Chapter 8 How Do Organisms Reproduce

Do Organisms Create Exact Copies of Themselves?

 The organisms are similar in their looks due to having similar body designs,
which in turn indicates that the source for these designs must be similar
 The nucleus of a cell contains the chromosomes, which carry the information for
the inheritance of features from parents to the next generation. It is present in the
form of DNA molecules.
 The DNA present in the nucleus of a cell is the source of information for making
proteins. If this information changes, then a different set of proteins will be
synthesised which will eventually lead to altered body designs in the organisms.
 Hence it can be noted that a basic event in reproduction involves the creation of
a DNA copy.
 This copying of DNA is accompanied by the creation of an additional cellular
apparatus, after which the DNA copies separate with each of them having its own
cellular apparatus. Thus, a cell divides to give rise to two cells.
 Since this process of copying DNA is a biochemical process, it may not be
reliable ,accurate all the time it will lead to some changes each time. Hence
variations are seen .
 If the created new DNA copy is not viable, then the cell will not survive. And the
surviving cells will be similar but may not be identical to the original and will subtly
differ from each other.

The Importance of Variation

 The consistent DNA copying that happens during reproduction is essential to
maintain the features of body design of an organism so that it can occupy its
well-defined space or niche in the ecosystem.
 The variations become important here as an organism may be suited for a specific
niche and a drastic change in that due to unforeseen environmental conditions makes
their survival difficult.
 Hence in such situations when a few among the species have some variations,
they stand a chance of survival in the new niche. And thus, these species adapt
themselves to the new conditions and the species are maintained over a period of
time.
  Example. If a species of bacteria is living in the temperate waters and suddenly
the temperatures rise due to global warming, then most of the bacteria in that
water would not survive. But maybe a few variants among them who are able
to resist the heat may survive and grow. In case the variations were not present,
that entire species of bacteria would have become extinct.
 Thus, the importance of variation lies in the survival of a species over time.
Modes of Reproduction
Reproduction can be defined as a process that involves the production of an offspring The
mode of reproduction may vary in organisms. They can be broadly categorised as:
(a) Asexual Mode of Reproduction: .

 It involves only one parent.

 There is no formation and fusion of gametes.
 The young ones formed are almost identical to each other as well as to the
parent cell.
 Asexual reproduction generally occurs during favourable environmental
conditions and when there is an abundance of food.
 It is a faster process
 more individuals are produced
 very less variations are seen.

(b) Sexual Mode of Reproduction:

 It involves only two parent.
 There is formation and fusion of gametes.
 The young ones formed are not exactly identical to each other as well as to the
parent cell.
 It is a slow process
 Less individuals are produced

very less variations are seen.

Types of Asexual Mode of Reproduction:

1.Fission:
 In unicellular organisms the new individuals are created by the process of cell
division or fission.

 Fission can be of two types depending on the number of new individuals created.
(A) Binary Fission:
Seen in bacteria, protozoa like Amoeba, Paramecium. (In these first (karyokinesis) the nucleus of
the parent cell divides and then the cytoplasm divides (cytokinesis) resulting in the formation of
two daughter cells). It occurs during highly favourable conditions. The cell division can occur in
any plane as in case of Amoeba. However, organisms like Leishmania. (cause Kala-azar), which
have a whip like flagella at one end, binary fission occurs in a definite orientation in relation to the
flagellum .

(B) Multiple fission:

Seen in Plasmodium, (a malarial parasite). In this during unfavourable
conditions, the parent cell develops a thick resistant wall around itself forming a
cyst. Within the wall, the cytoplasm divides many times to form many plasmodia.
When conditions become favourable, the cyst wall breaks and the Plasmodium are
released.

2.Fragmentation:
 This is a process where an organism simply breaks up into smaller pieces
when they are mature. Each of the fragments or broken pieces grow into a
new individual. There should be a cell that is capable of growing into a new
individual in such organisms. Eg Spirogyra
However, all multicellular organisms cannot show cell-by-cell division as
cells from tissues which form organs. These organs are placed at definite
positions in the body. Hence, they need to use more complex methods of
reproduction.
3. Regeneration:

It is the ability of organisms to develop their lost parts. Some organisms show
have high regenerative capacity it is also a means of reproduction for example;
Planaria. (Regeneration is carried out by specialized cells which redivide to form
a mass of cells from which different cells undergo changes to become different
cell types and tissues. These changes occur in an organized sequence known as
 development).

