DISTANCE LEARNING CENTRE

AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY

ZARIA, NIGERIA

COURSE MATERIAL

FOR

COURSE CODE &TITLE: LIBS 884: KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

PROGRAMME TITLE: MASTER IN INFORMATION MANAGEMENT

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We acknowledge the use of the Courseware of the National Open University of

Nigeria (NOUN) as the primary resource. Internal reviewers in the Ahmadu Bello
University who extensively reviewed and enhanced the material have been duly
listed as members of the Courseware development team.

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 COPYRIGHT PAGE
© 2018 Ahmadu Bello University (ABU) Zaria, Nigeria

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise
without the prior permission of the Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria.

First Published 2018 in Nigeria.

ISBN:

Ahmadu Bello University Press,

Ahmadu Bello University
Zaria, Nigeria.
Tel: +234
E-mail:

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COURSE WRITERS/DEVELOPMENT TEAM

Editor
Prof. M.I Sule
Course Materials Development Overseer
Dr. Usman Abubakar Zaria
Subject Matter Expert
Dr. Aliyu Lawan
Subject Matter Reviewer
Abdullahi Hussaini
Language Reviewer
Enegoloinu Adakole
Instructional Designers/Graphics
Ibrahim Otukoya, Abubakar Haruna
Proposed Course Coordinator
Abdullahi Hussaini
ODL Expert
Dr. Aliyu Lawan

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 CONTENTS
Title Page…………………………………………………………….……i
Acknowledgement Page…………………………………………… ……ii
Copyright Page………………………………………………………..……iii
Course Writers/Development Team………………………………………iv
Table of Content………………………………..……………………………v
COURSE STUDY GUIDE - - - - - - - - -
i. Course Information - - - - - - - -7
ii. Course Introduction and Description - - - - - -7
iii. Course Prerequisites - - - - - - - -7
iv. Course Learning Resources - - - - - - -8
v. Course Objectives and Outcome - - - - - -8
vi. Activities to Meet Course Objectives - - - - - -8
vii. Time (To Complete Syllabus/Course) - - - - - -9
viii. Grading Criteria and Scale - - - - - - -9
ix. OER Resources - - - - - - - - -11
x. ABU DLC Academic Calendar - - - - - - -13
xi. Course Structure and Outline - - - - - - -14
xii. STUDY MODULES - - - - - - - -23
MODULE 1: Concept of Knowledge Management - - - 23
Study Session 1: Knowledge, Information and Data - - - -23
Study Session 2: Knowledge Manage

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 ment - - - - -36
Study Session 3: Information Management and Knowledge
Management - - - - - - -54
Study Session 4: Organisational Knowledge - - - - -62

MODULE 2:Organizational Learning in Knowledge Management - -73

Study Session 1: Organisational Memory and Knowledge
Repositories - - - - - - - - -73
Study Session 2: Organisational Learning - - - - -81
Study Session 3: Approaches to Organisational Learning - - -90
Study Session 4: Organisational Culture - - - - - -101

MODULE 3: Knowledge Management Frameworks - - 112

Study Session 1: Building Knowledge Management Frameworks
and Model- - - - - - - - - -112
Study Session 2: Knowledge Management Processes - - - -123
Study Session 3: Knowledge Sharing - - - - - - 131
Study Session 4: Managing Knowledge Reuse - - - - - 144

MODULE 4: Knowledge Management Strategy and Creation --152

Study Session 1: Knowledge Creation - - - - -152
Study Session 2: Knowledge Management Strategy - - -166
Study Session 3: KM and Core Competencies - - - -179
Study Session 4: Careers in Knowledge Management - - -191

XIII. Glossary - - - - - - - -

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 COURSE STUDY GUIDE
i. COURSE INFORMATION
Course Code: 884
Course Title: Knowledge Management (KM)
Credit Units: 2
Year of Study: 1
Semester: 2nd

ii. COURSE INTRODUCTION AND DESCRIPTION

First, KM can very fruitfully be seen as the undertaking to replicate, indeed to
create, the information environment known to be conducive to successful
R&D—rich, deep, and open communication and information access—and to
deploy it broadly across firm or organization. The salient aspect that emerges with
overwhelming importance is that of rich, deep, and open communications, not only
within firm or organizations, but also with the outside world. The logical
conclusion, then, is to attempt to apply those same successful environmental
aspects to knowledge workers at large, and that is precisely what KM attempts to
do.

iii. COURSE PREREQUISITES

You should note that although this course has no subject pre-requisite, you are
expected to have:
1. Satisfactory level of English proficiency
2. Basic Computer Operations proficiency
3. Online interaction proficiency
4. Web 2.0 and Social media interactive skills

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 iv. COURSE LEARNING RESOURCES
Botha A,Kourie D, and Snyman R, (2008). Coping with Continuous Change in the
Business Environment, Knowledge Management and Knowledge
Management Technology. PP: Chandice Publishing Ltd.
Botha et al. (2008): The book is in two parts. The first presents a very concise
And indepth overview of knowledge management (KM), organisational learning,
organisational memory, organisational culture, and so on. The second part
offers one of the most in-depth looks at knowledge management systems
that I have ever seen in a KM book.
Davenport, T.H., and Prusak, L. (2000). Working Knowledge: How
Organisations Manage What They Know. Boston, MA:Harvard Business School
Press.
Gamble, P.R., and Blackwell, J. (2001).Knowledge Management: A State of the
Art Guide.PP:Kogan Page Ltd.
Horvath, Initial(2000-2001). "Working with Tacit Knowledge". The Knowledge
Management Yearbook. PP&P
Nonaka, I. (1994). Theory of Organisational Knowledge Creation.
Organisational Science, vol 5, no.1.
Polanyi, M. (1966).The Tacit Dimension. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1966.
The Online Encyclopedia and Dictionary http://www.fact-archive.com/
Thierauf, R. J. (1999). Knowledge Management Systems.
Quorum Books.

v. ACTIVITIES TO MEET COURSE OBJECTIVES

Specifically, this course shall comprise of the following activities.
1. Studying courseware
2. Listening to course audios

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 3. Watch relevant course videos
4. Field activities, industrial attachment or internship, laboratory or
studio work (whichever is applicable)
5. Course assignments (individual and group)
6. Forum discussion participation
7. Tutorials (optional)
8. Semester examinations (CBT and essay based).

vi. TIME (TO COMPLETE SYLABUS/COURSE)

To cope with this course, you would be expected to commit a minimum of 3 hours
weekly for the Course.

vii. GRADING CRITERIA AND SCALE

Grading Criteria
A. Formative assessment
Grades will be based on the following:
Individual assignments/test (CA 1,2 etc) 20
Group assignments (GCA 1, 2 etc) 10
Discussions/Quizzes/Out of class engagements etc 10
B. Summative assessment (Semester examination)
CBT based 30
Essay based 30
TOTAL 100%
C. Grading Scale:
A = 70-100
B = 60 – 69

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C = 50 - 59
F = 49-0

D. Feedback
Courseware based:
1. In-text questions and answer (answer preceding references)
2. Self-assessment questions and answer (answer preceding references)

Tutor based:
1. Discussion Forum tutor input
2. Graded Continuous assessments

Student based:
1. Online programme assessment (administration, learning resource,
deployment, and assessment).

viii. LINKS TO OPEN EDUCATION RESOURCES

OSS Watch provides tips for selecting open source, or for procuring free or open
software.
SchoolForge and SourceForge are good places to find, create, and publish open
software. SourceForge, for one, has millions of downloads each day.
Open Source Education Foundation and Open Source Initiative, and other
organisation like these, help disseminate knowledge.
Creative Commons has a number of open projects from Khan
Academy to Curriki where teachers and parents can find educational materials for
children or learn about Creative Commons licenses. Also, they recently launched
the School of Open that offers courses on the meaning, application, and impact of
"openness."

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 Numerous open or open educational resource databases and search engines
exist. Some examples include:
• OEDb: over 10,000 free courses from universities as well as reviews of colleges
and rankings of college degree programmes
• Open Tapestry: over 100,000 open licensed online learning resources for an
academic and general audience
• OER Commons: over 40,000 open educational resources from elementary school
through to higher education; many of the elementary, middle, and high school
resources are aligned to the Common Core State Standards
• Open Content: a blog, definition, and game of open source as well as a friendly
search engine for open educational resources from MIT, Stanford, and other
universities with subject and description listings
• Academic Earth: over 1,500 video lectures from MIT, Stanford, Berkeley,
Harvard, Princeton, and Yale
• JISC: Joint Information Systems Committee works on behalf of UK higher
education and is involved in many open resources and open projects including
digitising British newspapers from 1620-1900!

Other sources for open education resources

Universities
• The University of Cambridge's guide on Open Educational Resources for Teacher
Education (ORBIT)
• OpenLearn from Open University in the UK

Global
• Unesco's searchable open database is a portal to worldwide courses and research
initiatives
• African Virtual University (http://oer.avu.org/) has numerous modules on subjects
in English, French, and Portuguese
• https://code.google.com/p/course-builder/ is Google's open source software that is
designed to let anyone create online education courses
• Global Voices (http://globalvoicesonline.org/) is an international community of
bloggers who report on blogs and citizen media from around the world, including
on open source and open educational resources

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 Individuals (which include OERs)
• Librarian Chick: everything from books to quizzes and videos here, includes
directories on open source and open educational resources
• K-12 Tech Tools: OERs, from art to special education
• Web 2.0: Cool Tools for Schools: audio and video tools
• Web 2.0 Guru: animation and various collections of free open source software
• Livebinders: search, create, or organise digital information binders by age, grade,
or subject (why re-invent the wheel?)

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 ix. ABU DLC ACADEMIC CALENDAR/PLANNER

PERIOD
Semester Semester 1 Semester 2 Semester 3
Activity JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
Registration
Resumption
Late Registn.
Facilitation
Revision/
Consolidation
Semester
Examination

N.B: - All Sessions commence in January

- 1 Week break between Semesters and 6 Weeks vocation at end of session.
- Semester 3 is OPTIONAL (Fast-tracking, making up carry-overs & deferments)

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 x. COURSE STRUCTURE AND OUTLINE
Course Structure
WEEK MODULE STUDY ACTIVITY
SESSION

Week 1 Study Session 1: 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
Title: Knowledge, 2. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Information and 3. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site
Data https://bit.ly/2SHYQc0)
Pp. 23 4. View referred Animation (Address/Site
https://bit.ly/2Tv7lZZ&https://bit.ly/2SHYQc0)
Week 2 Study Session 2 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
Title: 2. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Knowledge 3. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site
Management https://bit.ly/2TclEW7)
Pp. 36 4. View referred Animation (Address/Site
https://bit.ly/2Mg9qbn)
Week 3 STUDY Study Session 3 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
Title: 2. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
MODULE Information 3. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site
1 Management and https://bit.ly/33txf4F&https://bit.ly/2XBdq8v)
Knowledge 4. View referred Animation (Address/Site
Management https://bit.ly/2OVMsbz&https://bit.ly/2EGvhn5)
Pp. 54
Week 4 Study Session 4 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
Title: 2. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Organisational 3. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site
Knowledge https://bit.ly/2TfkSYv)
Pp. 62 4. View referred OER (address/site??????)
5. View referred Animation (Address/Site
https://bit.ly/2Z4jtpO)

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Week 5 Study Session 1 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
Title: 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Organisational 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Memory and 4. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site
Knowledge https://bit.ly/2C05SmW)
Repositories 5. View referred Animation (Address/Site
Pp. 73 https://bit.ly/2OVGzer)
Week 6 Study Session 2 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
Title: 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Organisational 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Learning 4. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site
STUDY Pp. 81 https://bit.ly/2XB3f4a)
5. View referred Animation (Address/Site
MODULE https://bit.ly/2XB3f4a)
Week 7 2 Study Session 3 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
Title: 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Approaches to 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Organisational 4. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site
Learning https://bit.ly/2EHDBTO)
Pp. 90 5. View referred Animation (Address/Site
https://bit.ly/2EHDBTO)
Week 8 Study Session 4 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
Title: 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Organisational 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Culture 4. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site
Pp. 101 https://bit.ly/2TdT8DN)
5. View referred Animation (Address/Site
https://bit.ly/2yYYc26)

Study Session 1 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.

Title: 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Building 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Knowledge 4. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site

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 STUDY Management https://bit.ly/2tMMfu3)
Frameworks and 5. View referred Animation (Address/Site
MODULE Models https://bit.ly/2Kv1rF4)
3 Pp. 112

Week 9 Study Session 2 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
Title: 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Knowledge 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Management 4. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site
Processes https://bit.ly/2NlcnVB)
Pp. 123 5. View referred Animation (Address/Site
https://bit.ly/2H82x7Q)
Study Session 3 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
Title: 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Knowledge 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Sharing 4. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site
Pp. 131 https://bit.ly/2EnbvNv)
5. View referred Animation (Address/Site
https://bit.ly/2OVGzer)

Study Session 4 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.

Title: 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Week 10 Managing 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Knowledge Reuse 4. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site
Pp. 144 https://bit.ly/2UgA5Fl)
5. View referred Animation (Address/Site
https://bit.ly/30IXdiv)
Study Session 1 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
Title: 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Knowledge 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Creation 4. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site
Pp. 152 https://bit.ly/2ILTqN7)
Week 11 5. View referred Animation (Address/Site
https://bit.ly/2YL54Qf)

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 STUDY Study Session 2 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
Title: 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
MODULE Knowledge 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
4 Management 4. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site
Strategy https://bit.ly/2EpU3H2)
Pp. 166 5. View referred Animation (Address/Site
https://bit.ly/2WHSRGm)

Study Session 3 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.

Title: 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
KM and Core 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Competencies 4. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site
Pp. 179 https://bit.ly/2TWjgPI)
5. View referred Animation (Address/Site
https://bit.ly/2KyaVzB)

Study Session 4 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.

Week 12 Title: 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Careers in 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Knowledge 4. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site
Management https://bit.ly/2TgY9LW)
Pp. 191 5. View referred Animation (Address/Site
https://bit.ly/31EA3KF)

Week 13 REVISION/TUTORIALS (On Campus or Online)& CONSOLIDATION

WEEK

Week 14& 15 SEMESTER EXAMINATION

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Course Outline
MODULE 1: Concept of Knowledge Management
Study Session 1: Knowledge, Information and Data
Study Session 2: Knowledge Management
Study Session 3: Information Management and Knowledge Management
Study Session 4: Organisational Knowledge

MODULE 2: Organizational Learning in Knowledge Management

Study Session 1: Organisational Memory and Knowledge Repositories
Study Session 2: Organisational Learning
Study Session 3: Approaches to Organisational Learning
Study Session 4: Organisational Culture

MODULE 3: Knowledge Management Frameworks

Study Session 1: Building Knowledge Management Frameworks and Model
Study Session 2: Knowledge Management Processes
Study Session 3: Knowledge Sharing
Study Session 4: Managing Knowledge Reuse

MODULE 4: Knowledge Management Strategy and Creation

Study Session 1: Knowledge Creation
Study Session 2: Knowledge Management Strategy
Study Session 3: KM and Core Competencies
Study Session 4: Careers in Knowledge Management

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 STUDY MODULES
1.0 MODULE 1: Concept of Knowledge Management
Contents:
Study Session 1: Knowledge, Information and Data
Study Session 2: Knowledge Management
Study Session 3: Information Management and Knowledge Management
Study Session 4: Organisational Knowledge

STUDY SESSION 1
Knowledge, Information and Data
Section and Subsection Headings
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcome
2.0 Main Content
2.1-Definition of Data, Information, and Knowledge
2.2-Types of Knowledge
3.0Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0Self-Assessment Questions
5.0Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)
6.0References/Further Reading

Introduction:
You are welcome to our first study module of this course, this session will
explore the concept of data, information, and knowledge.

In everyday language, we observe that, the word “knowledge” is used all the
time. Sometimes it could mean know-how, while other times it could mean
wisdom. On many occasions,we see that it is being called information. The

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difficulty of defining knowledge arises from its relationship to two other
concepts, namely data and information.

You will agree that, these two terms are often regarded as lower denominations
of knowledge, but the exact
relationship varies greatly from one
example to another. In this study
session, you will examine the
definition of knowledge,
information, data and the different
types of knowledge. Fig 1.1.1: Knowledge, Information and Data

Source:http://www.infogineering.net/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/model.jpg

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcome

After you have finished studying this session, you should be able to:
1. Define the terms ‘Knowledge, information and data.
2. Statethe different types of knowledge.

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Definition of Data, Information, and Knowledge
Once again, you are welcome to the course title introduction to Knowledge
Management, before I start teaching knowledge management (KM), we must
begin by clearly defining the meaning of the word "knowledge". It is important
for you to understand what constitutes knowledge and what falls under the
category of information or data within everyday language, within specific fields,
even within the same disciplines.

