion and responsibilities (accountabilities) along the
Plan A W C C C other, and it is used to indicate who is responsible for
Site A C W A
an accomplishment, who needs to be consulted, and
who only needs to be informed. The responsibility
Code
W = Does work
matrix also helps the team members understand how
C = Must be consulted
A = Approve
their contributions affect the overall group effort.
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 20
Although the responsibility matrix does not in itself
cover all possible role assignments or how people
define the roles, it can be used as a focus for these
further discussions and clarifications.

Visual 21
Interpersonal Relations Interpersonal Relations
Must work to develop trust and respect among Teams are, of course, made up of people. How people
team members interact with one another is called interpersonal rela-
Source of differences: tions. Team members bring their unique personalities,
• Personality
cultural backgrounds, expertise, affiliations, preju-
• Communication
• Expertise/Specialty dices, and experiences to a situation where they must
• Organizational affiliation work together to accomplish the project's objectives.
• Access to information
• Level of empowerment
• Personal background

Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 21

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Sometimes, a group naturally clicks, and all the mem-

bers trust and respect one another from the start. Over
time, the conflicts and disagreements that naturally
arise seem to get worked out automatically, and the
group continues functioning smoothly. In most cases,
however, groups do not just click, and interpersonal
problems do not just go away without affecting the
group. In fact, considerable effort is required to de-
velop trust and respect, especially when people on the
team are separated by significant cultural, ethnic, or
religious differences. Even differences in technical
expertise or specialization may make it difficult for
people to communicate and develop trust! Yet, the
development of trust and respect is essential for re-
solving the interpersonal conflicts that normally oc-
cur during a project (see session 4 of this module).

The project manager should learn as much as possible

about each team member and should try to anticipate
how the members are likely to interact. The project
manager should consider
• Personality
• Communication style and skills
• Expertise or specialty
• Organizational affiliation
• Access to information
• Ability to make decisions and organizational
commitments (level of empowerment)
• Personal background including culture, ethnicity,
religion, race, gender, and language.

This information can be used to develop a strategy for overcom-

ing differences and promoting trust, open communication, team
identity, and conflict resolution. If necessary, the project man-
ager can try to alter the composition of the group in order to
produce a stronger team. However, project managers often have
little power to decide who participates on the core team, so this
may not be an option for many.

The project manager's only choice, then, is to use the resources

at hand to overcome differences and to create a shared commit-
ment to the project's success. If a group is likely to be particu-
larly factious and conflict ridden, the project manager should
consider consulting a professional human relations specialist if
one is available.

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Visual 22
Process and Procedures
Process and Procedures
• Well-designed process and procedures enhance Groups perform better when they have well-designed
performance and clearly articulated processes and procedures. In
• Project life cycle addition, if the group has participated in developing
• Meeting management the processes and procedures, its commitment to
• Problem solving them will be stronger. For example, one process may
• Conflict resolution be the use of a systematic project life cycle. Other
• Decisionmaking procedures might include systematic approaches to,
• Business processes (staffing, procurement) and guidelines for, meeting management, problem
• Consensus approaches generally most effective solving, conflict resolution, and decisionmaking. It is
helpful for the team itself to choose the decisionmak-
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 22
ing process that it wants to use. Will decisions be
made by unanimity? By majority vote? By consen-
sus? Researchers tend to agree that a consensus ap-
proach is preferable because it allows everyone to
express an opinion and to influence the outcome. On
the other hand, unanimous decisions are hard to
achieve, and majority decisions often leave some par-
ticipants upset at the outcome. However, consensus-
based decisionmaking is less appropriate in crisis
situations requiring an immediate decision because
reaching a consensus typically takes time. It is also
inappropriate when a group is hopelessly divided on
an issue and common ground cannot be found.