Example - Planaria, Hydra.

4. Budding In this process, a bud outgrows from a part of the parent cell,
and it remains attached to it till it matures. Once matured, it detaches itself
from the parent body to form a new life. It leaves behind a scar tissue on
the parent body. Yeast and hydra are few examples of budding.eg Hydra

5.Vegetative Propagation
This is the mode of reproduction by which plants reproduce asexually. In this mode, new
plants are developed from a plant’s vegetative parts like stem, leaf, root. There are
different methods of vegetative propagation that are carried out in plants which are as
follows:

a. Vegetative propagation can be artificial or natural.

b. Natural vegetative propagation happens through leaves (e.g. bryophyllum), stem
(e.g. turmeric, ginger), roots(e.g potato), etc.
c. Artificial methods include cutting, grafting, layering and plant tissue culture.

In bryophyllum buds are produced in the notches along the leaf margins and when
they fall on the soil, they develop into new plants.
Importance of Vegetative Propagation

 Plants can bear flowers and fruits earlier.

 Plants which have lost the ability to produce viable seeds can also reproduce by
vegetative propagation.
 All plants are genetically almost similar to the parent plant.
 Seedless varieties can be obtained.
 many plants like sugarcane, roses, grapes.etc can be grown.by this method.

2.6. Spore Formation:

Seen in Rhizopus (a fungus). Rhizopus body is made up of thread-like structures called
hyphae. The erect hyphae bear sporangia inside which reproductive structures called
spores are formed. They have tiny thread-like structures with a blob called sporangia
Spores are asexually reproducing bodies which are very light having a thick
protective wall. They are produced during unfavourable times and help to tide over the
unfavourable environmental conditions. When the spores fall on a suitable medium,
each one forms a new individual.

Tissue Culture: The technique of developing new plants from a cell or tissue in a
nutrient medium under aseptic conditions. The cell or tissue is placed in a nutrient
medium where it forms a mass of cells called callus. This callus is then transferred to
another nutrient medium where it differentiates and forms a new plant

3.Sexual Reproduction:
Significance of Sexual Reproduction :

 Sexual reproduction involves DNA as well as cellular apparatus of two different

organisms which promotes diversity of characters in the offspring.
 Since gametes are derived from two different organisms, it results in a new
combination of genes which increases the chances of genetic variations.
 Sexual reproduction results in the origin of. new species.
 Sexual reproduction involves division in the sex organs that reduces the DNA
matter to half so that the zygote formed after fusion has the same amount of DNA
as the parents it maintains DNA in a species

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Sexual reproduction in flowering plants

 The reproductive parts are present in the flower.

 The parts of the flower are sepals, petals, stamens and carpels.
 Sepals are green structures that protect the inner parts when the flower is in bud
stage.
 Petals are colourful and attract the insects for pollination.
 Stamens are male reproductive parts and produce pollen grains that contain male
gametes. Each stamen has two parts Filament i.e. stalk and Anther i.e. swollen
top part which has large number of pollen grains. The pollen grains produce the
male germ-cells or gametes.
Pistil /carpel - The carpel is the female reproductive part and produces ovules
that contain female gametes. It has three parts—Stigma which is top sticky part
and receives pollen grains during pollination. Style which is the middle long part
and ovary which is the swollen part and contains ovules. Each ovule has an egg
cell i.e. female gamete
 

