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The document discusses static and dynamic hashing in file organization, highlighting their advantages and disadvantages. It explains the cost model for operations on heap and sorted files, detailing the time complexities for scanning, inserting, and deleting records. Additionally, it covers multilevel indexing, B-trees, dynamic multilevel indexing using B+ trees, and the role of indexing techniques in improving external sorting performance.

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23 views

5 unit. pdf

The document discusses static and dynamic hashing in file organization, highlighting their advantages and disadvantages. It explains the cost model for operations on heap and sorted files, detailing the time complexities for scanning, inserting, and deleting records. Additionally, it covers multilevel indexing, B-trees, dynamic multilevel indexing using B+ trees, and the role of indexing techniques in improving external sorting performance.

Uploaded by

japoxe5540
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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5

1. Illustrate about Static and Dynamic Hashing in File Organization


Static Hashing:
In static hashing, a hash function is used to map data to fixed locations in a hash table. The size of
the table is predefined, and the number of buckets remains constant, which means it does not
change during execution.
Disadvantages: If there is an overflow (more records than the available buckets), it can lead to
collisions, requiring additional overflow handling techniques.
Example: A simple hash function might divide the key by the number of buckets to determine the
location. However, as the data grows, the table becomes inefficient.
Dynamic Hashing:
In dynamic hashing, the hash table can grow or shrink dynamically based on the data volume. It
uses techniques like extendible hashing or linear hashing to adjust the table size and reduce the
chances of collisions.
Advantages: It allows for better handling of growing data and reduces overflow issues by
redistributing data across newly added buckets.

2. Briefly Explain About Cost Model? Find the Cost of Performing Scan, Insert and Delete Operations
on Heap Files and Sorted Files
Cost Model:
The cost model in databases estimates the time and space required for different operations like
scanning, insertion, and deletion. It generally considers factors such as I/O operations, memory
access, and computation.
Heap Files:
Scan Operation: Involves reading all records. The cost is proportional to the number of records, and
the time complexity is O(n).
Insert Operation: The cost is typically constant for heap files as records are inserted at the end, with
time complexity O(1).
Delete Operation: Deletion is done by searching for the record first (O(n)), then removing it. The
overall cost is O(n) due to the need to locate the record.
Sorted Files:
Scan Operation: It can be done sequentially, which is O(n), but efficient access may require an index.
Insert Operation: Insertions require maintaining the sorted order. Thus, finding the correct location
takes O(log n), and inserting involves shifting elements, making the total cost O(n).
Delete Operation: Deletion also involves finding the record and shifting elements to maintain order,
costing O(n).

3. How Does Multilevel Indexing Improve the Efficiency of Searching an Index File?
Multilevel indexing involves creating multiple levels of indexes. The first level points to the second
level, which in turn points to the actual data records. This structure improves efficiency by reducing
the number of blocks to be searched.
Single-level indexing requires searching through all index blocks linearly, which can be inefficient if
the number of records is large.
Multilevel indexing reduces the size of the index by dividing it into levels. The top-level index points
to blocks at the second level, which points to data pages. This decreases the number of I/O
operations needed for a search, as it leads to smaller, more manageable index blocks at each level.

4. What Is the Order p of a B-tree? Describe the Structure of B-tree Nodes


The order p of a B-tree refers to the maximum number of children each node can have. A B-tree of
order p has the following properties:
Every node can have at most p-1 keys and p children.
The root node can have a minimum of 2 children if it's not a leaf.
Internal nodes and leaf nodes must have at least ⌈p/2⌉ children.
Structure of B-tree Nodes:
A node contains a sorted array of keys and a corresponding set of child pointers.
Each node has a set of keys such that all keys in the left child are smaller, and all keys in the right
child are larger.
Leaf nodes store the actual data and can also have pointers to the next leaf node for easier
sequential access.

5. Explain About Dynamic Multilevel Indexing Using B+ Trees


Dynamic multilevel indexing using B+ trees is an advanced method for indexing that ensures
efficient searching, insertion, and deletion of records. In a B+ tree:
All values are stored at the leaf level, with internal nodes only storing keys for routing.
Dynamic adjustment: As records are inserted or deleted, the B+ tree grows or shrinks dynamically,
redistributing data across the tree. The structure of the tree is maintained, and all operations like
search, insert, and delete are efficient (O(log n) time complexity).
Benefits: B+ trees are highly suitable for dynamic indexing as they allow for balanced structure,
efficient range queries, and quicker access due to their linked leaf nodes.

6. How Indexing Techniques Help in Improving the Performance of External Sorting? Explain
External sorting involves sorting large data that does not fit into memory, typically using disk-based
storage. Indexing plays a crucial role in enhancing external sorting by reducing the number of I/O
operations.
Reducing Access Time: Indexes help quickly locate the data blocks that need to be accessed for
sorting, instead of scanning entire files.
Efficient Merge Sort: In external merge sort, sorted runs are merged together. Indexes can speed up
the merging process by helping locate the smallest element in each sorted run.
B+ Trees for External Sorting: A B+ tree is often used as an index for external sorting because of its
ability to provide sorted access to data and efficiently manage large data blocks during merging.
Indexing reduces disk I/O and improves the efficiency of the sorting algorithm, allowing the system
to process large volumes of data in a scalable manner.

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