The word "knowledge" often takes on a variety of meanings within more

technologically oriented disciplines, particularly involving information systems,

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knowledge is often treated very similar to information. It is seen as something
one can codify and transmit. This is
where Information Technology (IT)
plays a pivotal role in knowledge
sharing. For instance, the
encyclopaedia at fact-archive.com
defines it as: "information that has a
purpose or use." Fig 1.1.2: Data, Information &Action

Source: https://dccstudio.files.wordpress.com/2013/06/turning-
data -into information.png

This kind of simplistic view of knowledge was particularly widespread during

the 90s, when information technology became increasingly more common.
However even today, we still see that some KM systems are little more than
information management systems using knowledge as a virtual synonym for
information.
As you may know, knowledge is "information”. We define the three
components as follow: Data is the lowest point, an unstructured collection of
facts and figures; information is the next level, and it is regarded as structured
data.
The Longman online dictionary has given you one definition that begins to
approach the way that knowledge is
usually regarded within KM.
It states that knowledge is the
information, skills, and understanding
that you have gained through learning or
experience. Although still closely
associated with information, concepts
like skills, understanding, and
experience begin to surface. Fig 1.1.3 Knowledge, Information &Data

21
Below, these are the definitions that we will use throughout this study session.

Data: we see that data represent facts and figures which relay something
specific, but which are not organised in any way and which provide no further
information regarding patterns, context, etc. Data are unstructured facts and
figures that have the least impact on the typical manager. Data are unprocessed
information from which inference can be made.

Information: for your data to become information, it must be contextualised,

categorised, calculated and condensed (Davenport &Prusak 2000). Information
thus paints you a bigger picture; it is data with relevance and purpose (Bali et al
2009). It may convey a trend in the environment, or perhaps indicate a pattern
of sales for a given period of time. Essential information is found "in answers to
questions that begin with such words as who, what, where, when, and how
many".
IT is usually invaluable in the capacity of turning data into information,
particularly in larger firms that generate large amounts of data across multiple
departments and functions. The human brain is mainly needed to assist in
contextualisation.

Knowledge: Knowledge is closely linked to doing and implies know-how and

understanding. We observe that the knowledge possessed by each individual is
a product of his experience, and encompasses the norms by which he evaluates
new inputs from his surroundings (Davenport & Prusak 2000).

"You can explain knowledge as a fluid mix of framed experience, values,

contextual information, expert insight, and grounded intuition that provides an
environment and framework for evaluating and incorporating new experiences

22
and information. It originates and is applied in the mind of the knower. In
organisations it often becomes embedded not only in documents or repositories,
but also in organisational routines, practices and norms."

In order for you to succeed in KM, you need a

deep understanding of what constitutes
knowledge. Now that you know the clear
boundaries between knowledge, information,
and data, it is possible to go one step further and
visualise the forms in which knowledge exists
and the different ways that it can be accessed,
shared, and combined. Fig 1.1.4: Knowledge, Information & Data

Knowledge is commonly distinguished from data and information. Data

represent observations or facts out of context, and therefore not directly
meaningful.

Information results from placing data within some meaningful context, often in
the form of a message. Knowledge is the value based on the meaningfully
organised accumulation of information (messages) through experience,
communication or inference.

Knowledge can be viewed both as a thing to be stored and manipulated and as a

process of simultaneously knowing and acting - that is, applying expertise. As a
practical matter, organisations need to manage knowledge both as object and
process.

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In-text Question
What is Knowledge?

Answer
Knowledge is a fluid mix of framed experience, values, contextual information, expert insight,
and grounded intuition that provides an environment and framework for evaluating and
incorporating new experiences and information.

2.2 Types of Knowledge

Let us consider the different kinds of knowledge in existence.
Understanding the different forms that knowledge can exist in, and thereby
being able to distinguish between various types of knowledge, is an essential
step for knowledge management (KM). For example, it should be fairly evident
that the knowledge captured in a document would need to be managed (i.e.
stored, retrieved, shared, changed, etc.) in a totally different way than that
gathered over the years by an expert craftsman.

You observe that over the centuries, many attempts have been made to classify
knowledge, and different fields have focused on different dimensions. This has
resulted in numerous classifications and distinctions based in philosophy and
even religion. Within business and KM, we have two types of knowledge, are
usually defined, namely explicit and tacit knowledge. The former refers to
codified knowledge, such as that found in documents, while the latter refers to
non-codified and often personal/experience-based knowledge.

KM and organisational learning theory almost always take root in the

interaction and relationship between these two types of knowledge. You need to
know that this concept has been introduced and developed by Nonaka in the
90's and remains a theoretical cornerstone of this discipline. Botha et al (2008)
point out that tacit and explicit knowledge should be seen as a spectrum rather
than as definitive points.
24
From the above discussion, we can deduce that all knowledge is a mixture of
tacit and explicit elements rather than being one or the other. However, in order
to understand knowledge, it is important for us to define these theoretical
opposites.
Some researchers make a further distinction and talk of embedded knowledge.
This way, one differentiates between knowledge embodied in people and that
embedded in processes, organisational culture, routines, etc. (Horvath 2000).
Gamble and Blackwell (2001) use a scale consisting of represented-embodied-
embedded knowledge, where the first two closely match the explicit-tacit.

Without question, you must note that the most important distinction within KM
is between explicit and tacit knowledge.
However, we find that the embedded dimension is a valuable addition, since the
managerial requirements for this type of knowledge are quite different. For this
reason, our discussions in this study session will, when relevant, use all three
categorisations of knowledge but the
focus will always be primarily on the
explicit-tacit dimension.

Below is an overview of these three

categories, as well as a short
discussion on the way knowledge
management systems (KMS)
can/cannot be used to manage them. Fig 1.1.5: Three categories of knowledge

Explicit Knowledge

25
This type of knowledge is formalised and codified, and is sometimes referred to
as know-what. It is therefore fairly easy to identify, store, and retrieve. This is
the type of knowledge most easily handled by KMS, which are very effective at
facilitating the storage, retrieval, and modification of documents and texts.
From a managerial perspective, we observe that the greatest challenge with
explicit knowledge is similar to information. It involves ensuring that people
have access to what they need; that important knowledge is stored; and that the
knowledge is reviewed, updated, or discarded.

Again over the years, we observe that many theoreticians regard explicit
knowledge as being less important. It is considered simpler in nature and cannot
contain the rich experience based know-how that can generate lasting
competitive advantage. Although this is changing to some limited degree, KM
initiatives driven by technology have often had the flaw of focusing almost
exclusively on this type of knowledge.

As we have discussed previously, in our field such as IT, there is often a lack of
a more sophisticated definition. This has therefore created many products
labelled as KM systems, which in actual fact are/were nothing more than
information and explicit knowledge management software. Explicit knowledge
is found in: databases, memos, notes, documents, etc.

Tacit Knowledge
This type of knowledge was originally defined by Polanyi in 1966. It is
sometimes referred to as know-how and refers to intuitive, hard to define
knowledge that is largely experience based. Because of this, tacit knowledge is
often context dependent and personal in nature. According to Nonaka (1994), it
is hard to communicate and deeply rooted in action, commitment, and
involvement. Tacit knowledge is also regarded as being the most valuable

26
source of knowledge, and the most likely to lead to breakthroughs in an
organisation.

Gamble and Blackwell (2001) link the lack of focus on tacit knowledge
directly to the reduced capability for innovation and sustained competitiveness.
KM staff has a very hard time handling this type of knowledge. An IT system
relies on codification, which is something that is difficult/impossible for the
tacit knowledge holder.

Using a reference by Polanyi (1966), imagine trying to write an article that

would accurately convey how one reads facial expressions. It should be quite
apparent that it would be near impossible to convey our intuitive understanding
gathered from years of experience and practice.

Virtually all practitioners rely on this type of knowledge. An IT specialist for

example will troubleshoot a problem based on his experience and intuition. It
would be very difficult for him to codify his knowledge into a document that
could convey his know18 how to a beginner. This is one reason why experience
in a particular field is so highly regarded in the job market.

The exact extent to which IT systems can aid in the transfer and enhancement of
tacit knowledge is a rather complicated discussion. For now, suffice it to say
that successful KM initiatives must place a very strong emphasis on the tacit
dimension, focusing primarily on the people involved, and they must understand
the limitations imposed by computerised systems.

Tacit knowledge is found in: the minds of human stakeholders. It includes

cultural beliefs, values, attitudes, mental models, etc. as well as skills,
capabilities and expertise (Botha et al 2008).

27
Embedded Knowledge
Embedded knowledge refers to the knowledge that is locked in processes,
products, culture, routines, artefacts, or structures (Horvath 2000, Gamble &
Blackwell 2001).Knowledge is embedded either formally, such as through a
management initiative to formalise a certain beneficial routine, or informally as
the organisation uses and applies the other two knowledge types.

The challenges in managing embedded knowledge vary considerably and will

often differ from embodied tacit knowledge. Culture and routines can be both
difficult to understand and hard to change. Formalised routines on the other
hand may be easier to implement and management can actively try to embed the
fruits of lessons learned directly into procedures, routines, and products. IT's
role in this context is somewhat limited but it does have some useful
applications.

Broadly speaking, IT can be used to help you map your organisational

knowledge areas; as a tool in reverse engineering of products (thus trying to
uncover hidden embedded knowledge); or as a supporting mechanism for your
processes and cultures. However, it has also been argued that IT can have a
disruptive influence on culture and processes, particularly if implemented
improperly.

Due to the difficulty in effectively managing embedded knowledge, firms that

succeed may enjoy a significant competitive advantage. Embedded knowledge
is found in: rules, processes, manuals, organisational culture, codes of conduct,
ethics, products, etc.

It is important for you to note, that while embedded knowledge can exist in
explicit sources (i.e. a rule can be written in a manual), the knowledge itself is

28
not explicit, i.e. it is not immediately apparent why doing something this way is
beneficial to the organisation.
In-text Question
Itemize the two types of knowledge

Answer
1. Explicit Knowledge
2. Tacit Knowledge

3.0 Conclusion/Summary
In study session 1, you have learnt that:
1. data represent facts and figures which relay something specific, but which
are not organised in any way and which provide no further information
regarding patterns, context;
2. knowledge is closely linked to doing and implies know-how and
understanding;
3. information is defined as contextualised, categorised, calculated and
condensed data;
4. knowledge can be classified as Explicit, Tacit, and Embedded
Knowledge;
5. explicit knowledge is formalised and codified, and is sometimes referred
to as know-what;
6. embedded knowledge refers to the knowledge that is locked in processes,
products, culture, routines, artefacts, or structures;
7. tacit knowledge is regarded as being the most valuable source of
knowledge, and the most likely to lead to breakthroughs in an
organisation.

4.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations &Out of Class Activities) e.g.

a. Visit U-tube add https://bit.ly/2SHYQc0. Watch the video & summarise in 1
paragraph
b. View the animation on add/sitehttps://bit.ly/2Tv7lZZ&
29
https://bit.ly/2SHYQc0and critique it in the discussion forum

7.0 References/Further Reading

Botha A,Kourie D, and Snyman R, (2008). Coping with Continuous Change in
the Business Environment, Knowledge Management and Knowledge
Management Technology. PP: Chandice Publishing Ltd.
Botha et al. (2008): The book is in two parts. The first presents a very concise
And indepth overview of knowledge management (KM), organisational
learning, organisational memory, organisational culture, and so on. The
second part offers one of the most in-depth looks at knowledge
management systems that I have ever seen in a KM book.
Davenport, T.H., and Prusak, L. (2000). Working Knowledge: How
Organisations Manage What They Know. Boston, MA:Harvard Business
School Press.
Gamble, P.R., and Blackwell, J. (2001).Knowledge Management: A State of the
Art Guide.PP:Kogan Page Ltd.
Horvath, Initial(2000-2001). "Working with Tacit Knowledge".The Knowledge
Management Yearbook. PP&P
Nonaka, I. (1994). Theory of Organisational Knowledge Creation.
Organisational Science, vol 5, no.1.
Polanyi, M. (1966).The Tacit Dimension.London: Routledge&Kegan Paul 1966.
The Online Encyclopedia and Dictionary http://www.fact-archive.com/
Thierauf, R. J. (1999). Knowledge Management Systems.
Quorum Books.

30
 STUDY SESSION 2
Knowledge Management
Section and Subsection Headings
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcome
2.0 Main Content
2.1-History of Knowledge Management (KM)
2.2- Knowledge Management
2.3- Aspects of Knowledge management
2.4- Motivations of KM
2.5- KM Technologies
2.6- The Importance of knowledge management KM
3.0Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0Self-Assessment Questions and Answer
5.0Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)
6.0References/Further Reading

Introduction
You are welcome to study session 2, we shallin this study session explore the
concept of knowledge management (KM),
you will learn about history of knowledge
management, definition of knowledge
management (KM), aspects of KM,
technologies and importance of KM. Fig 1.2.1 Knowledge Management

Source: https://www.apqc.org/sites/default/files/images/km-
elements.jpg

Knowledge management is described as an established discipline, includes

courses taught in the fields of business administration, information systems,
management, and library and information sciences.

31
More recently, other fields have started contributing to KM research; these
include information and media, computer science, public health, and public
policy.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcome

After you have finished studying this session, you should be able to:
1. discuss the history of knowledge management
2. define Knowledge Management
3. identify aspects of knowledge management
4. explain the motivations of knowledge management
5. identify KM technologies
6. highlight the importance of knowledge management

2.0 Main Content

2.1 History of Knowledge Management (KM)
With the introduction and increased use of computers in the second half of the
20th century, specific adaptations of terminologies such as knowledge bases,
expert systems, knowledge repositories, group decision support systems,
intranets, and computer-supported cooperative work have been introduced to
further enhance generation and use of knowledge. Knowledge management
(KM) emerged as a scientific
discipline in the early 1990s.
It was initially supported solely
by practitioners who started
investigating KM. These
practitioners were known as
Chief Knowledge Officer. The
Fig 1.2.2: Skandia hired Leif Edvinsson of Sweden and Hubert Saint-Onge

32
world's first Chief Knowledge Officers (CKOs) were Skandia hired Leif
Edvinsson of Sweden and Hubert Saint-Onge formerly of CIBC, Canada).

The objective of CKOs is to manage and maximise the intangible assets of their
organisations. Gradually, CKOs became interested in practical and theoretical
aspects of KM, and the new research field was formed.
Hitherto, discussion of the KM idea has been taken up by academics, such as
Ikujiro Nonaka (Hitotsubashi University), Hirotaka Takeuchi (Hitotsubashi
University),Thomas H. Davenport (Babson College) and Baruch Lev (New
York University). In2001, Thomas A. Stewart, former editor at Fortune
magazine and subsequently the editor of Harvard Business Review published a
cover story highlighting the importance of intellectual capital in organisations.
Since its establishment, the KM discipline has been gradually moving towards
academic maturity.

Despite the fact that approaches to KM vary

by author and school, a broad range of
thoughts on the KM discipline exist. As the
discipline matures, academic debates have
increased regarding both the theory and
practice of KM, to include the following
perspectives: Figure: 1.2.3: KM perspectives

Techno-centric: with a focus on technology, ideally those that enhance

knowledge sharing and creation.
Organisational: with a focus on how an organisation can be designed to best
facilitate knowledge processes.

33
Ecological: with a focus on the interaction of people, identity, knowledge, and
environmental factors as a complex adaptive system akin to a natural
ecosystem.
Regardless of the school of thought, core components of KM include people,
processes, technology (or) culture, structure, technology, depending on the
specific perspective.

2.2 Knowledge Management

You will agree with me that, knowledge management (KM)is about making
the right knowledge available to the right people. It is about making sure that
your organisation can learn, and
that it will be able to retrieve and
use its knowledge assets in current
applications as they are needed. In
the words of Peter Drucker, it is
"the coordination and exploitation
of organisational knowledge
resources, in order to create benefit
and competitive advantage". Fig1.2.4: Peter Drucker

Source:http://www.cgu.edu/images/drucker/peter_drucker/ima
ges/PeterDrucker010_jpg.jpg

Where the disagreement sometimes occurs is in conjunction with the creation of

new knowledge. Wellman (2009) limits the scope of KM to lessons learned and
the techniques employed for the management of what is already known.
He argues that knowledge creation is often perceived as a separate discipline
and generally falls under innovation management. Bukowitz and Williams
(1999) link KM directly to tactical and strategic requirements.

34
We observe that it focuses on the use and enhancement of knowledge based
assets to enable the firm to respond to these issues. According to this view, the
answer to the question "what is knowledge management" would be
significantly broader.

Knowledge management therefore, is the systematic management of an

organisation's knowledge assets for the purpose of creating value and meeting
tactical & strategic requirements; it consists of the initiatives, processes,
strategies, and systems that sustain and enhance the storage, assessment,
sharing, refinement, and creation of knowledge.
Undoubtedly, knowledge management (KM) therefore implies a strong tie to
organisational goals and strategy, and it involves the management of knowledge
that is useful for some purpose and which creates value for the organisation.
Considering the previous knowledge management definition, KM involves the
understanding of:
1. Where and in what forms knowledge exists
2. What the organisation needs to know
3 How to promote a culture conducive to learning
4 Sharing and knowledge creation
5. How to make the right knowledge available to the right people at the right
time
6 How best to generate or acquire new relevant knowledge
7 How to manage all of these factors so as to enhance performance in light of
the organisation's strategic goals and short term opportunities and threats

KM must therefore create/provide the right tools, people, knowledge, structures

(teams, etc.), culture, etc. so as to enhance learning; it must understand the value
and applications of the new knowledge created; it must store this knowledge
and make it readily available for the right people at the right time; and it must

35
continuously assess, apply, refine, and improve organisational knowledge in
conjunction with concrete long and short term factors.

From this definition, we can see that knowledge management depends on

management of the organisation's knowledge creation and conversion
mechanisms; organisational memory and retrieval facilities; organisational
learning; and organisational culture.

These concepts will be explored in more detail in the following sections.

Knowledge management (KM) is the process of capturing, developing,
sharing, and effectively using organisational knowledge.
It refers to a multi-disciplined approach to achieving organisational objectives
by making the best use of knowledge. Knowledge management is essentially
about getting the right knowledge to the right person at the right time.

