Chapter Four

Results and Discussion

4.1 Data Interpretation

The VES data obtained were in resistance (Ω), using ohmega 1000c terrameter
which were then multiplied by their corresponding geometric factor (k) in order to
obtain an apparent resistivity in ohm-meter. Computer software called IPI2WIN
was used to processes the data, the apparent resistivity values for each point was
plotted against the half current electrode spacing AB/2 on log-graph to obtain
sounding curves. The purpose of these curves is to determine the subsurface layers
beneath each VES point as well as their thickness and resistivity variation, the
results of the analysis of data were correlated with a borehole log data obtained
near the study area. Boreholes log data are a necessary and reliable source of data,
and electrical resistivity method using vertical electrical sounding (VES)
interpretations provide basic information of the area.

4.2 Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES)

The data was firstly processed and analyzed using IPI2win version 3.0.1 Software
which gave automatic geo-electric parameters of the study area. The output of VES
data is resistivity layer, log resistivity graph and resistivity depth table. Sounding
curve obtained from the study area showed variation of three- four geo-electrical
layers.
VES 1 CURVE

VES 2 CURVE

VES 3 CURVE
VES 4 CURVE

VES 5 CURVE

VES 6 CURVE
VES 7 CURVE

Figure 4.1: VES Sounding Curves

Table 1: Shows Summary of VES Points; Numbers of Layer, Resistivity,

Thickness and Depth of the Subsurface

STATION LAYERS RESISTIVITY THICKNESS DEPTH

ρ(Ω) h(m) d(m)
VES 1 1 3.48 0.395 0.395
2 326 16.3 16.7
3 4.49 - -
VES 2 1 4.4 0.419 0.419
2 148 0.966 1.38
3 1449 - -
VES 3 1 169 1.15 1.15
2 38343 2.33 3.48
3 40.1 - -
VES 4 1 1644 0.8127 0.8127
2 11760 7.655 8.468
3 36036 18.54 27.01
4 725.9 - -
VES 5 1 297 0.781 0.781
2 502 8.11 8.89
3 25073 - -
VES 6 1 0.28 0.763 0.763
2 0.519 0.184 0.948
3 677 - -
VES 7 1 5633 2.671 2.671
 2 5101 2.956 5.627
3 5473 - -

4.3 Geoelectric Layer Distributions of Acquired VES of the Study Area

Seven (7) VES Points were sounded. The image (Figure 4.2) shows the geoelectric
layer distribution of the various VES point. The depth of the topsoil along the
profile ranges from approximately 0.395m to 2.671m.

Figure 4.2: Geoelectric Section of the Acquired VES of the Study Area

The sounding data were analyzed with the aid of IPI2WIN software to delineate
the sub-surface layers with depths, thicknesses and their respective resistivity
values. The sounding curves of seven(7) VES stations depict three – four layers
with varying resistivity and thickness of each geoelectric layer beneath each VES
location connected along a profile.
The geo-electric section along profiles reveals three to four geo-electric layers
which vary among topsoil, clayey sand, sandy clay, and sandstone. The geo-
electric sections are along a profile consisting of VES 1-7. The first geoelectric
layer represents the topsoil with resistivity and thickness ranging within 3.48 –
5633 Ωm and 0.3 – 2.6 m. The second identified layer beneath were denoted as
clayey sand with resistivity and thickness that ranged around 148 Ωm, 38343 Ωm
and 11760 Ωm with 0.966 m, 2.33 m and 7.655 m respectively while the
geoelectric layer below the clayey sand in VES4 is described to be sandy clay with
resistivity and thickness of 36036 Ωm and 18.54 m. The VES 4 is the only one
identified with four geo electric layer. The lowest geo-electric layer depicts
consolidated sandstone (VES 1 – 7) with resistivity and thickness ranging in values
between 9.49 Ωm – 5473 Ωm and 0.184 m – 18.54m.

The sandstone was described to have good porosity and permeability serving either
as hydrocarbon reservoir or water aquifer (Ologe & Ola-Buraimo, 2022). These
geological features and paleo environment of deposition in the study area are
factors responsible for low resistivity in some places, while high resistivities
obtained in this research could be as a result of layers associated with continental
deposits; characterised by ferruginisation, conglomeritic layer, and strongly
consolidated poorly sorted sandstone (Ola-Buraimo, Ologe, & Benemaikwu,
2018). However, other areas of deposition of Gwandu Formation have been
described to contain fine siltstone particles deposited in neritic marine and deeper
middle neritic marine environments in Kola and Jodu areas respectively
(OlaBuraimo, Oladimeji, & Imran, 2022, Ola-Buraimo & Usman, 2022). This
research output further substantiates the reason why there are different resistivity
measures obtained in the study area. There is a direct relationship between the
various aquifer layers varying from continental through marginal marine to middle
neritic marine environments with increased porosity and permeability in the
environmental trend. Thus, this is responsible for the variations from the very high
resistivity values to the relatively low resistivity values obtained in this work.
4.4 Contour Maps of the Study Area

Figure 4.3: Overburden Thickness Map

The thickness of overburden layers varies significantly across the 7 Vertical

Electrical Sounding (VES) locations, ranging from 0 m to 19m. This variability

indicates diverse geological and hydrological conditions.

The overburden thickness map depicts the thickness and distribution of the the

upper layers which overlies the aquiferous layers.

The overburden thickness can be categorized into three different categories which

are

Thin Overburden Layers (<7m): VES 2, VES 3, VES 6, and VES 7, exhibit

relatively thin overburden layers. These areas likely have shallow water tables or

high permeability, facilitating rapid groundwater recharge.

Moderate Overburden Layers (7-13m): VES 5 display moderate overburden

thicknesses.

Thick Overburden Layers (13-19m): VES 4 and VES 1 exhibit thicker

overburden layers. These areas likely have low permeability or high clay content,

restricting groundwater flow.

 Chapter Five

Conclusion

5.1 Summary and Conclusion

Geo electrical investigation using Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was adopted
within Ungwar Dikko Kalgo LGA, Kebbi State Northwestern Nigeria for the
exploration of groundwater in the area. The interpreted results of the VES data
were done using IPI2WIN and suffer software packages and the results are
presented as sounding curves, geo-electric sections and contour map. The sections
reveal three to four geo-electric layers which vary among topsoil, clayey sand,
sandy clay, and sandstone. The resistivity parameters of the geo electric layers
across the entire area were used to delineate the parameters of the identified
aquifers in the study area.

It is observed from the study that most suitable aquiferous layer with high
groundwater potential lies within the lowest geological layer which is
predominantly composed of sandstones of various sizes.

A borehole log correlation shows that the study area is composed of

unconsolidated and consolidated sandstones which positively match results from
the data interpretation. Furthermore, this sandstone layer is the least resistive zone
as seen from the field data and IPI2WIN generated curves.

Therefore, the recommended ideal depth to drill a borehole can be suggested to be

20m below.

It is advised that a comprehensive and detailed hydro geological and geophysical

study of the area is to be carried out so as to ascertain and gain in depth
understanding of the groundwater properties of the area.

5.2 Recommendation
It is recommended that a thorough study of any project be done before any
operation so as to know whether the aquifer is in good condition. And the presence
of clay above the aquifer must be sought for before choosing any site for waste
disposal so as to ensure aquifer protection.
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