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Visual 23
Process and Procedures: Process and Procedures: Areas for Agreement
Areas for Agreement
Examples of processes and procedures that the team
can agree upon are
• Meetings: • Information: • How to conduct meetings
• When • What • When to meet
• Where • To whom • How long meetings should last
• For how long • When
• How to structure meetings
• Structure • How
• How to communicate information (including
when and to whom)

Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 23

Visual 24
Process and Procedures:
Process and Procedures: Areas for Agreement
Areas for Agreement
(Continued)
• Computer tools • What methodologies to use (for meeting man-
• Methodologies:
• “Rules of the Road”
agement, problem solving, conflict resolution,
• Meeting
management • Celebrations for
decisionmaking, and so forth)
• Problem solving accomplishments:
• What computer tools (systems) will be used and
• Conflict resolution • For what?
for what
• Decisionmaking • How?
• What “rules of the road” will be followed in man-
• When?
aging the project (such as regular staff review
meetings)
• How to celebrate accomplishments.
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 24

Visual 25
Environment Environment
• The organizational “climate” of a project Finally, we come to environment. This is the climate
• Positive: calm, exciting, friendly, focused that surrounds a project, often described in positive
• Negative: stormy, threatening, hostile, confused terms, such as calm, exciting, energetic, friendly, or
rewarding, or in negative terms, such as stormy,
• Three levels of “climate” E threatening, hostile, or confused. Several different but
• Project O interrelated environments exist that can affect the
• Organization project team. (Environment will be discussed again in
P
• External module 4 of this course.)

These environments are

• The project environment that the team creates for itself
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 25

within the project

• The organizational environment that immediately sur-
rounds the project and that is determined primarily by the
culture of the organization(s) under which the team must
function

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• The external environment that surrounds the broader or-

ganization (for example, civil society in general).

The project manager (and team) can normally do lit-

tle to influence the organizational environment that
surrounds a project, and it cannot influence the exter-
nal environment at large. Therefore, the elements of
the teambuilding strategy should take into account
these external factors. For example, the Islandia Pro-
ject (case study) has many organizational dependen-
cies. Under those conditions, the project manager
needs to have a teambuilding strategy that reflects
this complexity. The workshop approach that we will
describe in session 6 of this module is one possible
strategy because it permits many groups to participate
in the planning and communication process.

Visual 26
Environmental Barriers
Environmental Barriers
• Lack of political
Some environmental conditions that work against
• Resource scarcity
support project success are
• Lack of senior
• Inefficient processes
• Resource unavailability or scarcity
management support
• Lack of (senior) management support and in-
• Job insecurity • Arbitrary and
capricious application
volvement
• Frequent changes in
of guidelines • High unemployment, downsizing, or job insecu-
goals/priorities
rity
• Power struggles • Frequent changes in goals and priorities
• Power struggle or conflict
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 26
• Lack of political support
• Inefficient, poorly defined, or nonexistent proc-
esses (procedures, systems, or regulations)
• Arbitrary enforcement or application of guide-
lines (processes, procedures, regulations, and so
forth).

Visual 27
Team-Building Model
Teambuilding Model
Elements (GRIPPE) Goals, roles, interpersonal relations, processes and
Interpersonal Process
procedures, and environment (GRIPPE) are five areas
Goals Roles Environment
Relations Procedures
where barriers to teambuilding can occur. The suc-
cessful project manager will pay special attention to
Process
Forming
these areas when identifying opportunities to help the
Storming team function smoothly and efficiently.
Norming
Performing Now let us turn our attention to the vertical dimen-
Terminating
sion of the model and the process by which the team
Source: Bruce W. Tuckman. 1965. “Developmental Sequence in Small Groups” in Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 63, No. 6, 384-399.
starts to work together (the form-
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 27
ing/storming/norming process).

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Visual 28
Forming
Forming
• Individuals not yet part of a group
In this stage, individual team members first come
• What is project about?
together as a group. They are trying to understand the
nature of the project and where they fit in. The indi-
• How do I fit in?
viduals gather information and search for and learn
• What is acceptable behavior?
acceptable interpersonal behaviors by testing various
behaviors on the group. At this stage, the leader can
• PM should direct group help the group by adopting a directive style of leader-
• Give direction ship.
• Show confidence

Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 28

Visual 29
Storming Storming
• Group begins to form but has conflict
Team members begin to know one another and to
• What are the objectives?
understand the project goal. Conflict may erupt if
• What is the strategy?
members have differing perceptions of the objectives
• Do I buy in?
and strategy and if they have differing levels of
commitment to the project. A supportive leadership
• PM should teach group
style that involves setting standards, providing infor-
• Set standards
mation, and expressing encouragement is recom-
• Share information
mended at this stage. This style is sometimes charac-
terized as a teacher-like style.
• Provide encouragement
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 29