This in itself may not seem so complex, but it implies a strong tie to corporate
strategy, understanding of where and in what forms knowledge exists, creating
processes that span organisational functions, and ensuring that initiatives are
accepted and supported by organisational members. Knowledge management
may also include new knowledge creation, or it may solely focus on knowledge
sharing, storage, and refinement.

Similarly, Davenport & Prusak (2000), present a broad definition which states
that KM "is managing the corporation's knowledge through a systematically and
organisationally specified process for acquiring, organising, sustaining,
applying, sharing and renewing both the tacit and explicit knowledge of
employees to enhance organisational performance and create value."
In-text Question
Explain in brief knowledge management.

36
Answer
Knowledge Management (KM)is about making the right knowledge available to the right
people. It is about making sure that an organisation can learn, and that it will be able to
retrieve and use its knowledge assets in current applications as they are needed. In the words
of Peter Drucker, it is "the coordination and exploitation of organisational knowledge
resources, in order to create benefit and competitive advantage".

Box 1.2.1 Definition of Knowledge Management

Knowledge management in the broader perspective encompassed not just the

exploitation and management of existing knowledge assets, but also the
initiatives involved in the creation and acquisition of new knowledge.

2.3 Aspects of Knowledge management

It is important for you to remember that knowledge management is not about
managing knowledge for knowledge's sake. The overall objective is to create
value and to leverage, improve, and refine the firm's competences and
knowledge assets to meet organisational goals and targets.
Effective implementation of knowledge management thus has several aspects
including:

KM Strategy: as I stated earlier, knowledge management strategy must be

dependent on corporate strategy. The objective is to manage, share, and create
relevant knowledge assets that will help meet tactical and strategic
requirements.
You may access knowledge at three stages: before, during, or after KM-related
activities. Organisations have tried knowledge capture incentives, including
making content submission mandatory and incorporating rewards into

37
performance measurement plans. Considerable controversy exists over whether
incentives work or not in this field. However, no consensus has emerged.

One strategy to KM involves actively managing knowledge (push strategy).

In such an instance, individuals strive to explicitly encode their knowledge into
a shared knowledge repository, such as a database, as well as retrieving the
knowledge they need that other individuals have provided to the repository.
This is commonly known as the Codification approach to KM.

Another strategy to KM involves individuals making knowledge requests of

experts associated with a particular subject on an ad hoc basis (pull strategy). In
such an instance, expert individual(s) can provide their insights to the particular
person or people needing this (Snowden 2002).

This is commonly known as the Personalisation approach to KM. Hansen et al.

proposes a simple framework, distinguishing two opposing KM strategies:
codification and personalisation.

Codification focuses on collecting and storing codified knowledge in

previously designed electronic databases to make it accessible to the
organisation. Codification can therefore refer to both tacit and explicit
knowledge.

In contrast, the personalisation strategy aims at encouraging individuals to share

their knowledge directly. Information technology plays a less important role, as
it is only supposed to facilitate communication and knowledge sharing among
members of an organisation.

38
Other organisational knowledge management strategies and instruments for
companies include:
1. knowledge Sharing (fostering a culture that encourages the sharing of
information, based on the concept that knowledge is not irrevocable and
should be shared and updated to remain relevant)
2. storytelling (as a means of transferring tacit knowledge)
3. cross-project learning
4. after action reviews
5. knowledge mapping (a map of knowledge repositories within a company
accessible by all)
6. communities of practice
7. expert directories (to enable knowledge seeker to reach to the experts)
8. best practice transfer
9. knowledge fairs
10.competence management (systematic evaluation and planning of
competences of individual organisation members)
11.proximity & architecture (the physical situation of employees can be
either conducive or obstructive to knowledge sharing)
12.master-apprentice relationship
13.collaborative technologies (groupware, etc.)
14.knowledge repositories (databases, bookmarking engines, etc.)
15.measuring and reporting intellectual capital (a way of making explicit
knowledge for companies)
16.knowledge brokers (some organisational members take on responsibility
for a specific "field" and act as first reference on whom to talk about a
specific subject)
17.social software (wikis, social bookmarking, blogs, etc.)
18.inter-project knowledge transfer

39
Organisational Culture: the organisational culture influences the way people
interact, the context within which knowledge is created, the resistance they will
have towards certain changes, and ultimately the way they share (or the way
they do not share) knowledge.
Organisational Processes: this involves creating right processes,
environments, and systems that enable KM to be implemented in the
organisation.
Management & Leadership: KM requires competent and experienced
leadership at all levels. There are a wide variety of KM-related roles that an
organisation may or may not need to implement, including a CKO, knowledge
managers, knowledge brokers and so on. More on this, is in the section on KM
positions and roles.

Technology: the systems, tools, and technologies that fit the organisation's
requirements - properly designed and
implemented.

Politics: the long-term support to

implement and sustain initiatives that
involve virtually all organisational
functions, which may be costly to
implement (both from the perspective
of time and money), and which often
do not have a directly visible return
on investment. Fig1.2.5 KM tools

Source:http://www.knowledge-
managementtools.net/images/Front%20page%20new.png

Typically, failed initiatives have often placed an undue focus on knowledge

management tools and systems while neglecting the other aspects. This study

40
session examines our first five dimensions of knowledge management.
Originally, the political dimension is deemed to be beyond the scope of this
study, since it is not something that is commonly tackled in KM literature.
Knowledge management efforts are typically focused on organisational
objectives such as improved performance, competitive advantage, innovation,
the sharing of lessons learned, integration and continuous improvement of the
organisation.
KM efforts overlap with organisational learning by a greater focus on the
management of knowledge as a strategic asset and a focus on encouraging the
sharing of knowledge. It is an enabler of organisational learning.

2.4 Motivations of KM
There are a number of claims as to the motivation leading organisations to
undertake a KM effort. Typical considerations driving a KM effort include:
1. making available increased knowledge content in the development and
provision of products and services
2. achieving shorter new product development cycles
3. facilitating and managing innovation and organisational learning
4. leveraging the expertise of people across the organisation
5. increasing network connectivity between internal and external individuals
6. managing business environments and allowing employees to obtain
relevant insights and ideas appropriate to their work
7. Solving intractable or wicked problems
8. managing intellectual capital and intellectual assets in the workforce
(such as the expertise and know-how possessed by key individuals)

Debate exists whether KM is more than a passing fad, though increasing

amount of research in this field may help to answer this question.

41
Knowledge sharing remains a challenging issue for knowledge management,
while there is no clear agreement, barriers may include time issues for
knowledge works, the level of trust, lack of effective support technologies and
culture.

2.5KM Technologies
Knowledge Management (KM) technology can be divided into the following
general categories.
1. Groupware
2. Workflow
3. Content/Document Management
4. Enterprise Portals
5. E-Learning
6. Scheduling and planning
7. Tele presence

Groupware
Groupware refers to technologies that facilitate collaboration and sharing of
organisational information.
One of the earliest very
successful products in this
category was Lotus Notes.
Notes provided tools for
threaded discussions,
sharing of documents,
organisation wide uniform
email, etc. Fig1.2.6: Lotus notes

Source: http://cdn.ttgtmedia.com/digitalguide/images/Misc/inotes_1.gif

42
Workflow
Workflow tools allow the representation of processes associated with the
creation, use, and maintenance of organisational knowledge. For example, the
process to create and utilise forms and documents within an organisation. For
example, a workflow system can do things such as send notifications to
appropriate supervisors when a new document has been produced and is waiting
their approval.

Content/Document
Content/Document Management systems are systems designed to automate the
process of creating web content and/or documents within an organisation. The
various roles required such as editors, graphic designers, writers, and producers
can be explicitly modelled along with the various tasks in the process and
validation criteria for moving from one step to another.

We can use all this information to automate and control the process.
Commercial vendors of these tools started either as tools to primarily support
documents (e.g., Documentum) or as tools designed to support web content
(e.g., Interwoven) but as the Internet grew these functions merged and most
vendors now perform both functions, management of web content and of
documents.

Enterprise Portals
Enterprise Portals are web sites that aggregate information across the entire
organisation or for groups within the organisation such as project teams.

E-Learning

43
E-learning technology enables organisations to create customised training and
education software. This can include lesson plans, monitoring progress against
learning goals, online classes, etc. e-Learning technology enables
organisations to significantly reduce the cost of training and educating their
members.
As with most KM technology in the business world, this was most useful for
companies that employ knowledge workers; highly trained staff with areas of
deep expertise such as the staff of a consulting firm. Such firms spend a
significant amount on the continuing education of their employees and even
have their own internal fulltime schools and internal education staff.

In-text Question
What is organisational culture?

Answer
The organisational culture influences the way people interact, the context within which
knowledge is created, the resistance they will have towards certain changes, and ultimately
the way they share (or the way they do not share) knowledge.

Scheduling and planning

Scheduling and planning tools automate the creation and maintenance of an
organisation's schedule:
scheduling meetings,
notifying people of a
meeting, etc. An
example of a well-
known scheduling tool
is Microsoft Outlook.
Figure 1.2.7: Microsoft Outlook
Source: http://cdn.ttgtmedia.com/digitalguide/images/Misc/ocs_9.jpg

The planning aspect can integrate with project management tools such as
Microsoft Project. Some of the earliest successful uses of KM technology in the
business world were the development of these types of tools, for example online
44
versions of corporate "yellow pages" with listing of contact info and relevant
knowledge and work history.

Telepresence
Telepresence technology enables individuals to have virtual meetings rather
than having to be in the same place. Videoconferencing is the most obvious
example.

These categories are neither rigidly defined nor exhaustive.

Workflow for example is a significant aspect of content or document

management system and
most content and
document management
systems have tools for
developing enterprise
portals. Figure1.2.8: Telepresence

Source: https://i.ytimg.com/vi/kV-6ZrlEgrQ/maxresdefault.jpg

One of the most important trends in KM technology is the adoption of Internet

standards. Original KM technology products such as Lotus Notes defined their
own proprietary formats for email, documents, forms, etc. The explosive growth
of the Internet drove most vendors to abandon proprietary formats and adopt
Internet formats such as HTML, HTTP, and XML.
In addition, open source and freeware tools for the creation of blogs and wikis
now enable capabilities that used to require expensive commercial tools to be
available for little or no cost.
One of the most important ongoing developments in KM technology is adoption
of tools that enable organisations to work at the semantic level. Many of these
tools are being developed as part of the Semantic Web. These include:

45
 1. knowledge community
knowledge ecosystem
2. knowledge engineering
3. knowledge management software
4. knowledge transfer
5. knowledge Café
6. ignorance management
7. legal case management
8. knowledge modelling
9. customer knowledge

2.6The Importance of knowledge management KM

1. It is useful because it places a focus on knowledge as an actual asset,
rather than as something intangible. In so doing, it enables the firm to
better protect and exploit what it knows, and to improve and focus its
knowledge development efforts to match its needs. In other words,
i. it helps firms learn from past mistakes and successes
ii. it better exploits existing knowledge assets by re-deploying them in
areas
iii. Where the firm stands to gain something, e.g. using knowledge
from one department to improve or create a product in another
department, modifying knowledge from a past process to create a
new solution, etc.
it promotes a long term focus on developing the right competencies
and skills and removing obsolete knowledge
iv. It enhances the firm's ability to innovate
it enhances the firm's ability to protect its key knowledge and
competencies from being lost or copied

46
Unfortunately, KM is an area in which companies are often reluctant to invest
because it can be expensive to implement properly, and it is extremely difficult
to determine a specific return on investment (ROI).

Moreover, as a concept, its definition has not been universally accepted. For
example, within IT one often sees a much shallower, information-oriented
approach.
Particularly in the early days, this has led to many "KM" failures and these have
tarnished the reputation of the subject as a whole.
In-text Question
Explain in brief Scheduling and planning

Answer
Scheduling and planning tools automate the creation and maintenance of an organisation's
schedule: scheduling meetings, notifying people of a meeting, etc.

3.0Conclusion/Summary
In study session 2, you have learnt that:
1. Knowledge management (KM) is the systematic management of an
organisation’s knowledge assets for the purpose of creating value and
meeting tactical& strategic requirements.
2. Knowledge management consists of the initiatives, processes, strategies,
and systems that sustain and enhance the storage, assessment, sharing,
refinement, and creation of knowledge
3. Knowledge sharing remains a challenging issue for knowledge
management
4. Groupware refers to technologies that facilitate collaboration and sharing
of organisational information

4.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations &Out of Class Activities) e.g.

a. Visit U-tube addhttps://bit.ly/2TclEW7. Watch the video & summarise in 1

47
paragraph
b. View the animation on add/sitehttps://bit.ly/2Mg9qbn and critique it in the
discussion forum

6.0 References/Further Reading

Bukowitz, W. and Williams, R. (1999).The Knowledge Management
Fieldbook, :Financal Times/Prentice Hall.
Davenport T. and Volpel S. (2001), 'The rise of knowledge towards attention
management', Journal of Knowledge Management, 5(3), pp. 212–221.
Snowden, Dave (2002). "Complex Acts of Knowing – Paradox and Descriptive
Self “Awareness". Journal of Knowledge Management, Special Issue6
(2): 100–111.doi:10.1108/13673270210424639
Wellman, J. L. (2009). Organisational Learning: How Companies and
InstitutionsManage and Apply Knowledge.Palgrave: Macmillan.

48
 STUDY SESSION 3
Information Management and Knowledge Management
Section and Subsection Headings
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcome
2.0 Main Content
2.1- Information
2.2- The difference between Information management (IM) and
Knowledge management (KM)
3.0Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions
5.0Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)
6.0References/Further Reading

Introduction
You are welcome to study session 3, this session will explore the world of
information management and knowledge management. In this session, you
will come to understand and examine the difference between information and
knowledge as well as Information
Management (IM) and Knowledge
Management (KM). These will
enable you appreciate the focus of
IM and KM in various disciplines
where they have occurred. We
shall also consider various aspect
of this topic. Fig 1.3.1 Information Management and Knowledge Management

Source: http://www.x4consulting.co.nz/Images/KM-IM%20small.png

By now, you know that Knowledge and information are used interchangeably

49
by so many people on daily basis, to the extent that it is becoming difficult to
recognise the difference between the two concepts.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcome

After you have finished studying this session, you should be able to:
2. define the term ‘Information
3. outline the difference between information and knowledge Management

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Information
Information is news; it a gathered fact. It has been broadly defined as an
occurrence or a set of occurrences which carries messages and which when
perceived by the recipient through any of the senses, increases his state of
knowledge. It has also been defined as idea that is communicated.

Information increases your state of knowledge of the recipient, resolves

uncertainty and is highly valued in decision making. Other definitions of
information you should have in mind are:
i. a physical surrogate of knowledge
ii. all published and unpublished knowledge about any given subject
iii. body of knowledge

Buckland (1991) has discussed the ambiguities of information which he

characterised as:
1. information - as – process
2. information – as – knowledge
3. information – as – thing
We see information as a process when it is performing the function of
informing, which involves transmitting information from a source to a

50
recipient. It is knowledge when it is performing the role of imparting knowledge
to an individual. Where it reduces uncertainty under both circumstances,
information is intangible.

Box 1.3.1 Definition of Information

It becomes tangible when it is a thing or physical objects such as data or

documents.
Although there is no exact definition of information, apparently there is a
connection between data, information and knowledge. Aina(2004) quoting
Rubin (1998) provides a relationship between data, information, knowledge
and wisdom as follows:

You must understand that data are raw and unprocessed; information is a
processed data from which meaning arises and it is communicated, and
knowledge is further
processed information that
is organised and
interrelated and more
broadly understood and
applied. Wisdom is
knowledge applied to the
benefit of humanity. Fig1.3.2: Information

Source:http://www.library.dmu.ac.uk/Images/information_cycle.gif

Data Information Knowledge Wisdom

Knowledge is facts, information, and skills acquired through experience or
education; the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject. It is awareness

51
or familiarity gained by experience of a fact or situation. Knowledge as a basic
form of capital can either be codified or written down or tacit and in people's
heads (World Bank, 1998d), accumulation of which Economic growth is driven.
Information Management (IM) and Knowledge Management (KM) and as
well as knowledge and Information, are often used interchangeably. In this
study you will examine the difference.

Information management (IM) is the collection, processing and organisation

of information from one or more sources and the distribution of that information
to one or more audiences. This sometimes involves those who have a stake in,
or a right to that information.

Box 1.3.2 Information Management

Management means the organisation of and control over the planning, structure
and organisation, controlling, processing, evaluating and reporting of
information activities in order to meet client objectives and to enable corporate
functions in the delivery of information.

52
3.2 The difference between Information management (IM) and Knowledge
Management (KM)

Fig 1.3.3:The difference between Information management (IM) and Knowledge management (KM)

In-text Question
What do you understand by the Information?

Answer
Information is define as an occurrence or a set of occurrences which carries messages and
which when perceived by the recipient through any of the senses, increases his state of
knowledge.

As we discussed in the previous sessions, knowledge and information are

actually quite different, as is tacit and explicit knowledge. So, while information
and data management are certainly very useful, particularly as information
sources are growing at exponential rates and with the new focus on big data, it
is not synonymous with KM. So what exactly is the difference?

Information Management (IM). The following are the characteristics.

1. It Focuses on data and information
2. It deals with unstructured and structured facts and figures.
3. It benefits greatly from technology, since the information being conveyed
is already codified and in an easily transferrable form.
4. It focuses on organizing, analysing, and retrieving - again due to the
codified nature of the information.