Based on the presence of the stamen or pistil, flowers can be classified as:
a. Unisexual: These are the flowers that contain either stamens or
pistils. These are also called incomplete flowers. Example - papaya,
watermelon etc.
b. Bisexual: These are flowers that contains stamens as well as pistils.
Example - Hibiscus, mustard, etc.
 The process of sexual reproduction in plants starts with the fusion of the male and
the female gametes, followed by the formation of a zygote that eventually develops
into a new plant. The process is explained as follows:
( a) Pollination:: The process of transfer of pollen grains from an anther to the
stigma of the flower is pollination. Two types of pollination are:
(i) Self-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the
same flower or another flower of the same plant.
(ii) Cross-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of
another flower or another flower of a different plant of the same species
(b)Fertilization:
 The process of sexual reproduction in plants starts with the transfer of pollen grains
Fertilization: Fertilization is the process of fusion of male and female gamete to
form a zygote during sexual reproduction. Pollination is followed by fertilisation in
plants. The events are
Pollen grains land on the stigma of the ovary.
Pollen tubes grow out of the pollen grains, travel through the style and reach the
ovary, through micro pyle.
Pollen tube has two male germ cells. Each ovule has two polar nuclei and a female
germ cell (egg).
Pollen tube releases two male germ cells inside the ovule, one of them fuses with
female germ cell and forms a zygote which grows into the baby plant i.e. embryo. The
other male germ cell fuses with two polar nuclei .

Post-fertilisation changes: Zygote divides several times and forms an embryo inside
the ovule.

 The ovule develops a tough coat and changes into the seed.
 The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit.
 Petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma shrivel and fall off.

Seed and its parts: The advantage of seed is that it protects the future plant i.e.
embryo. : Cotyledons and Embryo Cotyledons store food for the future plant
  Embryo has two parts: plumule and radicle. Plumule develops into shoot and
radicle develops into root.
The process of development of a seedling from the embryo under appropriate
conditions (temperature and moisture) is known as germination.

. Reproduction in Human Beings.

 There are some changes that begin in the teenage age that start to prepare us for
the reproductive phase of life. This period of adolescence leads to sexual
maturation. The body needs to create specialised germ-cells to take part in the
sexual reproduction. The period of maturation of the reproductive tissues in the
body is termed as puberty.
 Numerous changes are noticed in both boys and girls during this period. The boys
start to have hair growth on their face and body, voice change, active functioning
of sweat and sebaceous glands, enlargement of penis etc. The changes in the girls
include growth of pubic hair, enlargement of breasts, oily skin leading to pimples,
onset of menstruation etc. Both of them undergo changes in their body appearance
and they become more conscious of these bodily changes.
 The process of fusion of germ-cells in sexual reproduction, the actual transfer of
these germ-cells needs to be done. For the same special organs need to be
present like penis in males and uterus in females for carrying the baby.
(1) Male Reproductive System
 The male reproductive system consists of organs that produce and transport the
male germ-cell or gamete, male hormone testosterone and the organs which
facilitate the discharge of male germ-cells into the female reproductive system for
fertilization.
 The male gamete is the sperm which is a tiny body containing the genetic material
and they have a long tail for motility to help them reach the female germ-cell for
fertilization.
  The system consists of some external organs like penis, scrotum, testes and
internal organs like urethra, prostate and seminal vesicles.

a. Testes: Testes is the part that is responsible for the production of the male germ-
cell or sperms and the male hormone testosterone. Testes are present in a structure
known as scrotum, located outside the abdominal cavity. This is thus located because the
formation of sperm requires a temperature that is lower than the normal body
temperature. The hormone testosterone plays a role in regulating the formation of sperms
and also the development of the secondary sexual characteristics that are seen in boys
during puberty.
b. Vas Deferens: The sperms that are produced in the testes are stored in the
epididymis. Vas deferens is a tube that transports these sperm to the urethra.
c. Urethra: This is a common passage for the sperm as well as urine. The same
passage connects the urinary bladder and the vas deferens.
d. Prostate Gland and Seminal Vesicles: These glands are located along the vas
deferens. They secrete a fluid, called semen that nourishes the sperm. This semen helps
in the easier movement of sperms.

(.2). Female Reproductive System.

