2.

2 Introduction to stoichiometry
Objectives
By the end of the subtopic, you should be able to:
 Construct balanced equations.
 Perform calculations including the use of the mole concept involving reacting
masses, volumes and concentrations of solutions, volumes of gases.
Introduction
 Chemists spend most of their time constructing chemical equations and solving them.
 It is therefore essential that one understands the basics of a chemical equation.
 Consider the following equation:
𝐴+𝐵 →𝐶+𝐷
 From the equation, A and B are called reactants while C and D are called products
 In a chemical reaction A and B are always decreasing while C and D are increasing with
time.
 One of the most important skills any chemist must possess is balancing a chemical
equation.
 This enables the chemist to have knowledge of what amount of reactant A is needed to
react with B to form a product(s) in the most accurate and effective way.
 Constructing chemical equations and solving them is most probably the easiest thing to
do in chemistry as the procedure is easy to follow and understand.
 Constructing and balancing a chemical equation
 All chemical reactions obey the law of conservation of mass which states that mass can
neither be created nor destroyed.
 Recall Avogadro’s number which states that 1 mole of any substance contain 6.02 × 1023
particles.
 This means that atoms can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical equation; they
can only be re arranged.
 Steps in constructing and balancing equation
 To have an easy understanding of steps to follow when balancing a chemical equation, the
complete combustion of butane is used as an example.
1. The first stage in constructing a balanced equation is to write down the word equation.
Butane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
 Write down the formula of each reactant and product in the word equation.
 Butane is in the family of alkanes which all end with – 𝑎𝑛𝑒 and general formula 𝐶𝑛 𝐻2𝑛+2 hence 𝐶4 𝐻10 .
 Oxygen is a diatomic molecule 𝑂2 .
 Carbon dioxide and water have known formulas which are 𝐶𝑂2 and 𝐻2 𝑂 respectively.
2. Deduce all the chemical formulas of the respective reactants and products and
substitute the word equations with the chemical formulas as shown:
𝐶4 𝐻10 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
3. Identify the elements in the equation 𝐶, 𝐻, 𝑂 and write down the number of atoms in
each side of the equation using subscripts and coefficients. Balance net charge
Table 2.3.1 Constituents of Combustion analysis of butane (unbalanced equation)
Element Number of atoms in Number of atoms in Net charge
reactant side product side
𝐶 4 1 0

𝐻 10 2 0

𝑂 2 3 0

4. Start the balance according to the following preference:

 Select an element that exists in molecules of both reactants and products. In the example 𝐶
exist in 𝐶4 𝐻10 and 𝐶𝑂2 while 𝐻 exist in 𝐶4 𝐻10 and 𝐻2 𝑂.
 Always leave hydrogen and oxygen last in any balance
Carbon balance
 Add a coefficient to the single carbon atom on the right of the equation to balance
it with the 3 carbon atoms on the left of the equation
𝐶4 𝐻10 + 𝑂2 → 4𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Hydrogen balance
 The second element to balance is hydrogen preferred to oxygen as it exists in
molecules of both a reactant and a product.
 Add a coefficient to the molecule containing hydrogen on the right hand
side (𝑅𝐻𝑆).
𝐶4 𝐻10 + 𝑂2 → 4𝐶𝑂2 + 5𝐻2 𝑂
Oxygen balance
 The only element left to balance in the chemical equation is oxygen
13
𝐶4 𝐻10 + 𝑂2 → 4𝐶𝑂2 + 5𝐻2 𝑂
2
Table 2.3.2 Constituents of Combustion analysis of butane (balanced equation)
Element Number of atoms in reactant Number of atoms in Net charge
side product side
𝐶 4 4 0
𝐻 10 10 0
𝑂 13 13 0
5. If the balance is fractional, multiply by a scalar to make it a whole number. This is
for easy of calculation not necessarily compulsory.
6. Include state symbols: with (s) for solids, (l) for liquids, (g) for gases and (aq) for
species in solution of water. There is no space between the chemical formula
and the state symbol.
Example 2.2.1
During the manufacture of sulphuric acid the major raw materials are sulphur dioxide and oxygen in a
contact process. The two react to form sulphur trioxide. Write down a balanced equation for this reaction
and include state symbols.
Solution:
Step 1: sulphur dioxide + oxygen → sulphur trioxide
Step 2: sulphur dioxide, 𝑆𝑂2 , oxygen, 𝑂2 , sulphur trioxide, 𝑆𝑂3 .
Step 3: 𝑆𝑂2 + 𝑂2 → 𝑆𝑂3
Step 4: write number of atoms on either side of the arrow including net charge:
Element No. of atoms in reactants No. of atoms in products Net charge