53
 5. Is largely about know-what, i.e. it offers a fact that you can then use to
help create useful knowledge, but in itself that
6. Its fact does not convey a course of action (e.g. sales of product x are up
25% last quarter).
7. Is easy to copy - due to its codified and easily transferrable nature.

Knowledge Management (KM) It has the following characteristics.

1. It focuses on knowledge, understanding, and wisdom
2. It deals with both codified and unmodified knowledge. Unmodified
knowledge - the most valuable type of knowledge - is found in the minds
of practitioners and is unarticulated, context-based, and experience-based.
3. Technology is useful, but KM's focus is on people and processes. The
most valuable knowledge cannot effectively be (directly) transferred with
technology it must be passed on directly from person to person.
4. It focuses on locating, understanding, enabling, and encouraging - by
creating environments, cultures, processes, etc. where knowledge is
shared and created.
5. It is largely about know-how, know-why, and know-who
6. It is hard to copy - at least regarding the tacit elements. The connection to
experience and context makes tacit knowledge extremely difficult to
copy. This is why universities cannot produce seasoned practitioners -
there are some things (the most important things) that you simply
cannot teach from a textbook (or other codified source of
information/explicit knowledge). These are learnt in the field and
understood on an intuitive level. You cannot easily copy or even
understand this intuition without the right experience, context, etc. - and it
is this intuition that represents the most valuable organisational
knowledge.

54
In-text Question
Itemize the characteristics Information Management

Answer
1. It focuses on data and information
2. It deals with unstructured and structured facts and figures.
3. It benefits greatly from technology, since the information being conveyed is already
codified and in an easily transferrable form.
4. It focuses on organizing, analysing, and retrieving - again due to the codified nature
of the information.

3.0Conclusion/Summary
In study session 3, you have learnt that
1. information is idea that is communicated for useful purposes.
2. information increases the state of knowledge of the recipient, resolves
uncertainty and is highly valued in decision making.
3. knowledge is facts, information, and skills acquired through experience
or education; the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject. It is
awareness or familiarity gained by experience of a fact or situation.
4. knowledge Management focuses on locating, understanding, enabling,
and encouraging - by creating environments, cultures, processes, etc.
Where knowledge is shared and created.

4.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations &Out of Class Activities) e.g.

a. Visit U-tube addhttps://bit.ly/33txf4F &https://bit.ly/2XBdq8v. Watch the
video & summarise in 1 paragraph
b. View the animation on add/sitehttps://bit.ly/2OVMsbz&
https://bit.ly/2EGvhn5and critique it in the discussion forum

6.0 Reference/Further Reading

Aina, L.O. (2004). Library and Information Science Text for Africa. Ibadan:
Third World Information Services, 368p.

55
 STUDY SESSION 4
Organisational Knowledge
Section and Subsection Headings
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcome
2.0 Main Content
2.1- Organisational Knowledge
2.2- Resources of Organisational Knowledge
2.3- Implication for Knowledge Management (KM)
2.4- Knowledge Dimension frameworks
2.5- Model and Knowledge Conversion
3.0Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions
5.0Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)
6.0References/Further Reading

Introduction

You are welcome to study session 4, this session will explore the concept of
organisational knowledge.
The concept of treating
organisational
knowledge as a valuable
strategic asset has been
popularized by leading
management and
organisation theorists. Fig 1.4.1 Organisational Knowledge

Source:http://image.slidesharecdn.com/chapter1-theknowledgecontext-
120421015803-phpapp02/95/chapter-1-the-knowledge-context-25-
728.jpg?cb=1334973544

56
Therefore to remain competitive, organisations are being advised to efficiently
and effectively create, locate, capture, and share their organisation’s
knowledge and expertise, and have the ability to bring that knowledge to bear
on problems and opportunities.

This increasingly requires making the organisation's knowledge explicit and

recording it for easier distribution and reuse. it explains why firms are showing
tremendous interest in implementing knowledge management processes and
technologies, and are even beginning to adopt knowledge management as part
of their overall business strategies.

In previous studies, you have identified the three different types of knowledge
that can exist in an organisation. In this study, you are going to learn about
organisational knowledge, its resources, knowledge dimension and its
significance to the knowledge management (KM) process.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcome

After you have finished studying this session, you should be able to:
1. define organisational knowledge
2. identify the resources of organisational knowledge
3. discuss the implication of knowledge Management
4. explain knowledge dimension frameworks

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Organisational Knowledge
What do you understand by organisational knowledge?
The definition of organisational knowledge is yet another concept that has
very little consensus within literature.

57
Variations include the extent to which the knowledge is spread within the
organisation, as well as the actual make-up of this knowledge. Hatch(2010)
defines it as: "When group knowledge from several subunits or groups is
combined and used to create new knowledge, the resulting tacit and explicit
knowledge can be called organisational knowledge."

Others present a broader perspective: "individual knowledge, shared knowledge,

and objectified knowledge are different aspects or views of organisational
knowledge"(Ekinge&Lennartsson2000).

As always, texts emphasising an IT based outlook once again offer shallower,

information-based definitions,
e.g. Virvou & Nakamura
2008, define organisational
knowledge as “information
internalised by means of
research, study or experience
that has value to the
organisation." Figure 1.4.2: Organisation knowledge

Source:http://learningwithkristin.weebly.com/uploads/1/3/4/9/1
3499732/1764873_orig.jpg

For the purpose of this study, you will learn the broad, knowledge-based
perspective.
Organisational knowledge is therefore defined as: all the knowledge resources
within an organisation that can be realistically tapped by that organisation in
order to improve performance. This knowledge resides in individuals and
groups, or exists at the organisational level.

58
Box 1.4.1 Definition of Organisational Knowledge

2.2 Resources of Organisational Knowledge

Although knowledge management is becoming widely accepted, few
organisations today are fully capable of developing and leveraging critical
organisational knowledge to improve their performance.

Many organisations have become so complex that their knowledge is

fragmented, difficult to locate and share, and therefore redundant, inconsistent
or not used at all.
For organisational knowledge to be located, captured and utilised,
organisational resources in
which knowledge is held
must be identified.
Organisational or business
knowledge can exist on
several different levels: Fig1.4.3: Organisational knowledge levels

Individual: personal, often tacit knowledge/know-how of some sort. It can also

be explicit, but it must be individual in nature, e.g. a private notebook.

Groups/community: this is knowledge held in groups but not shared with the
rest of the organisation. Companies usually consist of communities (most often
informally created) which are linked together by common practice. These
communities of practice (Lave & Wenger 1991) may share common values,

59
language, procedures, know-how, etc. They are a source of learning and a
repository for tacit, explicit, and embedded knowledge.

Structural: this refers to embedded knowledge found in processes, culture, etc.

This may be understood by many or very few members of the organisation. E.g.
the knowledge embedded in the routines used by the army may not be known by
the soldiers who follow these routines. At times, structural knowledge may be
the remnant of past, otherwise long forgotten lessons, where the knowledge of
this lesson exists exclusively in the process itself.

Organisational: it refers to group knowledge from several subunits or groups.

It is combined and used to create new knowledge, the resulting tacit and explicit
knowledge can be called organisational knowledge

Extra-organisational: this knowledge resources existing outside the

organisation which could be used to enhance the performance of the
organisation. They include explicit elements like publications, as well as tacit
elements found in communities of practice that span beyond the organisation's
borders.

2.3 Implication for Knowledge Management (KM)

In order to enhance your organisational knowledge, KM must therefore be
involved across the entire knowledge spectrum. It must help knowledge
development at all levels and facilitate and promote its diffusion to individuals,
groups, and/or across the entire firm, in accordance with the organisation's
requirements.
KM must manage organisational knowledge storage and retrieval capabilities,
and create an environment conducive to learning and share knowledge.
Similarly it must be involved in tapping external sources of knowledge

60
whenever these are necessary for the development of the organisational
knowledge resources.
To a large degree, your KM is therefore dependent on the understanding and
management of organisational learning, organisational memory, knowledge
sharing, knowledge creation, and organisational culture.
In-text Question
Define organisational knowledge.

Answer
Organisational knowledge is therefore defined as: all the knowledge resources within an
organisation that can be realistically tapped by that organisation in order to improve
performance. This knowledge resides in individuals and groups, or exists at the
organisational level.

2.4 Knowledge Dimension frameworks

Knowledge dimension frameworks distinguish between different 'types of'
knowledge that exist. One proposed framework for categorising the dimensions
of knowledge distinguishes between tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge.
Tacit knowledge represents internalised knowledge that an individual may not
be consciously aware of, such as how he or she accomplishes particular tasks.
At the opposite end of the spectrum, explicit knowledge represents knowledge
that the individual holds consciously in mental focus, in a form that can easily
be communicated to others.

Hayes and Walsham(2003) describe content and relational perspectives of

knowledge and knowledge management as two fundamentally different
epistemological perspectives.
The content perspective suggest that knowledge is easily stored because it may
be codified, while the relational perspective recognises the contextual and
relational aspects of knowledge which can make knowledge difficult to share
outside of the specific location where the knowledge is developed.

61
Arguably the most important contributor to this subject has been Ikujiro
Nonaka. He worked extensively with the concepts of explicit knowledge and
tacit knowledge, and drew attention to the way Western firms tend to focus too
much on the former. This sentiment has since been echoed throughout
organisational learning and knowledge management (KM) literature.

2.5 Model and Knowledge Conversion

Nonaka and Takeuchi introduced the SECI model (Nonaka & Takeuchi 1996)
which has become the cornerstone of knowledge creation and transfer theory.
They proposed four ways that knowledge types can be combined and converted,
showing how knowledge is shared and created in the organisation. The model
is based on the two types of knowledge outlined above.
SECI Model:
1. Socialisation: tacit to tacit. Knowledge is passed on through practice,
guidance, imitation, and observation.
2. Externalisation: tacit to explicit. This is deemed as a particularly difficult
and often particularly important conversion mechanism. Tacit knowledge
is codified into documents, manuals, etc. so that it can spread more easily
through the organisation. Since tacit knowledge can be virtually
impossible to codify, the extent of this knowledge conversion mechanism
is debatable. The use of metaphor is cited as an important externalisation
mechanism.
3. Combination: explicit to explicit. This is the simplest form. Codified
knowledge sources (e.g. documents) are combined to create new
knowledge.
4. Internalisation: explicit to tacit. As explicit sources are used and learned,
the knowledge is internalised, modifying the user's existing tacit
knowledge.

62
In this model, we observed that, knowledge is continuously converted and
created as users practice and learn. The process should be seen as a continuous,
dynamic, swirl of knowledge. Early research suggested that a successful KM
effort needs to convert
internalised tacit knowledge
into explicit knowledge to
share it, and the same effort
must permit individuals to
internalise and make
personally meaningful any
codified knowledge retrieved
from the KM effort. Fig 1.4.4: The Knowledge Spiral as described by Nonaka& Takeuchi (1996)

Subsequent research into KM suggest that a distinction between tacit knowledge

and explicit knowledge represented an oversimplification and that the notion of
explicit knowledge is self-contradictory. Specifically, for knowledge to be made
explicit, it must be translated into information (i.e., symbols outside of our
heads).

Ikujiro Nonaka propose a model (SECI for Socialisation, Externalisation,

Combination, and Internalisation) which considers a spiralling knowledge
process interaction between explicit knowledge and tacit knowledge (Nonaka
& Takeuchi 1995). In this model, you will notice that, knowledge follows a
cycle in which implicit knowledge is 'extracted' to become explicit knowledge,
and explicit knowledge is re-internalised' into implicit knowledge.

A second proposed framework for categorising the dimensions of knowledge

distinguishes between embedded knowledge of a system outside of a human
individual (e.g., an information system may have knowledge embedded into

63
its design) and embodied knowledge representing a learned capability of a
human body’s nervous and endocrine systems (Sensky 2002).

A third proposed framework for categorising the dimensions of knowledge

distinguish between the exploratory creation of "new knowledge" (i.e.,
innovation) vs. the transfer or exploitation of "established knowledge" within a
group, organisation, or community. Collaborative environments such as
communities of practice or the use of social computing tools can be used for
both knowledge creation and transfer.

A great deal of effort has been put into investigating its practical applicability
(with mixed results), but in recent years the applicability of the model has been
linked strongly to culture, both organisational and national. The issue of culture
as a limiting factor for KM models is an issue that needs to be discussed in
subsequent study.
However, the SECI model remains at the core of knowledge conversion theory
within KM, and the most universal attraction to the model is that some aspects
of it appeal to virtually all cultures.
In-text Question
Explain in brief knowledge dimension frameworks.

Answer
Knowledge dimension frameworks distinguish between different 'types of' knowledge that
exist. One proposed framework for categorizing the dimensions of knowledge distinguishes
between tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge.

3.0Conclusion/Summary
In study session 4, you have learnt that:
1. Organisational knowledge refers to all the knowledge resources within an
organisation that can be realistically tapped by that organisation in order
to improve performance. This knowledge resides in individuals and
groups, or exists at the organisational level.
64
 2. For organisational knowledge to be located, captured and utilised,
organisational resources in which knowledge is held must be identified.
3. KM must manage organisational knowledge storage and retrieval
capabilities, and create an environment conducive to learning and share
knowledge.
4. Tacit knowledge represents internalised knowledge that an individual
may not be consciously aware of, such as how he or she accomplishes
particular tasks.

4.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations &Out of Class Activities) e.g.

a. Visit U-tube add https://bit.ly/2TfkSYv. Watch the video & summarise in 1
paragraph
b. View the animation on add/sitehttps://bit.ly/2Z4jtpOand critique it in the
discussion forum

6.0 References/Further Reading

Ekinge, R. And Lennartsson, B. (September 24-27, 2000), Organisational
Knowledge as a Basis for the Management of Development Projects,
Accepted to Discovering Connections: A Renaissance through Systems
Learning Conference, Dearborn, Michigan
Hatch, J. (2010).Defining Organisational Knowledge: Turning individual
Knowledge into organisational intellectual capital.
http://knol.google.com/k/definingorganisational-knowledge.
Hayes, M. and Walsham, G. (2003). "Knowledge sharing and ICTs: A relational
perspective". In Easter by-Smith, M.; Lyles, M.A. The Blackwell
Handbook of Organisational Learning and Knowledge Management.
Malden, MA: Blackwell. pp. 54–77.
Lave, J., Wenger, E.(1991).Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral
Participation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

65
Nonaka I. and Takeuchi H. (1995). The Knowledge-Creating Company. Oxford
University Press.
Nonaka, I. and Takeuchi, H. (1996). The Theory of Organisational Knowledge
Creation. International Journal of Technology Management, vol 11, no
7/8, 1996
Sensky, Tom (2002). "Knowledge Management".Advances in Psychiatric
Treatment8 (5): 387–395. doi:10.1192/apt.8.5.387.

66
 MODULE 2
Contents
Study Session 1: Organisational Memory and Knowledge Repositories
Study Session 2: Organisational Learning
Study Session 3: Approaches to Organisational Learning
Study Session 4: Organisational Culture

STUDY SESSION 1
Organisational Memory and Knowledge Repositories
Section and Subsection Headings
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcome
2.0 Main Content
2.1-Organisational Memory
2.2- Knowledge retention facilities
3.0Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0Self-Assessment Questions
5.0Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)
6.0References/Further Reading

Introduction
I welcome you to the first study
session of module 2, In the just
concluded study session of
module one, you learnt that to

Fig. 2.1.1: Source:https://blog.law.cornell.edu/voxpop/files/2009/12/org-memory.jpg

remain competitive, your organisations need to efficiently and effectively

67
create, locate, capture, and share their organisation’s knowledge and expertise,
and have the ability to bring that knowledge to bear on problems and
opportunities. In this session, you will learn about organisational knowledge
memory and knowledge repositories. This is to familiarise you with different
stages of organisational memory process and retention facilities.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcome

After you have finished studying this session, you should be able to:
1. define organisational memory
2. outline the different retention facilities

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Organisational Memory
We have found out that, traditional memory is associated with the individual's
ability to acquire, retain, and retrieve knowledge. Within organisation, you
should have it in mind that, this concept is extended beyond the individual.
Organisational memory therefore refers to the collective ability to generate,
store and retrieve knowledge and information.

Walsh and Ungson

(1991), offer some
deeper insight into the
workings of
organisational memory.
We see that they consider how Fig. 2.1.2: Organisational memory
an organisation's history can influence current

68
decision making. They examine how shared understandings evolve, becoming
part of an organisational whole which may remain constant even after key
individuals have left the firm.

This is achieved through the formation of collective interpretations regarding

the outcome of decision making. The information defining the decision's
stimulus and response is stored in information, and it affects present decisions
when it is retrieved.

2.2 Knowledge retention facilities

Walsh and
Ungson(1991) define a
number of stages in the
organisational memory
process and outline five
retention facilities:

Fig. 2.1.3: Knowledge Retention Facilities

Acquisition: your organisational memory consists of the accumulated

information regarding past decisions. This information is not centrally stored,
rather, it is split across different retention facilities. Each time a decision is
made and the consequences are evaluated, some information is added to the
organisational memory.

Retention: your past experiences can be retained in any of the five different
repositories.
1. Individuals
2. Culture: the language and frameworks that exist within an organisation
and form shared interpretations.

69
 3. Transformations: the procedures and formalised systems that the
organisation employs. These systems reflect the firm's past experiences
and are repositories for embedded knowledge.
4. Structures: these link the individual to other individuals and to the
environment. Social interaction is conditioned by mutual expectations
between individuals based on their roles within the organisation. The
interaction sequences for a pattern over time and begin to extend to an
organisational level. This can take place both through formal and
informal structure and it constitutes a social memory which stores
information about an organisation's perception of the environment.
5. External activities: the surroundings of the organisation where knowledge
and information can be stored. E.g. former employees, government
bodies, competitors, etc.