Visual 30
Norming
Norming
• Group explores task and develops a The group continues to explore the task as it gradu-
consensus ally develops a consensus about interpersonal behav-
• What needs to be done? ioral norms. Members focus on task-related behav-
• How can I pitch in? iors. A participative leadership style is recommended
• How should we behave as a group? during this period. The leader encourages all mem-
bers of the group to be equally involved, and the team
• PM should participate as a team member can focus on task-related issues because behavioral
• Encourage members’ involvement norms have already been established and now exist
• Focus group on tasks within the group.
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 30

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Visual 31
Performing Performing
The team performs work by creating the project im-
• Group performs work as a team
plementation plan and implementing the project.
• What have we accomplished? Members know their roles and are comfortable per-
• What more needs to be done? forming them. The leader delegates to team members
• Are we on plan? and spends time in two-way communication with
• PM delegates to team members and other project stakeholders.
communicates with other stakeholders

Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 31

Visual 32
Terminating
Terminating
Terminating is also known as adjourning or mourn-
• Team completes project objectives and
prepares for disbanding. Final tasks may slip. ing. The team achieves the project objectives and be-
• What will happen to me?
gins to prepare for the termination (death) of the
• What will happen to my colleagues?
team. People begin to focus more on themselves and
less on the remaining tasks, which may begin to fall
• PM should coach team to completion behind schedule. A sense of worry, mourning, and
• Refocus on remaining tasks
sadness may pervade the team. The leadership style
• Support members in job placement
recommended at this stage is a coaching style that
• Acknowledge concerns
refocuses the team on what remains to be accom-
plished and that supports the team in its concerns.
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 32
Some teams are long-term teams that may not actu-
ally dissolve, but instead must find new projects to
pursue. In this case, the last stage is often referred to
as renewal because the team renews its mission.

This process is widely discussed in the literature and

is based on long-standing research by B.W. Tuckman
and M.C. Jensen (1977), which recently has been
challenged by some contemporary studies of how
teams function in the workplace. These contemporary
studies show that groups do not always develop in a
universal sequence of stages.

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Visual 33
Other Models of Team
Formation Other Models of Team Formation
high Instantly High Performance For example, certain select groups, such as cockpit
•Air cockpit crew
•Surgical team crews in airlines, are able to perform instantly as a
Performance
team even if they have not flown together before.
low
Start Finish
Time This is because of the highly prescribed nature of
their roles and the specialized skills that the team
high
Dynamic Punctuated-
equilibrium (spurts)
members possess. For other groups, the process of
Performance group development and performance seems to occur
low
Time
episodically or in spurts, with notably high levels of
Start 1/2 Finish
performance occurring halfway into the project and
toward the end (presumably as milestones approach).
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 33
This is the dynamic punctuated equilibrium model.

Visual 34
Modified Forming/Storming/Norming Modified Forming/Storming/Norming
The dynamic punctuated equilibrium model calls into
1. Forming/norming 4 question the universality of the form-
5
2. Low performing ing/norming/storming model. It also makes us ques-
3. Storming tion the order of the phases. For example, one author
4. High performing 1
2
3
(Robbins 1998) suggests that the model is better de-
Start 1/2 Finish
Time scribed as
5. Adjourning
1. Forming/norming
2. Low performing
3. Storming
Source: Robbins 1998
4. High performing
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 34
5. Adjourning

Visual 35
Group Formation
Group Formation
• Usually not instantaneous
Nevertheless, with these cautions in mind, we can
• Usually a process (such as F/S/N/P/T)
still use the forming/storming/norming concept to
remind ourselves that groups do not spontaneously
• Group behaviors change over time
become teams, that their behaviors change over time,
• Phases associated with types of behavior
and that certain phases are associated with different
• Model can help plan and diagnose types of behavior. We can use this information to
structure a teambuilding (and maintenance) process
that helps us anticipate, prevent, and deal with team-
related problems that are likely to occur in the course
of a project.
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 35