𝑆 1 1 0

O 2 3 0

Step 5:Sulphur exist in both 𝑆𝑂2 and 𝑆𝑂3

Sulphur balance: No subscripts or coefficients
𝑆𝑂2 + 𝑂2 → 𝑆𝑂3
Oxygen balance
1
𝑆𝑂2 + 𝑂2 → 𝑆𝑂3
2
Convert to whole numbers and include state symbols
2𝑆𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝑂2 (𝑔)→ 2𝑆𝑂3 (𝑔)
STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS
 After constructing a balanced equation, the next stage is solving it.
 This branch is called Stoichiometry.
 Stoichiometry is the study of the relationship(s) existing between relative amount(s)
of substances.
 Performing stoichiometric calculations is a pretty straight forward task.
 The mole concept is used to solve the stoichiometric equation(s) in one of the
following:
1. Reacting masses
2. Volumes and concentrations of solutions.
3. Volumes of gases
 1. Reacting masses
 When performing calculations involving reacting masses bear in mind these two
important factors:
a. Total combined mass of reactants should always be the same as total combined mass of
the products formed, this is known as the law of conservation of mass
b. The mole is the S.I unit of Stoichiometry; therefore the ratio in which species react
corresponds to the number of moles, and not their mass.
 Masses must therefore all be converted into moles, then compared to each other,
then converted back.
 When a reaction takes place there are two possible outcomes to the expected
product
i. The reaction goes all the way to completion.
ii. The reaction does not go all the way to completion.
Example 2.2.2

Consider the following word equation and answer the following questions

aluminium + copper II oxide → aluminum oxide + copper

a. Write down a balanced equation for the reaction.

b. What is the mass of aluminum that will be needed to react with 100 g of copper oxide?

c. How much aluminum oxide (in grams) is produced?

Solution

a. 3𝐶𝑢𝑂(𝑠) + 2𝐴𝑙(𝑠) → 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 (𝑠) + 3𝐶𝑢(𝑠)

b. From the equation, CuO and Al are in the ratio 3:2 respectively
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 100g
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑢𝑂 = = = 1.257861635𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 79.5 gmol−1

2
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑙 = × 1.257861635𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 0.838574423𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
3

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑙 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 = 0.838574423𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 × 27𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 22.6𝑔 𝐴𝑙 𝑡𝑜 3 𝑠. 𝑓

1
c. 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = × 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑢𝑂 (𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑓 (𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 )
3