Retrieval: this can either be controlled or automatic. The latter refers to the
intuitive and essentially effortless process of accessing organisational
memory, usually as part of an established sequence of action. Controlled refers
to the deliberate attempt to access stored knowledge.

As one can see, the three stages presented here are essential to the learning
process of your firm. Much like an individual, your firm must be able to access
and use past experiences so as to avoid repeating mistakes and to exploit
valuable knowledge. Unlike an individual however, OM is not centrally stored
and resides throughout the firm and even beyond it.

The process of retrieving knowledge/information will inevitably vary

depending on the retention facility that one is trying to access. For example,
written documentation may be accessed through IT while cultural memory is

70
accessed through the understanding and/or application of the norms and
procedures of the working environment.

A further distinction regarding the type of knowledge retained in the

organisation is offered by Ramage and Reif (1996). They separate the
documented aspects from the more subtle knowledge that belongs to individuals
as a result of their role as members of the organisation:

Artefacts of Cooperation: These are the hard indicators which are visible and
examinable. They include products, records of collaboration, and ideas. The
latter refers to minutes of meetings, reports, FAQs, and other items that record
common knowledge. These are easily storable and presumably also more easily
accessible.

Knowledge of the Organisation Qua Entity: this type of knowledge cannot

be stored in the same way as the artefacts of cooperation. It includes knowledge
of the political system, of the culture, and of how things are normally done
within the firm.

It can include the knowledge of who is an expert, of where a particular person

is, and on who to contact for a specific problem.
This definition is useful as a way of understanding the knowledge categories
and the potential management challenge that organisational memory, and
ultimately knowledge management (KM) would pose.

Furthermore, as is the case with many KM related disciplines, one finds a

distinct difference in the way organisational memory is perceived between IT
practitioners and business theoreticians. In the words of Wellman (2009): "The

71
IT path emphasises the acquisition and storage of organisational knowledge
including data warehousing, document management, and search tools.

The organisation development (OD) path emphasises tacit knowledge,

coaching, social interactions, and encouraging ad hoc knowledge exchange." IT
based models thus tend to focus on more concrete, definable memory and less
on people, culture, and informal structures. Essentially, they focus more on
artefacts of cooperation.

Since this deals with your organisational memory within the context of KM, it
is not necessary to arrive at a specific definition or model. Instead it is important
to understand the scope of organisational memory, its varied and often complex
retention facilities, and the types of knowledge available. In later sections, you
will learn more closely the specific role that IT can have in supporting,
promoting, and enhancing your organisational memory.

In-text Question
What is organisational memory?

Answer
Organisational memory therefore refers to the collective ability to generate, store and
retrieve knowledge and information.

3.0Conclusion/Summary
In this study, you have learnt that:
1. Organisational memory therefore refers to the collective ability to
generate, store and retrieve knowledge and information. It involves the
processes of acquisition, retention and retrieval.
2. Organisational memory consists of the accumulated information
regarding past decisions.
3. A further distinction regarding the type of knowledge retained in the

72
 organisation is offered by Ramage and Reif(1996). They separate the
documented aspects from the more subtle knowledge that belongs to
individuals as a result of their role as members of the organisation.

4.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations &Out of Class Activities) e.g.

a. Visit U-tube add https://bit.ly/2C05SmW. Watch the video & summarise in 1
paragraph
b. View the animation on add/sitehttps://bit.ly/2OVGzerand critique it in the
discussion forum

6.0 References/Further Reading

Ramage, M., and Reiff, F. (1996). Links between Organisational Memory and
Cooperative Awareness. Retrieved from
http://www.comp.lancs.ac.uk/computing/research/cseg/projects/evaluatio
n/OM_CA.html
Walsh, J. P. and Ungson, G.R. (1991).Organisational Memory. The Academy of
Management Review 16(1):57-91
Wellman, J. L. (2009). Organisational Learning: How Companies and
Institutions Manage and Apply Knowledge. Palgrave: Macmillan.

73
 STUDY SESSION 2
Organisational Learning
Section and Subsection Headings
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcome
2.0 Main Content
2.1- Organisational learning
2.2- Units of Learning
2.3- Organisational Learning pitfalls
3.0Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions
5.0Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)
6.0References/Further Reading

Introduction
You are welcome to study
session 2, in this session,
we will discuss
organisational learning
with greater emphasis on
units of learning. Fig. 2.2.1: Organisational Learning

Source: https://techknowtools.files.wordpress.com/2012/04/screenshot-1.gif

In order to enhance organisational knowledge, we agree that KM must help

knowledge development at all levels and facilitate and promote its diffusion to
individuals, groups, and across the entire firm, in accordance with the
organisation’s requirements. KM must manage organisational knowledge
storage and retrieval capabilities, and create an environment conducive to
learning and share knowledge.

74
Similarly, it must be involved in tapping external sources of knowledge
whenever these are necessary for the development of the organisational
knowledge resources.

To a large extent, KM is dependent on the understanding and management of

organisational knowledge creation, organisational memory, knowledge
sharing, organisational learning, and organisational culture.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcome

After you have finished studying this session, you should be able to:
1. define organisational Learning
2. identify the units of learning
3. explain the organisational learning pitfalls

2.0 Main Content

2.1Organisational Learning
Let us look at organisational learning. This is the process of creating, retaining,
and transferring knowledge within an organisation. An organisation improves
over time as it gains experience. From this experience, you will able to create
knowledge. This knowledge is broad, covering any topic that could better an
organisation.

Examples may include ways to increase production efficiency or to develop

beneficial investor relations. Knowledge is created at four different units:
individual, group, organisational, and inter-organisational. An organisation
learns successfully when it is able to retain this knowledge and transfer it to, or
spread it throughout, the various divisions within an organisation.

75
Box 2.2.1: Defining Organisation Learning

Your knowledge and learning are crucial to building a solid and enduring
competitive foundation for your business organisations. Learning has been
defined as the way we create new knowledge and improve ourselves. Although
there is ample debate regarding the mechanisms and scope of learning, in its
simplest form this is no
different for organisations.
Botha et al. describe the
organisational learning
process as follows:
Fig. 2.2.3:Organisational Learning

Organisational learning is based on applying knowledge for a purpose and

learning from the process and from the outcome. Brown and Duguid(1991)
describe organisational learning as "the bridge between working and
innovating." This once again links learning to action, but it also implies useful
improvement.

Organisational learning is an aspect of organisations and a subfield of

organisational studies. As an aspect of an organisation, organisational
learning is the process of you creating, retaining, and transferring knowledge.
Knowledge creation, knowledge retention, and knowledge transfer can be seen
as adaptive processes that are functions of experience.

Experience is the knowledge that contributes to the procedural understanding of

a subject through involvement or exposure. Research within organisational
learning specifically applies to the attributes and behaviour of this knowledge

76
and how it can produce changes in the cognition, routines, and behaviours of an
organisation and its individuals.

Individuals are predominantly seen as the functional mechanisms for

organisational learning by creating knowledge through experience. However,
individuals' knowledge only facilitates learning within the organisation as a
whole if it is transferred.

Individuals may withhold their knowledge or exit the organisation.

Knowledge that is embedded into the organisation, in addition to its individuals,
can be retained. Methods to embed knowledge extend beyond retaining
individuals to using knowledge repositories such as communication tools,
processes, routines, networks, and transitive memory systems.

As a subfield, organisational learning is the study of experience, knowledge,

and the effects of knowledge within an organisational context. The study of
organisational learning directly contributes to the applied science of knowledge
management (KM)and the concept of the learning organisation.

Organisational learning is related to the studies of organisational theory,

organisational communication, organisational behaviour, organisational
psychology, and organisational development. Organisational learning has
received contributions from the fields of educational psychology, sociology,
economics, anthropology, political science, and management science.

77
2.2 Units of Learning
Organisational learning is one of the four organisational units of learning.
Organisational learning "involves the process through which your organisational
units (e.g. groups, departments, and divisions) change as a result of
experience." An example
of organisational learning
is a hospital surgical team
learning to use new
technology that will
increase efficiency.
Fig. 2.2.4: Units of Learning

1. Individual Learning: this is the smallest unit at which learning can

occur. An individual learns new skills or ideas, and his productivity at
work may increase as he gains expertise. The individual can decide
whether or not to share his knowledge with the rest of the group.

If the individual leaves the group and doesn’t share his knowledge before
leaving, the group loses this knowledge. In their study of software
development, Boh Slaughter and Espinosa (2007) found that individuals
were more productive because of the more specialised experience they had
with a certain system.

2. Group Learning is the next largest unit at which learning can occur.
Group learning happens when individuals within a group “acquire, share, and
combine knowledge through experience with one another”.

There are conflicting definitions of group learning among researchers studying

it. One belief is that group learning is a process in which a group takes action,
gets feedback, and uses this feedback to modify their future action.

78
Another belief is that group learning happens when a member shares his or her
individual knowledge with other group members. Once this happens, individual
learning turns into group learning. Reagans, Argote, and Brooks (2005) study
group learning by examining joint-replacement surgery in teaching hospitals.
They conclude that “increased experience working together in a team
promoted better coordination and teamwork.” Working together in a team
also allowed members to share their knowledge with others and learn from other
members.

3. Organisational Learning is the way in which an organisation creates and

organises knowledge relating to their functions and culture. Organisational
learning happens in all of the organisation’s activities, and it happens
indifferent speeds. The goal of organisational learning is to successfully adapt
to changing environments, to adjust under uncertain conditions, and to increase
efficiency.

According to Argote(1993), managers in manufacturing plants saw organisation

learning occur when they found ways to make individual workers more
proficient, improve the organisation’s “technology, tooling, and layout,
“improve the organisation’s structure, and determine the organisation’s
strengths.
4. Inter-organisational Learning is the way in which different
organisations in an alliance collaborate, share knowledge, and learn from one
another. An organisation is able to improve their “processes and products by
integrating new insights and knowledge” from another organisation.

By learning from another organisation, your organisation is able to cut time

costs, decrease the risks associated with problem solving, and learn faster.

79
Learning from another organisation can mean either applying the same ideas
used by that organisation or modifying these ideas, thereby creating innovation.

Inter-organisational learning occurs frequently in fixed business models, such as

franchising. The franchisee looking to use the franchisor’s brand has to learn
how to use the organisation’s business model before starting a franchise.
The implications to knowledge management are three-fold:
i. one must understand how to create the ideal organisational
learning environment
ii. one must be aware of how and why something has been learned
iii. one must try to ensure that the learning that takes place is useful
to the organisation

2.3 Organisational Learning pitfalls

Senge(1990) argues that often it is failure that provides the richest learning
experience, which is something that organisations need to understand and use
more effectively. He criticises the way we reward success and look down upon
failure as something that can be detrimental to the long term health of the
organisation.

Levitt and March (1996) further argue that success is ambiguous and depends
on how it is interpreted. This interpretation may not only vary significantly
between different groups within the organisation, but may change over time as
success indicators and levels of aspiration change.

Levitt and March (1996) also discuss superstitious learning. This occurs when
positive or negative results are associated with the wrong actions. Success and
failure can both generate superstitious learning. You must understand that when

80
a firm does well, the routines that they followed are linked to this success and
are subsequently reinforced.

The opposite is true for failure. In such cases, the organisation thinks that it has
learned when in fact it has not. Real organisational learning would have resulted
from the examination of the information generated from their actions rather than
from relatively arbitrary success or failure criteria.
In-text Question
Define organisational learning

Answer
Organisational learning is the process of creating, retaining, and transferring knowledge
within an organisation. An organisation improves over time as it gains experience.

3.0Conclusion/Summary
In this study, you have learnt that:
1. as a subfield, organisational learning is the study of experience,
knowledge, and the effects of knowledge within an organisational
context.
2. organisational learning is the process of creating, retaining, and
transferring knowledge within an organisation.
3. an organisation improves over time as it gains experience. From this
experience, it is able to create knowledge. Individuals are predominantly
seen as the functional mechanisms for organisational learning by creating
knowledge through experience.

4.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations &Out of Class Activities) e.g.

a. Visit U-tube add https://bit.ly/2XB3f4a. Watch the video & summarise in 1
paragraph
b. View the animation on add/sitehttps://bit.ly/2XB3f4aand critique it in the
discussion forum

81
6.0 Reference/Further Reading
Brown, J. S. and Duguid, P. (1991) Organisational Learning and Communities
OfPractice. Toward a Unified View of Working. Organisation Science
vol.2,no.1, Pp. 40-57.

82
 STUDY SESSION 3
Approaches to Organisational Learning
Section and Subsection Headings
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcome
2.0 Main Content
2.1- Approaches to organisational learning
2.2- Organisational Learning Theory from a Company-Wide Perspective
2.3- Organisational Learning Theory: The Three Types of learning
2.4- Organisational Learning and Communities of Practice
2.5- Learning within Communities of Practice
2.6- The Implications to Knowledge management (KM)
3.0Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0Self-Assessment Questions
5.0Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class Activities)
6.0References/Further Reading

Introduction
You are welcome to study session 3, in this session, we shall discuss the
approaches to organisational learning and examine organisational learning
theories from a companywide perspective; types of learning; Communities of
Practice and the implications of organisational learning to knowledge
management (KM). We can define organisational learning as the process of
creating, retaining, and transferring of knowledge.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcome

After you have finished studying this session, you should be able to:
1. discuss the approaches to organisational learning
2. explain organisational learning theory from a companywide perspective

83
 3. discuss organisational learning theory with respect to the three types of
learning
4. explain organisational learning and communities of practice
5. discuss learning within communities of practice
6. explain the implications to knowledge management

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Approaches to organisational learning
Generally speaking, we have two approaches to organisational learning. Our
first approach looks at the firm as a whole and examines learning from a
cognitive perspective. In a way, the firm is treated like a large brain composed
of the individual members of the organisation.

Our second approach view learning as community based, where the firm’s
practitioners create knowledge in their own networks called communities of
practice (Lave &Wenger 1991).

The two approaches are summarised as:

These views should be seen as complementary rather than contradictory. The
next two sub-sessions
will examine
organisational learning
theory from these two
perspectives.

Fig. 2.3.1: Approaches to organisational learning

84
2.2 Organisational Learning Theory from a Company
Two of the most noteworthy
contributors to the field of
organisational learning
theory have been Chris
Argrys and to Argrys &
Schonare products of
organisational inquiry. Fig. 2.3.2:ChrisArgrys and Donald Schon

Source: http://tech.mit.edu/V117/N43/schon.43.gif

This means that whenever expected outcome differs from actual outcome, an
individual (or group) will engage in inquiry to understand and, if necessary,
solve this inconsistency. In the process of organisational inquiry, the individual
will interact with other members of the organisation and learning will take
place. Learning is therefore a direct product of this interaction.
Argrys and Schon emphasise that this interaction often goes well beyond
defined organisational rules and procedures. Their approach to organisational
learning theory is
based on the
understanding of two
(often conflicting)
modes of operation:
Fig. 2.3.3:Organisation learning theory

Espoused theory: this refers to the formalised part of the organisation. Every
firm will tend to have various instructions regarding the way employees should
conduct themselves in order to carry out their jobs (e.g. problem solving). These
instructions are often specific and narrow in focus, confining the individual to a
set path. An example of espoused theory might be "if the computer does not
work, try rebooting it and then contact the IT department."

85
Theory-in-use: this is the actual way things are done. Individuals will rarely
follow espoused theory and will rely on interaction and brainstorming to solve a
problem.
Theory in use refers to the loose, flowing, and social way that employees solve
problems and learn. An example of this might be the way someone actually
solves problem with their computer by troubleshooting solutions, researching on
forums, asking co-workers for opinions, etc.

The fact that there is a mismatch between these two approaches means it is
potentially problematic, if the company enforces its espoused theory. In order to
create an environment conducive to learning, firms are encouraged to accept
theory in use, and make it easy for the individual to interact with his working
environment in an undefined and unstructured way.
Essentially they should provide the right environment for organisational inquiry
to take place, unconstrained by formal procedures.

Levitt and March (1996) expand further on the dynamics of organisational

learning theory. Their view presents the organisation as routine-based. History
dependent, and target oriented. While lessons from history are stored in the
organisational memory, the event itself is often lost.
They note that past lessons are captured by routines "in a way that makes the
lessons, but not the history, accessible to organisations and organisational
members." The problem most organisations face is that it is usually better to
have the event rather than the interpretation.
However, this is often too costly (both financially and time-wise) to be feasible.
OL is transmitted through socialisation, education, imitation and so on, and can
change overtime as a result of interpretations of history.

86
2.3 Organisational Learning Theory - Types of Learning
Argrys and Schon (1996)
identify three levels of
learning which may be
present in the
organisation:

Fig 2.3.4: Types of learning

1. Single loop learning: consists of one feedback loop when strategy is

modified in response to an unexpected result (error correction). E.g. when
sales are down, marketing managers inquire into the cause, and tweak the
strategy to try to bring sales back on track.

2. Double loop learning: learning that results in a change in theory-in-use.

The values, strategies, and assumptions that govern action are changed to
create a more efficient environment. In the above example, managers
might rethink the entire marketing or sales process so that there will be no
(or fewer) such fluctuations in the future.
3. Deutero learning: Learning about improving the learning system itself.
This is composed of structural and behavioural components which
determine how learning takes place. Essentially deuteron learning is
therefore "learning how to learn."