 The female reproductive system includes the organs that produce the female
germ-cells, provides site for fertilization of the gametes and development of the
embryo into a new individual.
 The female gametes are the eggs that are produced in the ovaries.
 They also produce some hormones like estrogen and progesterone that are
responsible for the onset of secondary sexual characteristics in girls at puberty.
  This system includes a pair of ovaries, a pair of oviducts, uterus and vagina that
opens externally.

a. Ovaries: The ovaries are a pair of glands that are located on either side of the
uterus. The ovaries protect the female gametes or eggs and make them suitable for
fertilization. At birth the ovary of a girl contains thousands of eggs that are immature. After
puberty, when the eggs mature, the ovaries release one egg every month. The ovaries
also produce the hormones oestrogen and progesterone that are essential in bringing the
secondary sexual changes in a girl at puberty.
b. Fallopian tube: This is also known as oviduct. This is a thin tube that connects
the ovaries to the uterus. The eggs that are released by the ovary are transported through
this tube.
c. Uterus: This is a bag-like muscular elastic structure into which the two oviducts
open. The uterus is the site where the fertilized egg is implanted and it grows into a foetus.
It is made of 3 tissues which is responsible for supporting the developing foetus during
the entire gestation period.
d. Cervix: This is the site where the uterus opens into vagina. This facilitates a
passage for the entry of the sperm into theuterus.

Fertilization and Development:

 The process of fertilization of a male and female gamete or sperm and egg starts
when the sperm enters the female reproductive system through the vaginal
passage during a sexual intercourse. From the vaginal passage they move up
through the uterus towards the fallopian tubes.
 The eggs are present in the fallopian tube, meet the sperm and get fertilized.
 The fertilized egg, which is known as the zygote, starts dividing repeatedly and
travels down the fallopian tube to the uterus.
 The ball of cells or embryo gets implanted in the lining of the uterus and continues
to grow into a foetus. The embryo gets its nourishment from the mother through a
 special tissue called the placenta which acts as a connection between the mother
and the developing embryo.
 Placenta-The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a
special tissue called placenta, which is a disk-like structure embeded in the uterine
wall. It contains finger-like villi on the embryo side, while on the mother’s side blood
spaces surround the villi. Villi provides a large surface area for glucose and oxygen
to pass from the mother to the developing embryo and the wastes to pass from the
embryo to the mother through the placenta.
 It takes about nine months for the complete development of the child inside the
mother’s body. The child is born due to the rhythmic contractions of the uterine
muscles.

. What Happens When the Egg is Not Fertilized?

 An egg is released by the ovary every month in anticipation of it getting fertilised.
In case the egg does not get fertilized, it can survive for only a day. Similar to the
ovary releasing an egg every month, every month, the uterus too prepares itself to
the fertilized egg by creating a thick and spongy lining in order to provide
nourishment to the embryo.
 Menstruation When the fertilization does not occur, this lining too is not required
and this lining and the egg is shed as blood and mucous through the vagina. This
is called menstruation. This cycle occurs every month and lasts for about 2 - 8
days roughly.

Reproductive Health.
 Reproductive health deals with all these aspects concerned with healthy and safe
sexual practices..
 . The diseases transmitted by unhealthy sexual practices are termed as sexually
transmitted diseases (STDs), like bacterial infections such as gonorrhoea and
syphilis, viral infections such as warts and HIV.
 Reproductive health covers the area of safe sex by using some contraceptive
methods.
 The contraceptive methods are
 (a) Mechanical barrier method (use of condoms).- physical barriers that block
the entry of sperm into oviducts and not letting fertilization take place. Examples
are condoms or coverings on the penis.
 (b)Intra Uterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD) or loop: It is inserted in the uterus
and its insertion causes certain secretion which prevents the implantation of the
embryo in the uterine wall.
 (c)Chemical methods (use of pills). The other contraceptive method changes
the hormonal balance of the body, preventing fertilization. These are mostly in
the form of drugs which can be taken orally in a scheduled manner. Examples
are pills like Mala D, I-pill etc.
 (d)surgical methods -Another method is the surgical one like vasectomy in
males in which the vas deferens is blocked to prevent the transfer of sperm. In
females, tubectomy is done which blocks the fallopian tube and thus prevents the
egg from reaching the uterus.
 There is a law in place to prevent this female foeticide (killing of a foetus), which
states that prenatal sex determination is prohibited.
 A proper ratio of males to females is essential to maintain a balance in the society
and to have a healthy population too.

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