1
= × 1.257861635 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 × 102𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 42.8 𝑔 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 3 𝑠. 𝑓
3
2. Volumes, concentrations and solutions
 To understand the concept of volumetric analysis of liquids, it is imperative to understand a few
important definitions:
 Solution
 Solvent
 Solute
 Concentration
 Molarity
 Volumetric analysis
 Titration
 Solution - a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances in which the proportions of the
substances are identical throughout the mixture.
 Solvent - A substance, usually a liquid capable of dissolving another substance (solute).
 Solute - A substance dissolved in another substance, usually the component of a solution present in
the lesser amount.
 Concentration - The amount of solute present in a fixed quantity of solvent or solution in 𝒈𝒅𝒎−𝟑
or 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒅𝒎−𝟑 .
 Volumetric analysis - The quantitative investigation of chemical reactions by comparing reacting
volumes
 Titration - The procedure by which reacting volumes are determined.
 Recall that the S.I unit for quantitative chemistry is the mole and for solutions:
 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠(𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠) = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑚−3 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑑𝑚3 )
 In laboratory chemistry small volumes are used and measured in 𝑐𝑚3 thus need to
convert the 𝑐𝑚3 to 𝑑𝑚3 according to the equation.
3
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑚3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑚 =
1000
 The solute is usually in solid state and its concentration measured in 𝑔𝑑𝑚−3 .
 The concentration in 𝑔𝑑𝑚−3 is converted to concentration in 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑚−3 using the
formula:
−3
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔𝑑𝑚−3
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑚 =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠(𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 )
 It is important to know that some text(books) refer molarity as concentration in
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑚−3 .
Example 2.2.3

In an acid-base titration, a student used 𝟑𝟕. 𝟓 𝒄𝒎𝟑 of 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒅𝒎−𝟑 NaOH to neutralise 25 cm3 of a
solution of sulphuric acid

a. Write down the balanced equation for the acid-base titration.

b. What was the concentration in 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒅𝒎−𝟑 of the sulphuric acid?

Solution
a. 𝑯𝟐 𝑺𝑶𝟒 + 𝟐𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯  𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑺𝑶𝟒 + 𝟐𝑯𝟐 𝑶
b. 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏(𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒅𝒎−𝟑 ) × 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆(𝒅𝒎𝟑 )
𝟑𝟕.𝟓
= 𝟎. 𝟐𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒅𝒎−𝟑 × 𝒅𝒎𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟓𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒔 𝒐𝒓 𝟕. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 mols
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
The stoichiometric ratios of 𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯: 𝑯𝟐 𝑺𝑶𝟒 are 2:1 respectively
𝟏 𝟏
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑯𝟐 𝑺𝑶𝟒 = × 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯 = × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟓𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟕𝟓𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒔 𝟎𝒓 𝟑. 𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒔
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐𝟓
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟕𝟓𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏(𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒅𝒎−𝟑 ) × 𝒅𝒎𝟑
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟕𝟓𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔
𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒅𝒎−𝟑
𝟎.𝟎𝟐𝟓𝒅𝒎𝟑
 The trick is to always find the moles of a substance with all the information, then use stoichiometric ratios
to calculate moles of other substances.
Example 2.2.4
Calculate the volume of 0.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑚−3 nitric acid required to react completely with 7.5 𝑔 of calcium
carbonate.
Solution
Construct a balanced equation:
𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 + 2𝐻𝑁𝑂3 → 𝐶𝑎(𝑁𝑂3 )2 + 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Solve the stoichiometric equation according to the following procedure:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1
7.5𝑔
= = 0.075 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
100𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

Stoichiometric ratio of 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 : 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 is 1:2 respectively:

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 = 2 × 0.075 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 = 0.15𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑚−3 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒(𝑑𝑚3 )
0.15 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 = = 0.3𝑑𝑚3
0.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑚 −3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑚3 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑚3 × 1000𝑐𝑚3 /𝑑𝑚3
= 0.3𝑑𝑚3 × 1000𝑐𝑚3 /𝑑𝑚3
= 300𝑐𝑚3
 3. Volumes of Gases
 According to Avogadro’s law, one mole of any gas occupy a fixed volume called the molar gas volume, Vm.
 The volume occupied by any gas mainly depend on:
 Temperature: the higher the temperature of the gas, the faster the particles move and the more space they will occupy.
 Pressure: the higher the pressure, the more compressed the gas will be and the less space it will occupy.
 Amount of gas: the more gas particles there are, the more space they will occupy, (Avogadro’s law).