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Visual 36
GRIPPE Grid
GRIPPE Grid
G Goals R Roles I Interpersonal PP Processes & E Environmental
Timing During
Implementation Relations Procedures Constraints
(Organizational)
Here is one way to use the GRIPPE models as a plan-
Before Startup Workshop
(Forming) ning tool. We have created a time-based planning
During Startup Process
(Norming) grid for the project manager to use to plan for team
Early Milestones
(Low Performing) development and maintenance. Planning begins be-
Midway
Milestones
(Storming)
fore the core team's first meeting and continues
Near Termination
(High
Performing)
through termination. The idea implied is that the pro-
At Termination
(Adjourning) ject manager should be continuously assessing the
Team-Building Planning Grid
status of the core team (as a team) and revising the
Team building is a process that requires management attention throughout implementation.
Use the grid to plan what actions you will take to develop and maintain a committed, high-performing team. plan on a regular basis throughout the project as con-
ditions change.
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 36

***
How would you use the planning grid to manage
your teambuilding process?
***

Visual 37
Planning for Team Building Planning for Teambuilding
Group Leader
Phases Behavior Behavior This simplified model shows that teambuilding is
Early • Search for clarity and • PM leads team to create multidimensional and that it is not a one-time event,
definition clarity and shared agreement
• PM facilitates development but rather a process that project managers and their
of trust and respect
teams must work at throughout the project.
Middle • Group exhibits high level of • PM rewards team
energy and focus on • PM focuses team on
achieving milestone(s) next set of milestones For example, the early phases of a project are associ-
End • Group has feelings of • PM helps members find ated with a search for clarity and definition. The pro-
separation anxiety, sadness, new jobs
and concern for job placement • PM celebrates accomplish- ject manager must work with the team to help create
• Group has sense of ments with team
accomplishment • PM supports feelings
this clarity and a shared understanding of the project
and must work within an atmosphere of trust and re-
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 37
spect.

As milestones approach, the group displays a burst of

energy (typically toward the middle and end of a pro-
ject). The project manager's task is to reward the team
for accomplishing the milestones and to keep them
focused on the next set of milestones.

As a project nears termination, feelings of separation

anxiety and sadness are likely to pervade the group,
but pride and a sense of accomplishment are felt as
well. The project manager should help team members
celebrate their accomplishments, find new assign-
ments, and provide support for any feelings of anxi-
ety and sadness that members may experience.

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Visual 38
Start-Up Workshop
Start-up Workshop
• Flexible—For starting any phase One increasingly popular approach to team development is
• Process the project start-up workshop approach. This flexible meth-
• Builds shared understanding and
odology can be used to start up any phase in the life cycle.
commitment In session 3.6, we will describe how workshops are used to
• Not “just a meeting” launch project implementation with the community at large.
• Participatory framework Workshops may also be used to help build the project core
- discussion team. (See the reading by Russell Archibald in session 3.6.)
- involvement
- decisionmaking Project start-up workshops provide a way of developing
shared understanding and commitment through participa-
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 38
tion. This process may include a single workshop lasting up
to several days or it may be a series of workshops (meet-
ings) over a longer period of time. The purpose of the work-
shop is to create an environment in which the five dimen-
sions of team development (GRIPPE) can be addressed for
the management core team and to carry out the process of
implementation planning and execution. The start-up work-
shop is a forum within which the team's form-
ing/storming/norming (or forming/norming/storming, if you
like that model) can occur along the various dimensions. It
is more than just a meeting. Rather, it involves (as you will
learn in session 3.6) a considerable amount of participant
discussion, involvement, and decisionmaking. It may in-
clude specifically designed teambuilding activities (such as
the communication style exercise introduced in the next
session) as well as more mundane forms of teambuilding,
such as having lunch and refreshments together.

Project Manager’s Role Visual 39

Project Manager’s Role
Environmental Factors Measure of Success
• Technical success
The project manager plays an essential role in building
Leadership Style
• On time
• On budget
and maintaining an effective team by establishing the
Drivers • Other measures (GRIPPE) framework within which the team will op-
Barriers
erate.
High Performance
Team (GRIPPE)
Thamhain and Wilemon (1998) has described a model
of effective team performance that includes leadership
as a key variable. The model defines successful team
performance in terms of
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 39

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• Technical success according to agreed upon pro-

ject objectives
• On-time performance
• On-budget performance (staying within resource
limitations)
• Other measures.