This can be closely linked to Senge's concept of the learning organisation,

particularly in regards to improving learning processes and
understanding/modifying mental models. Effective learning must therefore
include all three, continuously improving the organisation at all levels.
However, while any organisation will employ single loop learning, double loop
and particularly deutero learning are a far greater challenge.

87
From organisational learning theory you can infer the following issues which
may affect knowledge management and knowledge management systems:
1. OL is dependent on allowing organisational inquiry to take place
according to theory-in-use, not espoused theory.
2. OL is a complex mechanism, resulting often in the storage of
interpretations of past events, rather than the events themselves.
3. OL can take place on three different levels. While single loop learning
comes natural to any individual/organisation, special attention must be
paid to the double-loop and deuteron learning.

In-text Question
What are the types of learning?

Answer
1. Single loop learning
2. Double loop learning
3. Deuteron learning

2.4 Organisational Learning and Communities of Practice

Communities of practice are a term originally developed by Lave and Wenger
(1991). It describes a learning theory with a strong relationship to the social
construction of knowledge. The community of practice (sometimes incorrectly
referred to as “communities of practices") consists of members who interact
with each other for their pursuit of a common practice.
It is therefore this collective social practice that links individuals together across
official organisational boundaries and departments, and makes up the
community.

It is important for you to note that these are not teams. You may define
community of practice as "a group of professionals informally bound to one
another through exposure to a common class of problems, common pursuit of
88
solutions, and thereby themselves embodying a store of knowledge" (Stewart
2001 in Botha et al 2008).

2.5 Learning within Communities of Practice

You can see learning as deriving from the social process of becoming a
practitioner, as it gives the individual a social context of being an integrated part
of a community. The social construction of identity shapes each person's view
and interpretation of the world. Learning and the creation of new knowledge
can then take place within the context dependent forum of the community, and
can be shared through social practice.

Lave and Wenger (1991) introduce the concept of legitimate peripheral

learning(LPP). LPP links learning to participation within a community of
practice. The objective is not to acquire any specific knowledge, instead, to be
granted access tithe community and its culture and language. As a newcomer
learns the formal and informal culture and values of the community, he
becomes a legitimate member.
Essentially he moves form peripheral to full participation.

Brown and Duguid(1991) further investigate organisational learning from

community perspective. They refer to canonical and non-canonical practice-
which is concepts similar to espoused theory and theory-in-use described in the
previous section.
Canonical practice refers to adherence to formal rules and procedures, while
non-canonical refers to the informal routines that dominate day to day
procedures. Brown and Duguid warn against strict canonical focus as it inhibits
the problem solving capabilities of the organisation.
They stress that it is unstructured dialogue, particularly through storytelling, that
leads to innovation and problem solving.

89
 Box 2.3.1:Difference between canonical practice and non-canonical practice

Storytelling functions as a wisdom repository and is instrumental in the creation

of new knowledge. This is closely linked to Levitt and March's concept of
history dependent learning where the interpretations of events (rather than the
actual events) are remembered and passed on. It is also somewhat reminiscent
of Nonaka's externalisation process, when tacit knowledge is made explicit
often through the use of metaphor.

2.6 The Implications to Knowledge Management (KM)

Botha et al (2008) summarise the key factors regarding communities of practice
as follows:
1. Learning is a social phenomenon
2. Knowledge is integrated into the culture, values, and language of the
community
3. Learning and community membership are inseparable
4. We learn by doing and therefore knowledge and practice are inseparable.
5. Empowerment is a key to learning: The best learning environments are
created when there are real consequences to the individual and his
community of practice.
Management must understand the advantages, disadvantages, and limitations of
communities of practice. For example, because they are so loosely defined it
may be very hard to identify them when a problem needs to be solved- to
resolve this some companies today are mapping their communities of practice
(Botha 2008).

Another issue could be the problem of transferring and combining knowledge

across the firm. Due to the close ties to "doing" as well as the cultural elements,
90
this may require innovative solutions- e.g. using temporary cross functional
project teams that can leverage knowledge from different areas, apply it, learn,
and the redistribute the new knowledge back into the individual members'
communities.

All this should underline the importance of recognising and supporting

communities of practice. Knowledge management (KM) initiatives and
systems must therefore be supportive, non-disruptive, and must not enforce
canonical practice.
In-text Question
Mention the key factors of communities of practice

Answer
1. Learning is a social phenomenon
2. Knowledge is integrated into the culture, values, and language of the community
3. Learning and community membership are inseparable
4. We learn by doing and therefore knowledge and practice are inseparable.
5. Empowerment is a key to learning: The best learning environments are created when
there are real consequences to the individual and his community of practice.

3.0Conclusion/Summary
In this study, you have learned that -
1. there are two approaches to organisational learning
2. espoused theory refers to the formalised part of the organisation
3. theory in use refers to the loose, flowing, and social way that employees
solve problems and learn
4. single loop learning consists of one feedback loop when strategy is
modified in
5. response to an unexpected result (error correction)
6. learning is seen as deriving from the social process of becoming a
practitioner, as it gives the individual a social context of being an
integrated part of a community

91
4.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations &Out of Class Activities) e.g.
a. Visit U-tube add https://bit.ly/2EHDBTO. Watch the video & summarise in 1
paragraph
b. View the animation on add/sitehttps://bit.ly/2EHDBTO and critique it in the
discussion forum

6.0 References/Further Reading

Argrys, C. and Schon, D. (1996).Organisational Learning II - Theory, Method,
And Practice. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Botha A, Kourie D, and Snyman, R. (2008).Coping with Continuous Change in
The Business Environment, Knowledge Management and Knowledge
Management Technology, Chandice Publishing Ltd.
Brown, J. S. and Duguid, P., (1991).Organisational Learning and Communities
Of Practice. Toward a Unified View of Working, Organisation Science
vol.2,no.1.
Lave, J., Wenger, E.(1991). Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral
Participation. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press
Levitt, B., and James, G.M. (1996).Organisational Learning. In Cohen,
Michael D. and Lee S. Sproull. Organisational Learning. Thousand
Oaks, California, Sage Publications, 1996
Senge, P.M. (1990). The Leader's New Work: Building Learning Organisations.
Sloan Management Review, pp 7-23
Stewart, Thomas A. (1998). Intellectual Capital: The New Wealth of
Organisations. Crown Business Publishers. ISBN 0385483813

92
 STUDY SESSION 4
Organisational Culture
Section and Subsection Headings:
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1- Organisational culture
2.2- Level of Organisational Culture
2.3- Organisational Culture and Knowledge Sharing
2.4- The Problems with Managing Organisational Culture
2.5- Leadership and the Learning Organisation
2.6- Dimensions of Learning Organisation
2.7- The Role of Leadership
3.0Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions
5.0Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)
6.0References/Further Readings

Introduction:
You are welcome to study session 4,in this session, you will learn and explore
the meaning and levels of organisational culture; organisational culture and
knowledge sharing; the
problems associated with
managing organisational
culture; dimension of
learning organisation and
the role of leadership in
learning organisation. Fig. 2.4.1: Organisational Culture Source: http://thecorporategreenhouse.com/wp-

content/uploads/2011/02/traingleofservices.gif

93
The term corporate culture became widely known in the business world in the
late1980s and by early 1990s corporate culture was already used by managers,
sociologists, and organisational theorists.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

After you have finished studying this session, you should be able to:
Explain organisational culture
1. Outline the levels of organisational culture
2. Explain organisational learning and knowledge sharing
3. Highlight the problems of managing organisation culture
4. Explain the term ‘leadership and learning organisation
5. Outline the dimensions of learning organisations
6. Explain the role of leadership

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Organisational culture
You should understand that, organisational culture is the behaviour of humans
within an organisation and the meaning that people attach to those behaviours.
According to Needle (2004), organisational culture represents the collective
values, beliefs and principles of organisational members and is a product of
such factors as history, product, market, technology, and strategy, type of
employees, management style, and national culture.

Your culture includes the organisation's vision, values, norms, systems,

symbols, language, assumptions, beliefs, and habits. Ravasi and Schultz (2006)
wrote that organisational culture is a set of shared assumptions that guide what
happens in organisations by defining appropriate behaviour for various
situations.

94
 Box 2.4.1: Definition of Organisational culture

It is also the pattern of such collective behaviours and assumptions that are
taught to new organisational members as a way of perceiving and, even,
thinking and feeling. Thus, we should know that, organisational culture affects
the way people and groups interact with each other, with clients, and with
stakeholders. In addition, we have to agree that organisational culture may
affect how much employees identify with an organisation.
Organisational culture refers to culture in any type of organisation including
that of schools, universities,
not-for-profit groups,
government agencies, or
business entities.
In business, terms such as
corporate culture and company
culture are sometimes used to
refer to a similar concept. Fig.2.4.2:Organisational structure

Source: http://coolconversationslive.com/wp
content/uploads/2013/09/orgcult.jpg

The social elements of knowledge that have been underlined in previous

sections are at least partially dependent on organisational and community
culture. Organisational culture determines values and beliefs which are an
integral part of what one chooses to see and absorb. It includes a shared
perception of reality, regarding how things are and how things should be.
Furthermore, your community and group culture determine the willingness and
conditions for knowledge sharing with other members of the organisation.
Knowledge, and knowledge sharing, are thus inseparable from organisational
culture.

95
Wellman (2009) essentially describes culture as "the way it is around here." To
illustrate the perseverance of organisational culture he presents an interesting
allegory that is summarised below:
Put five apes in a cage. Then dangle a banana from the ceiling of that cage and
place a ladder under it. Whenever an ape attempt to climb the ladder to reach
the banana, spray all of them with cold water. After a few times, the apes will
associate climbing the ladder with being sprayed with cold water. One can now
turn off the cold water.
Then, replace one of the original apes with a new one. This new ape will
undoubtedly try to get to the banana, but if he tries he will be attacked by the
others. He will have no idea why this is so, but will soon learn that he must not
climb the ladder. Next replace yet another ape. When he approaches the ladder,
all the apes will attack him.

One of these apes has no idea why he may not climb the ladder, but he
participates in the punishment enthusiastically. Soon the new ape will also learn
not to climb the ladder. In this way, one can continue until all the original apes
are replaced. At this stage, none of them know why they must not climb the
ladder, but none will do so, and all will attack anyone that tries. All of this
because "that's the way it has always been around here."

Strange as it may seem, this kind of cultural learning can be identified time and
again in real world organisations. Wellman points out that at times this can be
beneficial and detrimental. Hard wiring a reaction can push the organisation into
action quickly against a perceived threat.
The problem is that this "instinctive response may be inappropriate for the
current environment but may be triggered nonetheless"
(Wellman 2009).

96
2.2 Level of Organisational Culture
All in all, organisational culture can be split
into levels (Schein 1992):
1. Artefacts: These represent the
visible elements such as
processes, Fig.2.4.3: Levels of organisation

structures, goals, climate, dress codes, furniture, etc. An outsider can

see them but may not understand why things are the way things are.
2. Espoused values: The values espoused by the leaders. They grounded
in shared assumptions of how the company should be run. If there is a
significant mismatch between the leadership espoused values and this
perception, the organisation may be in trouble.
3. Assumptions: These are the actual values of the culture. They refer to
the(often tacit) views of the world itself (e.g. human nature). Again,
these assumptions should need to correlate at least to a certain degree
to the espoused leadership values for the organisation to function
smoothly.

2.3 Organisational Culture and Knowledge Sharing

The importance of a knowledge sharing culture as an enabler for the transfer
and creation of knowledge is directly addressed by such authors as Bukowitz &
Williams(1999), Davenport and Prusak(2000), and Gamble and Blackwell
(2001). In order to make knowledge management initiatives work in practice,
the employees within the firm must be willing to share their knowledge with
others.
Leaders must understand the culture both on an organisational and community
level.
While culture often exists on an organisational level, each community may
have its own norms, perspectives, and collective understandings. Their

97
willingness to share and to seek knowledge will be influenced by these
collective views.

One major influence to a culture's knowledge sharing willingness is the issue of

reciprocity (Davenport & Prusak 2000). This refers to the individual's need to
perceive a current or future return on the knowledge he chooses to share.
This could be in the form of direct compensation of some kind; it could be
something intangible like enhancing the individual's reputation; but it can also
be the knowledge that the favour will be returned the next time he requires
assistance. Finally, internal competition is yet another aspect of organisational
culture that may interfere with the knowledge sharing and knowledge creation
process.
In-text Question
What is organisational culture?

Answer
Organisational culture is the behaviour of humans within an organisation and the meaning
that people attach to those behaviours.

2.4 The Problems with Managing Organisational Culture

The problems with managing culture can be summed up as follows:
1. Culture reaffirms itself by rejecting misfits and promoting those that
adhere to the norms of the organisation (Gamble & Blackwell 2001).
2. Culture often consists of learned responses that are hard wired into the
organisation. The actual events that sparked this "lesson" may be long
forgotten (Wellman 2009). This is very similar to the concept of
organisational learning according to Levitt and March (1996) which
indicates that organisations are far more likely to remember
interpretations of events rather than the event itself.
3. Culture contains falsehoods. Past lessons are applied often without
understanding them and their reasons for being.

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2.5 Leadership and the Learning Organisation
According to New Growth Economics, organisation's capacity to take advantage
of the knowledge economy depends on how quickly it can become a "learning
organisation'. In the "learning organisation" individuals, firms, and countries
will be able to create wealth in proportion to their capacity to learn and share
innovation.

(Foray and Lundvall, 1996; Lundvall and Johnson, 1994).

The term "learning organisation", not to be confused with organisational
learning, was popularized by Peter Senge. It describes an organisation with an
ideal learning environment, perfectly in tune with the organisation's goals.
Such an organisation is a place "where people continually expand their capacity
to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of
thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people
are continually learning to see the whole (reality) together." (Senge 1992).
Box 2.4.2: Definition of learning organisation

This subsection will focus largely on the work of Peter Senge, and it will serve
as basis for understanding:
1. The ideal organisational environment for learning, knowledge
management(KM), innovation, etc., as described through the term "the
learning organisation".
2. The leadership qualities necessary for promoting and encouraging this
ideal environment.

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2.6 Dimensions of Learning Organisation
According to Senge, the
learning organisation
depends upon the mastery of
five dimensions:
They are:
Fig 2.4.4:Dimensions of learning organisation

Systems thinking: The notion of treating the organisation as a complex system

composed of smaller (often complex) systems. This requires an understanding
of the whole, as well as the components, not unlike the way a doctor should
understand the human body.
Some of the key elements here are recognising the complexity of the
organisation and having a long-term focus. Senge advocates the use of system
maps that show how systems connect.
Personal mastery: Senge describes this as a process where an individual strives
to enhance his vision and focus his energy, and to be in a constant state of
learning.
Mental models: "Deeply ingrained assumptions, generalisations, or even
pictures and images that influence how we understand the world and how we
take action" (Senge1990). These must be recognised and challenged so as to
allow for new ideas and changes.
Building shared vision: Shared vision is a powerful motivator. A leader's
vision does not necessarily become shared by those below him. The key here is
to pass on a picture of the future. To influence using dialogue, commitment, and
enthusiasm, rather than to try to dictate. Storytelling is one possible tool that can
be used here.
Team learning: The state where team members think together to achieve
common goals. It builds on shared vision, adding the element of collaboration.

100
8.7 The Role of Leadership
Senge emphasised the role of the leader in the creation of this learning
organisation.
He defined three leadership roles (1990) that would reshape the old-fashioned
approach to being the boss. These are:
Leader as Designer: Senge likens this to being the designer of a ship rather
than its captain. He defined it in three ways:
1. Creating a common vision with shared values and purpose.
2. Determining the "policies, strategies, and structures that translate guiding
ideas into business decisions."
3. Creating effective learning processes which will allow for continuous
improvement of the policies, strategies, and structures.
Leader as Teacher: The leader here is seen as a coach that works with the
mental models present in the organisation. He must understand the (usually
tacit) concepts of reality and restructure these views "to see beyond the
superficial conditions and events[and] into the underlying causes of the
problems."
Leader as Steward: This is the vaguest of the three and refers largely to the
attitude of the leader. He emphasizes the importance of a leader that feels he is
part of something greater; whose desire is first and foremost not to lead, but to
serve this greater purpose of building better organisations and reshaping the
way businesses operate. The first two roles outlined by Senge shed a lot of light
into the requirements of effective KM and organisational learning goals. It
builds on shared vision, adding the element of collaboration.

In-text Question
Itemize the five dimensions of learning organisation

Answer

101
1. Systems thinking
2. Personal mastery
3. Mental models
4. Building shared vision
5. Team learning

3.0Conclusion/Summary
In study session 8, you have that:
1. Organisational culture is the behaviour of humans within an organisation
and the meaning that people attach to those behaviours. It represents the
collective values, beliefs and principles of organisational members and is
a product of such factors as history, product, market, technology, and
strategy, type of employees, management style, and national culture.
2. In order to make knowledge management initiatives work in practice, the
employees within the firm must be willing to share their knowledge with
others.
3. Culture often consists of learned responses that are hard wired into the
organisation.
4. In the "learning organisation" individuals, firms, and countries will be
able to create wealth in proportion to their capacity to learn and share
innovation.
5. According to Senge, the learning organisation depends upon the mastery
of five dimensions.