 The molar volume of a gas can be found by assuming the gas is ideal by the formula:
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
Where:
P = pressure in Pascal 1atm = 101325Pa , V = volume in m3 . (1m3 = 1000dm3 = 106 cm3 )
n = number of moles in moles, R = molar gas constant = 8.31JK −1 mol−1
T = temperature in kelvins i. e. T K = T℃ + 273
From the ideal gas equation, it is possible to find the molecular mass of the gas by substituting as follows
𝑚𝑅𝑇
𝑃𝑉 =
𝑀𝑟
The density of the gas can also be calculated from the ideal gas equation.
Mathematically, density is defined as
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉
Therefore,
𝑚 𝑃𝑀𝑟
=
𝑉 𝑅𝑇

𝑃𝑀𝑟
𝜌=
𝑅𝑇
Example 2.2.5
During a pilot plant testing, 0.298g of gas occupied a volume of 200cm3 at atmospheric
pressure and 250℃. What is the molecular mass, 𝑀𝑟 of the gas?
Solution
List data given and convert to standard units of quantitative chemistry.
𝑃 = 1𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 101325𝑃𝑎
𝑉 = 200𝑐𝑚3 = 200 × 10−6 𝑚3
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 0.298𝑔
𝑅 = 8.31𝐽𝐾 −1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1
𝑇 = 250℃ = 523𝐾− −
1 2
𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝑠
The unit J can be written as 𝑘𝑔𝑚2 𝑠 −2 and Pa as
Substitute into the ideal gas equation:
𝑚𝑅𝑇
𝑀𝑟 =
𝑃𝑉
0.298𝑔 × 8.31𝑘𝑔𝑚 2 −2 𝐾 −1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 × 523𝐾
− − 𝑠
= 𝑘𝑔𝑚 1 𝑠 2
101325 × 200 × 10−6 𝑚3
= 63.9g/mol
Example 2.2.6
What is the density of nitrogen gas, 𝑁2 at 0.3263atm and 25℃ ? Give your answer in 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 .
Solution
Data:
𝑃 = 0.3263 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 33062.3475𝑃𝑎
𝑇 = 25℃ = 298𝐾
𝑅 = 8.31𝐽𝐾 −1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1
𝑀𝑟 𝑁2 = 2 × 14𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙−1 = 28𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙−1
Substitute in the formula:
𝑃𝑀𝑟
𝜌=
𝑅𝑇 − −
1 2
𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝑠
33062.3475 − × 28𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙
−
−1
= 𝐾 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 1 ×
298𝐾
8.31𝑘𝑔𝑚2 𝑠 −2
−3
= 0.37383024𝑔𝑚
The question asked to leave the answer in 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 .
𝜌(𝑁2 ) = 0.00037383024𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
= 3.7383024 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
Does the answer make sense?
Yes – Gases have very low densities at very low pressure and high temperature. If the temperature is
increased way above the boiling point of 𝑁2 (𝑔) the density will eventually become negligible.
 Assessment exercise 2.2: Intro to stoichiometry
1. Calculate the mass of H2O required to react completely with 5.0 g of SiCl4:
SiCl4 + 4H2O  SiO2 + 4HCl [1]
2. A blast furnace can produce about 700 tonnes of iron a day. How much iron (III) oxide
will be consumed? Assuming coke is pure carbon, how much coke would be needed
to produce the necessary carbon monoxide?
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g)  2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)
2C(s) + O2(g) 2CO(g) [2]
3. What mass of magnesium, and what volume of 2.0 moldm-3 hydrochloric acid, will be
required to produce 100 cm3 of hydrogen gas at 298 K and 100 kPa? [3]
4. 3.2 g of hydrated sodium carbonate, Na2CO3.xH2O, was dissolved in water and the
resulting solution was titrated against 1.0 moldm-3 hydrochloric acid. 22.4 cm3 of the
acid was required. What is the value of x? [3]
5. 25 cm3 of a solution of 0.1 moldm-3 NaOH reacts with 50 cm3 of a solution of
hydrochloric acid. What is the molarity of the acid? [1]