Two sets of variables that influence a team's characteristics

and its ultimate performance are (a) environmental factors,
such as organizational climate and resources and (b) leader-
ship style, which is where the project manager can shine.
Environmental factors and leadership style, interacting in a
complex way, determine drivers and barriers to successful
team performance. Drivers are positive factors that contrib-
ute to team effectiveness and success. Barriers are negative
factors, such as unclear objectives, that hinder team per-
formance and success.

Visual 40
Environmental Factors
Environmental Factors
We discussed environmental factors earlier. These include re-
• Typical factors source availability, organizational climate (including upper man-
• Resource availability agement support for the project and the project manager), stabil-
• Organizational climate ity of requirements, and so forth. The most effective teams seem
• Stability of requirements to reside within organizations that foster a work environment
that encourages innovation, creativity, professional develop-
• Best teams are in organizations that ment, and resiliency to change.
foster a positive environment
that supports team activities

Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 40

Visual 41
Leadership Factors Leadership Factors
• Level of energy and enthusiasm Leadership factors relate to the project manager's behavior. They
• Action-orientation include, among other factors, the following:
• Ability to identify and resolve • Level of energy and enthusiasm
(potential) problems in early stages
• Action orientation
• Organizational/political skills
• Ability to identify and resolve (potential) problems in early
• Technical expertise
stages
• Skills in planning and guiding
implementation of project plan • Organizational and political skills
• Ability to provide needed resources • Technical expertise
• Interpersonal abilities • Skills in planning and guiding implementation of the project
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 41
plan
• Ability to provide needed resources
• Interpersonal abilities.

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Visual 42
Top Six Drivers
Top Six Drivers
• Professionally interesting and
Drivers encourage team success, but do not guarantee
stimulating work it. Researchers have identified six drivers that seem
• Recognition of accomplishment to be especially important in promoting team success:
• Experienced (technical) management • Professionally interesting and stimulating work
personnel • Recognition of accomplishment
• Proper direction and leadership • Experienced (technical) management personnel
• Qualified project team personnel • Proper direction and leadership
• Professional growth potential • Qualified project team personnel
• Professional growth potential.
Reference: Thamhain and Wilemon (1998)

Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 42

Visual 43
Top Six Barriers
Top Six Barriers
• Unclear project objectives and directions
Barriers inhibit team success, but do not neces-
• Insufficient resources
sarily guarantee failure. The six strongest barri-
ers to success are
• Power struggle and conflict
• Unclear project objectives and directions
• Uninvolved, disinterested upper management
• Insufficient resources
• Poor job security
• Power struggles and conflict
• Shifting goals and priorities
• Uninvolved upper management
• Poor job security
Reference: Thamhain and Wilemon (1998)
• Shifting goals and priorities.
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 43

Visual 44
Drivers and Barriers Affect Performance
Characteristics of high-performing Drives and Barriers Affect Performance
project teams
People-oriented characteristics
By emphasizing and reinforcing drivers and by seek-
DRIVERS
P1 Involvement and energy ing to eliminate barriers, or at least mitigate their ef-
P2 Capacity to solve conflict
P3 Communications effectiveness fect on a project, the project manager can encourage
P4 Team spirit
P5 Mutual trust those characteristics associated with high performing
P6 Interface effectiveness
P7 High achievement needs teams. These, according to Thamhain and Wilemon,
Result-oriented characteristics fall into two categories (as shown in the visual): peo-
BARRIERS R1 Technical success
R2 On-time budget ple-oriented characteristics and results-oriented char-
R3 On-budget performance
R4 Commitment and result-orientation acteristics.
R5 Innovation and creativity
R6 Concern for quality
Reference: Thamhain and Wilemon (1998)
R7 Willingness to change
R8 Ability to predict trends
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 44

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Visual 45
Team-Building Checklist Teambuilding Checklist
Drivers
_ Interesting work
The Thamhain and Wilemon model can easily be
Environment
_ Resources available
_ Recognition/accomplishment turned into a planning checklist (as shown in the vis-
_ Experienced technical manager
_ Stable requirements
_ Good direction and leadership ual) to help the project manager create an effective
_ Upper management support
_ Qualified team personnel teambuilding strategy.
_ Professional growth
Leader
_ Action oriented Barriers
_ Energy and enthusiasm _ Unclear objectives
_ Technical expertise _ Insufficient resources
_ Planning oriented _ Power struggle and conflict
_ Provides resources _ Uninvolved management
_ Poor job security
_ Shifting goals and priorities
Reference: Based on Thamhain and Wilemon (1998)

Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 45

Visual 46
Summary Summary
In this session, we have discussed the human aspects
• The human aspects of a project are
critical of project management. Studies of successful and
• PM must actively manage team unsuccessful projects demonstrate that human con-
development and maintenance siderations are essential to project success and that a
project manager must actively manage team devel-
opment and maintenance. We have presented two
models that the project manager can use as tools for
teambuilding and maintenance.

Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 46

Visuals 47
Team Building Model 1: Teambuilding Model 1: GRIPPE + Form-
GRIPPE + F/S/N/P/T ing/Storming/Norming
Elements
Interpersonal Process
The first model is a synthesis of the literature in
Goals Roles Environment
Relations Procedures this field. It emphasizes the importance of devel-
Process oping a team that has
Forming • Goals that are clear and universally shared by the
Storming team members
Norming
• Roles that are well defined and agreed upon
Performing
Terminating • Interpersonal relations among team members
that are characterized by mutual trust and respect,
Source: B.W. Tuckman and M.C. Jensen 1977

Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 47

open communication, and the ability to resolve
conflicts amicably
• Processes and procedures that are clear, well
defined, efficient, and consistently applied
• Environments, both at the project and organiza-
tion levels (and ideally at the societal level as
well), that are stable, congruent, and supportive.

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This model also stresses that team development is a

process with natural ebbs and flows over time and
with some predictable patterns. We have described
this in terms of the widely used phases of forming,
storming, norming, performing, and terminating, al-
though we acknowledge that this may be a simplifica-
tion of what actually occurs and is not universal.

Visuals 48
Team Building Model 2: Thamhain Leadership Model
Teambuilding Model 2: Thamhain Leadership
Project Manager’s Role Model
Environmental Factors
Measure of Success
Leadership Style • Technical success
We also introduced a model by Thamhain and Wile-
•
•
On time
On budget
mon that stresses the importance of the project man-
Drivers • Other measures
ager as a leader in project team performance and, ul-
Barriers
timately, project success. Thamhain's model measures
High Performance Team success in terms of attainment of schedule, budget,
and requirements (objectives). The variables that re-
late to success are environment, leadership, drivers,
and barriers.
Module 3 Session 3.1 Lecture 3.1.1 Visual 48
Both our model and Thamhain's may be transformed
into job aids in the form of planning grids and check-
lists that the project manager can use to plan and
maintain team identity, spirit, and performance.

In Activity 3.1.1, you will have an opportunity to

review and critique materials that were actually cre-
ated and used by a project manager at a start-up meet-
ing for a commercial project. These are not idealized
materials. They have some good points and some that
we believe are not so good. As you analyze the mate-
rials, you should consider the characteristics of effec-
tive teams and the teambuilding model introduced in
this lecture.

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References

Robbins, Stephen P. 1998. Organizational Behavior, 8th Edition. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Pren-
tice-Hall.
Thamhain, Hans, and David Wilemon. 1998. Team Building in Project Management. Washington D.C.:
World Bank.
Tuckman, Bruce W. 1965. “Developmental Sequence in Small Groups” in Psychological Bulletin, Vol.
63, No. 6, 384-399.

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Attachments: Teambuilding Planning Grid (GRIPPE)

Teambuilding is a process that requires management attention throughout implementation.
Use the grid to plan what actions you will take to develop and maintain a committed, high-performing team.

Timing During Im- G Goals R Roles I Interpersonal Re- PP Processes & E Environmental
plementation lations Procedures Constraints (Or-
ganizational)
Before Start-up

During Start-up Process

Early Milestones

Midway Milestones

Near Termination

At Termination

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Checklist based on Thamhain

Environment
• Resources available
• Stable requirements
• Upper management support

Leader
• Action oriented
• Energy and enthusiasm
• Technical expertise
• Planning oriented
• Able to provide resources

Drivers
• Interesting work
• Recognition/accomplishment
• Experienced engineering manager
• Good direction and leadership
• Qualified team personnel
• Professional growth

Barriers
• Unclear objectives
• Insufficient resources
• Power struggle and conflict
• Uninvolved management
• Poor job security
• Shifting goals and priorities

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