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4.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations &Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit U-tube add https://bit.ly/2TdT8DN. Watch the video & summarise in 1
paragraph
b. View the animation on add/sitehttps://bit.ly/2yYYc26and critique it in the
discussion forum

5.0 References/Further Readings

Bukowitz, W., and Williams, R. (1999), The Knowledge Management
Fieldbook, Financal Times/Prentice Hall.
Davenport, T. H., and Prusak, L. (2000), Working Knowledge: How
Organisations Manage What They Know, Harvard Business School Press,
Boston, MA.
Gamble, P. R., and Blackwell, J. (2001), Knowledge Management: A State of
the Art Guide, Kogan Page Ltd.
March J.G. (1988). Technology of Foolishness, in March, J.G., Decisions in
Organisations, Oxford: Blackwell, p253-265
Needle, David (2004). Business in Context: An Introduction to Business and Its
Environment. ISBN 978-1861529923.
Ravasi, D.; Schultz, M. (2006). "Responding to organisational identity threats:
Exploring the role of organisational culture". Academy of Management
Journal49 (3): 433–458. doi:10.5465/amj.2006.21794663.
Schein, E. H. (1992). Organisational Culture and Leadership. John Wiley &
Sons Senge, P.M. (1990). The Leader's New Work: Building Learning
Organisations. Sloan Management Review, pp 7-23
Wellman, J. L. (2009). Organisational Learning: How Companies and
Institutions Manage and Apply Knowledge Palgrave Macmillan.

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 MODULE 3
Contents:
Study Session 1: Building Knowledge Management Frameworks and Model
Study Session 2: Knowledge Management Processes
Study Session 3: Knowledge Sharing
Study Session 4: Managing Knowledge Reuse

STUDY SESSION 1
Building Knowledge Management Frameworks and Models
Section and Subsection Headings:
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1- KM Steps
2.2- The KM Matrix by Gamble and Blackwell (2001)
2.3- The Knowledge Management Process Model by Botha et al (2008)
3.0Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0Self-Assessment Questions
5.0Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)
6.0References/Further Readings

Introduction:
You are welcome to study
session 1,in this session,
you will learn about
knowledge management

Fig 3.1.1: Knowledge Management FrameworkSource:http://multiforma.co.id/wp-

content/uploads/2013/04/KMFrameworke13887562039921.jpg

104
frameworks and models. You must have heard of this the old saying that a
picture paints a thousand words is very much applicable in this case. A good
model can integrate various elements and show relationships in a way that is
much harder to do in writing.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

After you have finished studying this session, you should be able to:
Explain knowledge management steps
1. Explain the KM Matrix
2. Discuss the knowledge management process model

2.0 Main Content

2.1 KM Steps
At the most basic level, KM consists of the following steps:
It is important you note
that none of these
processes are independent
and all of them are
affected by countless
factors. Fig. 3.1.2 KM steps

This is why knowledge management frameworks are typically very different

and can be presented in a wide variety of ways.
For instance, some models are sequential (as above), and seek to provide a
better overview at the expense of "realism". Other models display overlapping
processes in an attempt to simulate what actually occurs inside an organisation.
The problem with the latter is that they are often hard to grasp and can only
convey limited information so as not to become incomprehensible.

105
Since KM is closely related or dependent on other disciplines (such as strategy,
information management, project management, etc.) and it is enabled by a wide
range of processes and systems, a model can become very complex indeed.

This is why there is no such thing as an integrated and fully detailed knowledge
management framework, i.e. one that captures all relevant aspects with
appropriate detail. Each model must choose its focus and origin, as well as its
limitations. There are essentially three questions that a knowledge management
framework may choose to answer.

They are:
1. What/How
2. Why
3. When

"What/how" refers to the actual processes of knowledge management.

"Why" refers to an indication of the reasons behind using one method or the
other.
"When" refers to the timing for using one method or another, and is very closely
related to "why".
The latter two questions are usually tackled in more strategic oriented models
that take a broader perspective. What/how is usually dealt with in process
oriented models that focus on an understanding of the tools available to the
manager. These kinds of models are generally more common particularly since
the role of knowledge management can be defined far more narrowly.
In the following section you will learn a few solid KM models dealing with all
the aspects you have learnt above.

Table 3.1.1: Knowledge Management broad categories as outlines by Botha

106
et al (2008)

Here, you can see the role of knowledge management from a broad perspective,
i.e. which includes more than just knowledge sharing/access/etc., but also new
knowledge creation. These categories provide a solid overview of the
components of any knowledge management framework focusing on the
what/how question.

2.2 The KM Matrix by Gamble and Blackwell (2001)

Table 3.1.2: KM Matrix

This KM model presents a general theoretical framework, as well as specific

guidelines for implementation.
The KM process is split into four stages. Firstly, your management must locate
the sources of knowledge. Then they must organise this knowledge so as to
assess the firm's strengths and weaknesses and determine its relevance and

107
reusability. This is followed by socialisation, where various techniques are used
to help share and disseminate it to whomever needs it in the organisation.
Finally, the knowledge is internalised through use.
As all sequential models, the steps are not to be taken literally, because they do
provide an excellent overview of the role of the KM manager. However, one
limitation of this model is its focus. First of all, the overall strategic role outline
by Bukowitz and Williams is not included.

Secondly, your KM's role here is limited to knowledge sharing, omitting the
processes of knowledge acquisition/creation and divestment. This is a perfectly
legitimate approach to KM where the focus is on the sharing and retrieval of
existing knowledge, but it does not fulfil the scope of the knowledge
management definition outlined in this lecture.

2.3 The Knowledge Management Process Model by Botha et al (2008)

This model attempts to
offer a more realistic
overview of the KM
process.
The three broad
categories overlap and
interact with one
another. Fig. 3.1.3: Knowledge Management Process Model

Like Gamble &Blackwell, the focus is on managerial initiatives. Here too the
strategic focus ("when" and the "why" as opposed to the "what") is omitted.
It is noteworthy that this model does include the creation of new knowledge as a
specific KM initiative.

108
The model further shows which of the three categories are more people oriented
and which are more technology focused. Whether or not knowledge sharing
should be largely technology focused is certainly debatable and it is something
that I will address in future sections. However, for better or for worse, this is
largely how organisations tend to approach the issue i.e. as a technological
rather than organisational and social challenge.

You have learnt the three models that take very different approaches to KM.
There is one other important aspect relating to KM that has not been directly
dealt with by these models. I am referring now to the measurement of effects
that lets management know whether the implemented initiatives are achieving
the desired results. This is dependent upon data and information management,
but is paramount for future KM initiatives. Below is a version of an integrated
knowledge management model.

109
 Fig. 3.1.4:Integrated knowledge management model

The integrated knowledge management model draws upon elements presented

by Bukowitz& Williams, Gamble & Blackwell, Botha et al, and
Nonaka & Takeuchi.
It also includes the concept of organisational memory as defined earlier.

110
The dark gray elements represent KM initiatives; the yellow boxes represent
corporate strategy, while the teal boxes depict data and information systems and
repositories.
The process is initiated from the tactical and strategic considerations,
illustrating the way KM strategy goes hand in hand with corporate strategy.
The non-bolded elements in the gray oval indicate the knowledge related
processes that go on within the organisation as it operates, and which
management affects/enhances through its initiatives.
The integrated knowledge management model is sequential, offering a
simplified view for ease of understanding. The steps are as follows:
1. Detect & Discover: Search for existing knowledge as well as hidden
knowledge within information and data.
2. Organise& Assess: Organisation and assessment of knowledge assets.
Knowledge is categorised, evaluated, and made easier to access (by
providing maps etc.).
3. KM Tactical initiatives:
i. Act - Reuse: If the firm can use existing knowledge to meet a
tactical opportunity or threat, the role of KM is to identify this
knowledge and enable it to be used. This means that if it is required
by a different person/group, then KM is responsible for making it
available to all relevant parties. Knowledge reuse thus combines
the previous points on detection and organisation with a new
aspect: knowledge sharing.
ii. Act - Create/acquire: If the right knowledge resources do not
exist, the firm may create or acquire them, assuming the right
processes and systems are in place to support this. For example, the
knowledge may be acquired from partners if the right relationships
are in place. Knowledge creation depends on the right internal

111
 environments that allow for combination and conversion of
knowledge assets.
iii. Failure to act: This is not really a KM initiative in itself, but it
does have some implications. In the event that a firm fails to act
there is still a lesson to be learned. Management must evaluate if
this is something that needs to be addressed in the future. This
decision is fed back into the loop, affecting future strategic choices.
4. KM Strategic Initiatives:
i. Invest: Support or implement. this refer to the organisational
structures, culture, knowledge retention, competencies, external
network, and systems that direct, affect, and/or enable the KM
initiatives discussed in the long term. Strategic initiatives may, for
example, involve creating a knowledge sharing culture,
restructuring the firm, establishing a beneficial partnership, or
implementing a new IT system.
If the right environment, system, etc. is already in place,
management must make sure to continuously support it. It is
important to note that some of these do not fall solely within KM,
and they are all fields of study in their own right. However in this
case, we are interested solely in the way these broader strategic
initiatives shape the focus and direction of KM in the long term.
ii. Divest: When knowledge assets become obsolete they need to be
removed. KM is responsible for maintaining relevant knowledge
assets.

The differentiation between tactical and strategic initiatives should not be seen
as categorical, and in reality projects and initiatives will often have mixed goals.
The integrated knowledge management model itself should be seen as

112
continuously looping, with new or modified knowledge and information being
fed into organisational memory and information repositories each time.
All processes are thus supported by information systems. They play an
important role in tracking progress and feeding that information back into the
system. This way, each time the integrated knowledge management model is
run, it is based on different information, understanding, knowledge, and
circumstances than the last time. As with all sequential models, none of this
should be taken absolutely literally.

Although this is called an "integrated" knowledge management model, it is not

intended to be all-encompassing. Since KM is such a broad discipline, one can
continue to add elements until the model becomes too complex that it has no
meaning.
In-text Question
What are the three basics questions that a knowledge manager answer

Answer
1. What/How
2. Why
3. When

3.0Conclusion/Summary
At the end of study session 9, you have learnt:
1. The constituents of a knowledge management framework.
2. The three essential questions that a knowledge management framework
may choose to answer.
3. The KM Tactical initiatives
4. KM is responsible for maintaining relevant knowledge assets.

4.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations &Out of Class activities) e.g.

a. Visit U-tube add https://bit.ly/2tMMfu3. Watch the video & summarise in 1
paragraph

113
b. View the animation on add/sitehttps://bit.ly/2Kv1rF4and critique it in the
discussion forum.

6.0 References/Further Readings

Botha A, Kourie D, &Snyman R, (2008), Coping with Continuous Change in
The Business Environment, Knowledge Management and Knowledge
Management Technology, Chandice Publishing Ltd.
Bukowitz, W., & Williams, R. (1999), The Knowledge Management Field
book, Financal Times/Prentice Hall.
Gamble & Blackwell 2001: An older text, but a very well written one,
Presenting an excellent overview of KM, which extends beyond what is
offered in most books (e.g. discussing external relationships).
Nonaka I., Takeuchi H. (1995). The Knowledge-Creating Company, Oxford
University Press.
Nonaka, I., and Takeuchi, H., (1996). The Theory of Organisational Knowledge
Creation. International Journal of Technology Management, vol 11, no
7/8,1996

114
 STUDY SESSION 2
Knowledge Management Processes
Section and Subsection Headings:
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1- Knowledge Discovery and Detection
2.2- Facilitating Knowledge Discovery and Detection
3.0Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0Self-Assessment Questions and Answers
5.0Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)
6.0References/Further Readings

Introduction:
You are welcome to study session 2, in this session, you will consider the
different knowledge management KM processes and initiatives based on the
layout of the integrated knowledge management model presented in the last
study. You will learn
knowledge discovering
and detection, knowledge
organisation & assessment
and Knowledge sharing.
Fig. 3.2.1: Knowledge Management Process
Source:http://image.slidesharecdn.com/hoglundkmpro
09-14-04-100215195204-phpapp01/95/km-as-the-engine-
of-business-process-improvement-16-728.jpg?cb=1266264666

KM involves processes that facilitate the application and development of

organisational knowledge and aims to create value and to increase/sustain
competitive advantage for the organisation. So far, an introduction to
knowledge management as well as several frameworks has been presented.

115
Under the initiative referred to as "act", the integrated model outlines a series of
knowledge management processes. These are:
1. Knowledge Discovery & Detection
2. Knowledge Organisation & Assessment
3. Knowledge Sharing
4. Knowledge Reuse
5. Knowledge Creation
6. Knowledge Acquisition

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

After you have finished studying this session, you should be able to:
1. Explain knowledge discovery and detection
2. Explain how to facilitate Knowledge Discovery and Detection

2.0 Main Content

2.1Knowledge Discovery and Detection
This step helps you to deals with discovering the knowledge that a firm
possesses all over the organisation, as well as the patterns in the information
available that hide previously undetected pockets of knowledge. Once your
knowledge is created, it exists within the organisation. However, before you can
be reused or shared it must be properly recognized and categorised. This
subsection deals with the former aspect, while the following subsection deals
with the latter.

Explicit Knowledge: Discovering explicit knowledge involves a process of

sorting through documents and other records, as well as discovering knowledge
within existing data and knowledge repositories.
For the latter, you can use IT to uncover hidden knowledge by looking at
patterns and relationships within data and text. The main tools/practices in this

116
case include intelligence gathering, data mining (finding patterns in large
bodies of data and information), and text mining (text analysis to search for
knowledge, insights, etc.).

Your intelligence gathering is closely linked to expert systems (Bali et al 2009)

where the system tries to capture the knowledge of an expert, though the extent
to which they are competent for this task is questionable (Botha et al 2008).

Tacit knowledge: Discovering and detecting tacit knowledge is a lot more

complex and often it is up to the management in each firm to gain an
understanding of what their company's experts actually know. Since tacit
knowledge is considered as the most valuable in relation to sustained
competitive advantage, this is a crucial step, a step that often simply involves
observation and awareness.

There are several qualitative and quantitative tools/practices that can help you in
the process; these include knowledge surveys, questionnaires, individual
interviews, group interviews, focus groups, network analysis, and observation.
IT can be used to help identify experts and communities.
Groupware systems and other social/professional networks as well as expert
finders can point to people who are considered experts, and may also give an
indication of the knowledge these people/groups possess.

In-text Question
What are the processes involve in knowledge management

Answer
1. Knowledge Discovery & Detection
2. Knowledge Organisation & Assessment
3. Knowledge Sharing
4. Knowledge Reuse
5. Knowledge Creation
6. Knowledge Acquisition

117
Embedded knowledge: Discovering embedded knowledge implies an
examination and identification of the knowledge trapped inside organisational
routines, processes, products etc., which has not already been made explicit.
Management must essentially ask "why do we do something a certain way?"
This type of knowledge discovery involves observation and analysis, and the
use of reverse engineering and modelling tools.

It is important for you to note that the sources of knowledge that a firm has
access to may extend well outside the organisation. This type of knowledge,
which was introduced in the previous study on "Understanding Organisational
Knowledge" is called extra organisational knowledge. This can exist in both
formal and informal settings.

The former refers to management driven initiatives like partnerships, while the
latter refers to the informal networks of individual members. The interest of this
study is in the former, which can be located and managed at least to some
degree. Gamble and
Blackwell identifies several such sources:
1. Alliances
2. Suppliers
3. Customers
At this stage, we are still only discussing knowledge discovery and detection,
so these relationships will not be explored in detail (see knowledge acquisition
and external knowledge networks for more). Knowledge from alliances and
partners can exist in joint projects, shared knowledge/experts operational data
and so on.
Suppliers and customers can provide product feedback, trends, developments,
etc.

118
Within their respective limitations, similar tools as the ones mentioned above
can be used to identify the knowledge and/or knowledge sources.
IT can be used in this context both as a means of feedback, communication, and
cooperation between partners, and also as a way to gather, analyse, and "mine"
data and information.

2.2 Facilitating Knowledge Discovery and Detection

Useful to this process is the adoption of practices that make knowledge easier to
detect. For example, teams could be asked to document aspects of their work
with ascertain language and presentation standard.
Generalists could be used to help organise this process, as well as to document
the expertise of the individual team members (which can be used later to
promote tacit knowledge socialisation). A rundown of how management
should prepare knowledge in specific situations is presented in the final segment
of the knowledge reuse subsection.

Knowledge Organisation and Assessment

In order for you to determine what resources they have at their disposal and to
pin point strengths and weaknesses, management needs to organise the
knowledge into something manageable. Knowledge organisation involves
activities that "classify, map, index, and categorise knowledge for navigation,
storage, and retrieval" (Botha etal. 2008).

Markus (2001) assigns the role of preparing, sanitising, and organising this
knowledge to a "knowledge intermediary".
This may be a knowledge manager or it may also be the actual producer of the
knowledge. The point is, that in order for knowledge to be shared (either for
reuse in a business situation or as a tool for knowledge creation), it must be

119
prepared in such a way that it can be identified, retrieved, and understood by the
knowledge user.

Explicit knowledge organisation: It is generally encouraged as a means of

organising and retrieving knowledge. IT based systems use taxonomies and
ontologies to classify and organise knowledge and information. These are
categorisation methods that create a logical, hierarchical knowledge map,
allowing the user to navigate by category. However, taxonomies are very
expensive to create.

It is relevant for you to note here that although explicit knowledge is not
considered as valuable as tacit knowledge, due to its sheer volume, an effective
method of classification and retrieval is often essential. Other tools include
libraries and data marts.

Tacit knowledge organisation: Use of focus groups, expertise guides, social

network analysis, and knowledge coordinators. The role of the latter is to
understand in which context the tacit knowledge was created.
Expertise locators, such as corporate yellow pages, social network analysis and
other knowledge maps can be used to pinpoint the location and categorise the
valuable expertise of tacit knowledge sources (a.k.a. experts). They can also
shed light into how widespread certain tacit knowledge is, enabling the firm to
plan ahead for the retirement of key employees.

Embedded knowledge organisation: Job/workplace design, workflow

analyses and performance measures (Gamble & Blackwell 2001) can be used
to organise and assess embedded knowledge. Mapping is also useful here, and
knowledge maps outlining embedded knowledge can be formulated under the
guidance of knowledge brokers (Horvath 2000).

120
Liebowitz emphasizes the determination of how important certain knowledge is
to the organisation. The two key factors to examine are knowledge severity or
criticality and knowledge availability. The more critical the knowledge and the
more unavailable it is(e.g: if only one or a few experts exist and/or if they are
near retirement age), the more attention this knowledge deserves.
Knowledge organisation and assessment can seem like an expensive
endeavour, particularly since the return on investment is indirect. In other
words, there is little visible gain from meticulously classifying and organising
knowledge assets. However, it is an important step in the knowledge
management and reuse process.

As we discussed in the subsection on knowledge detection, the organisation can

put systems in place that facilitate the detection and organisation of knowledge.
These depend on the situation within which the knowledge was created, and the
possible recipients. A closer look at this specific aspect is presented in the
recommendations segment of the knowledge reuse subsection.
In-text Question
Mention the three sources identifies by Blackwell

Answer
1. Alliances
2. Suppliers
3. Customers

3.0Conclusion/Summary
In study session 10, you have learnt:
1. The processes leading to knowledge discovery and detection.
2. That discovering explicit knowledge involves a process of sorting
through documents and other records, as well as discovering knowledge
within existing data and knowledge repositories.
3. Tacit knowledge organisation involves the use of focus groups, expertise
121
 guides, social network analysis, and knowledge coordinators.

4.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations &Out of Class activities) e.g.

a. Visit U-tube add https://bit.ly/2NlcnVB. Watch the video & summarise in 1
paragraph
b. View the animation on add/sitehttps://bit.ly/2H82x7Qand critique it in the
discussion forum

6.0 References/Further Readings

Bali, R., Wickramasinghe, N., and Lehaney B. (2009) Knowledge management
primer, London : Routledge.
Botha A, Kourie D, and Snyman R, (2008), Coping with Continuous Change in
the Business Environment, Knowledge Management and Knowledge
Management Technology, Chandice Publishing Ltd.
Gamble and Blackwell. 2001: An older text, but a very well written one,
Presenting an excellent overview of KM, which extends beyond what is
offered in most books (e.g. discussing external relationships).
Horvath, (2000-2001). "Working with Tacit Knowledge", The Knowledge
Management Yearbook
Markus, L. (2001). Toward A Theory of Knowledge Reuse: Types of
Knowledge Reuse Situations and Factors in Reuse Success. Journal of
Management Information Systems, summer 2001, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 57-
93.

122
 STUDY SESSION 3
Knowledge Sharing
Section and Subsection Headings:
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1- Explicit Knowledge and Knowledge Sharing
2.2- Explicit Knowledge Sharing and IT
2.3 -Can Explicit Knowledge Sharing Systems Yield Competitive
Advantage?
2.4- Tacit Knowledge Sharing
2.5- Embedded Knowledge Sharing
3.0Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions
5.0Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)
6.0References/Further Readings

Introduction:
You are welcome to study session 3, in this session we shall explore the concept
of knowledge sharing. In this study, you will learn the concepts of knowledge
sharing according to
the different types of
knowledge. The role
of IT will also be
explored and
discussed from a
general perspective. Fig. 3.3.1: Knowledge Sharing

Source:http://www.informationage.com/sites/default/files/styles/article_
landscape/public/field/image/knowledge%20sharing.jpg?itok=KEFOnwjB

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As we stated earlier, knowledge management is fundamentally about making
the right knowledge or the right knowledge sources (including people) available
to the right people at the right time. Knowledge sharing is therefore perhaps
the single most important aspect in this process, since the vast majority of KM
initiatives depend upon it.

Knowledge sharing can be described as either push or pull. The latter is when
the knowledge worker actively seeks out knowledge sources (e.g. library
search, seeking out an expert, collaborating with a co-worker etc.), while
knowledge push is when knowledge is "pushed onto" the user (e.g. newsletters,
unsolicited publications, etc.).

Knowledge sharing depends on the habit and willingness of the knowledge

worker to seek out and/or be receptive to these knowledge sources. The right
culture, incentives, and so on must therefore be present.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

After you have finished studying this session, you should be able to:
1. Explain explicit knowledge and knowledge sharing
2. Discuss explicit knowledge sharing and IT
3. Explain explicit knowledge sharing and competitive advantage
4. Discuss tacit knowledge sharing
5. Explain embedded knowledge sharing

2.0 Main Content

2.1Explicit Knowledge and Knowledge Sharing
Successful explicit knowledge sharing is determined by the following
criteria(Bukowitz and Williams 1999):
1. Articulation: The ability of the user to define what he needs.

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 2. Awareness: Awareness of the knowledge available. The provider is
encouraged to make use of directories, maps, corporate yellow pages, etc.
3. Access: Access to the knowledge.
4. Guidance: Knowledge managers are often considered key in the build-up
of acknowledge sharing system (Davenport & Prusak 2000, Gamble &
Blackwell 2001). They must help define the areas of expertise of the
members of the firm, guide their contributions, assist users, and be
responsible for the language used in publications and other
communication material. This is so as to avoid an information/knowledge
overload.
5. Completeness: Access to both centrally managed and self-published
knowledge. The former is often more scrutinized but takes longer to
publish and is not as hands-on (and potentially relevant). Self-published
information on the other hand runs the risk of not being as reliable.
IT systems have proved extremely useful in aiding or performing many of these
functions.

2.2 Explicit Knowledge Sharing and IT

IT is useful in most stages of the knowledge sharing process, and it is used for
content management as well as data and text mining (looking for hidden
knowledge, relationships, etc. within data and documents).
Content management systems are used to update, distribute, tag, and otherwise
manage content.
They may include a wide range of functions, including web content
management and document management systems (which I consider separately).
They may be used to (based on Wikipedia entry):
1. Import and create documents and multimedia material.
2. Identify key users and their roles.

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 3. Assign roles and responsibilities to different instances of content
categories or types.
4. Define workflow tasks. Content managers can be alerted when changes in
content are made.
5. Track and manage multiple versions of content.
6. Publish content to a repository to support access. Increasingly, the
repository isa part of the system, incorporating search and retrieval.
Document management systems use numerous advanced indexing, searching,
and retrieval mechanisms (e.g. using meta-data or content from the actual
document) to facilitate explicit knowledge sharing.
To take advantage of all of these functions, it is a foregone conclusion that the
system was chosen and implemented appropriately. This aspect is discussed in
the section on knowledge management systems.
All in all, IT is a very useful tool in the management of explicit knowledge and
information. This is not to say that humans no longer play a part. They certainly
do, and knowledge and content managers are instrumental in ensuring that the
knowledge is relevant, up to date, and presented correctly.

2.3 Can Explicit Knowledge Sharing Systems Yield Competitive

Advantage?
Let us see if this true. For the actual storage and retrieval, there is very little
disagreement on the value of IT as a means of sharing, sorting, and accessing
explicit knowledge. Disagreement, is found is on the value placed on this
function. KM and organisational learning theorists have sometimes downplayed
the value of explicit knowledge and focused largely on tacit knowledge (Brown
& Duguid, Cook & Brown 1999).
However, it has also been argued that in a world where we have an overflow of
explicit knowledge and information, the ability to manage it, and thus to provide

126
continuous streams of relevant knowledge and information, can be a source of
competitive advantage in itself (Maier 2002, Botha et al 2008).
The latter view appears to be gaining support, although one important point
should be considered: explicit knowledge management systems are quite
transparent and therefore fairly easy to replicate. This means that they cannot be
the source of sustained long term competitive advantage (Jackson et al 2003).
Considering all that have been noted, in most cases, implementing a solid
system that enables explicit knowledge sharing is crucial for the following
reasons:
1. Not doing so would almost certainly become a source of competitive
disadvantage (for lack of a better word).
2. They may well provide a short term advantage, which may be extended
through continuous improvements and new technologies.
3. With proper care, such systems will also play a limited role in the sharing
of tacit knowledge, as will be discussed in the next section.
In-text Question
Explain four explicit knowledge and knowledge sharing

Answer
1. Articulation: The ability of the user to define what he needs.
2. Awareness: Awareness of the knowledge available. The provider is encouraged to
make use of directories, maps, corporate yellow pages, etc.
3. Access: Access to the knowledge.
4. Completeness: Access to both centrally managed and self-published knowledge. The
former is often more scrutinized but takes longer to publish and is not as hands-on
(and potentially relevant). Self-published information on the other hand runs the risk
of not being as reliable.

2.4 Tacit Knowledge Sharing

Sharing tacit knowledge requires socialisation. This can take many different
forms.
Davenport & Prusak(2000) outline a few relevant factors:
1. Informal networks, which involve the day to day interaction between
people within work environments are considered very important

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 2. Unlike the formalised structure of the firm, these networks span functions
and hierarchies. They are therefore difficult to identify and monitor.
3. Management should support these networks by providing the means for
communication. Japanese firms have created talk rooms where employees
can engage in unstructured, unmonitored discussions.
A specific location is useful but not mandatory - this process also occurs
in cafeterias etc. Management must simply provide the means for
employees to foster informal networks and "trade" tacit knowledge.
4. Management must also understand the value of chaos. This refers to the
value of unstructured work practices that encourage experimentation and
social interaction. Within a more chaotic environment, individuals are
given the freedom to solve problems creatively and, in so doing, must tap
into and evolve their social networks.
This is closely linked to the notion of theory in use vs. espoused theory.
The value of less structured work environments is also well known within
innovation management.
Codification of tacit knowledge is difficult and sometimes outright impossible.
There will often be a resulting knowledge loss (Bukowitz and Williams 1999,
Davenport&Prusak2000). Often, it is much more reasonable to simply
externalize the sources of tacit knowledge rather than the knowledge itself
(Davenport &Prusak2000).
This means that often it is better for experts to externalise what they know
rather than how they know it.

The main role of KM then becomes making sure that experts can be found so
that tacit knowledge can be passed on through practice, mentoring, and
networking (socialisation), and that the firm supports and encourages the
networking that is necessary for these functions to occur.
To share tacit knowledge requires a culture conducive to this type of sharing.

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Furthermore, knowledge managers (generalists that understand the types of
knowledge that exist in the communities) must be used to locate and translate
knowledge elements, thus facilitating their integration into other communities.
This endeavour is very much about people and managing organisational culture
change.

Tacit Knowledge Sharing and IT

IT oriented approaches often place undue focus on externalisation (Swan et al
2002).
Due to the context specific nature of tacit knowledge, and due to the fact that
much of it cannot be codified, externalisation should sometimes not be
attempted. In this context, IT is perhaps best as an expertise locater.
However, in some cases IT can be of some limited use as a forum for
externalisation of tacit knowledge. For example, groupware systems that
support brainstorming can help in the codification process (Botha et al 2008).
Online discussion databases and forums can also be sources of externalised
knowledge (Botha et al 2008), although the richness of this knowledge should
be questioned.

While IT is crucial for information management, it is important you do not to

confuse information with knowledge. Using IT to move tacit knowledge is
difficult since knowledge represents the shared understanding and the sense
making that is deeply rooted in the social practice of the community. The focus
for the successful sharing of tacit knowledge must be on social interaction,
problem solving, mentoring, and teaching.

IT's contribution to OL therefore depends on its fit to the social context of the
communities. Technology must not be seen as the superior solution and should
not be used to structure organisational practice (at most to supplement it). There

129
is also the danger that IT may limit the participation of some members of the
community.
It may make it more difficult for individuals to become accepted members of
the community by limiting socialisation channels. The challenge is to extend the
reach of communication without sacrificing reciprocity in regards to knowledge
sharing or socialisation.

The management of tacit knowledge has traditionally been a pitfall of IT

driven KM, and something that designers and manufacturers have not been
adequately versed in - particularly in the 1990s. The current situation still sees
the subject divided between those who take a technologically-centric view and
those who take a people-oriented approach (Bali et al 2009). Increasingly
however, the limitations of IT are being recognised in this context, as well as in
related disciplines such as knowledge creation.

The role of IT for tacit knowledge sharing can thus be summarized as follows:
1. As an expert finder: To locate the source of the tacit knowledge through
systems like corporate yellow pages.
2. As providing limited support in the socialization of tacit knowledge:
If IT systems support varied, formal and informal forms of
communication then they can help tacit knowledge sharing by supporting
teams, projects, communities, etc. Functions like being able to attach
notes to documents, or videoconferencing can support work environments
over long distances to some degree.
It is very important to realise though that if one replaces existing
socialisation functions with IT, this can backfire and become outright
detrimental to the firm's efforts.

130
 3. As providing limited support in the externalisation of tacit
knowledge: Through groupware applications that support the
codification process, discussion forums etc. However, not only is this
aspect limited, but externalisation itself is only rarely feasible.

2.5 Embedded Knowledge Sharing

As a reminder, embedded knowledge refers to knowledge locked in products,
processes, routines, etc. Embedded knowledge can be shared when the
knowledge from one product or process is incorporated into another.
Management must understand what knowledge is locked within those sources,
and they must transfer relevant parts into a different system. To do this, Gamble
and Blackwell advocate these of:
4. Scenario planning: The practice of creating a set of scenarios and
hypothesising how they might unfold by drawing upon the perspectives
of experts, the firm's knowledge asserts, and so on. For more on this see
herehttp://www.valuebasedmanagement.net/methods_scenario_planning.
html
5. After action reviews: "is a structured review or de-brief process for
analysing what happened, why it happened, and how it can be done
better" (Wikipedia).
6. Management training: Embedded knowledge could theoretically be
transferred as is, simply by testing the effects of procedures or design
features transferred from one area to another. However, often it will have
to be made explicit, or partially explicit, at least to the responsible
managers. This way, they can hypothesize the effects that embedded
knowledge has in a given situation and use simulation and
experimentation to implement it in a new area.
Beyond the knowledge mapping functions described in the subsection on
organisation and assessment, IT use is usually more indirect. It can be used as a

131
support in the design of simulations, experiments, and product design, and it can
also provide modelling tools used in reverse engineering of products. However,
these tools are not typically considered as being knowledge management
systems and are thus beyond the scope of this topic.
One direct role of IT systems is as an embedded knowledge repository where
procedures, guidelines, etc. are stored and retrieved. If implemented properly,
with the IT system complementing rather than disrupting existing processes and
culture, then it can support practices and routines, and eventually become an
embedded knowledge artefact in its own right.

Conclusion
To facilitate knowledge sharing, KM must understand the requirements of the
users, as well as the complexities and potential problems with managing
knowledge and knowledge sources. Very broadly speaking, management must
therefore implement the right processes, frameworks, and systems that enable
knowledge sharing. They
must also foster a
knowledge sharing
culture that ensures that
these investments are
fully utilized.

Fig. 3.3.2:Embedded Knowledge Sharing

For explicit knowledge, seven issues have been identified that KM must
consider, these include: articulation, awareness, access, guidance, completeness.
IT has been identified as a key component of this type of knowledge sharing,
facilitating and lowering the cost of the storage, access, retrieval, and variety of
explicit knowledge.

132
Tacit knowledge sharing depends on socialisation and practice. KM must offer
the means for this to take place by providing the right forums (primarily
physical, but also virtual), supporting networks and communities, and
accepting unstructured work environments. Generalists, known as knowledge
managers, should be used to gain an understanding of the location of knowledge
sources and to bridge the gaps between communities and networks.

In order to support the transfer of tacit knowledge, KMS must support the
socialisation functions, while at the same time not enforcing strict managerial
practices/routines/hierarchies/etc. One of its best roles is as an expert finder,
although it can also help in the direct transfer of tacit knowledge through the
support of rich and varied methods of communication, which preferably include
informal communication channels.

Embedded knowledge sharing is a process whereby embedded knowledge is

passed on from one product, routine, or process to another. Several tools have
been described that can help management understand the effects of embedded
knowledge and help in its transfer. These were: scenario planning, after action
reviews, and management training.
In-text Question
Explain three factors of tacit knowledge sharing identified byDavenport &Prusak
(2000)

Answer
1. Informal networks, which involve the day to day interaction between people within
work environments are considered very important
2. Unlike the formalised structure of the firm, these networks span functions and
hierarchies. They are therefore difficult to identify and monitor.
3. Management should support these networks by providing the means for
communication. Japanese firms have created talk rooms where employees can engage
in unstructured, unmonitored discussions.

133
3.0Conclusion/Summary
In this study, you have learnt that:
1. Knowledge management is fundamentally about making the right
knowledge or the right knowledge sources (including people) available to
the right people at the right time. Knowledge sharing is the most
important aspect in this process, since the vast majority of KM initiatives
depend upon it.
2. Knowledge sharing depends on the habit and willingness of the
knowledge worker to seek out and/or be receptive to these knowledge
sources.
3. It has been argued that in a world where we have an overflow of explicit
knowledge and information, the ability to manage it, and thus to provide
continuous streams of relevant knowledge and information, can be a
source of competitive advantage in itself

4.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations &Out of Class activities) e.g.

a. Visit U-tube add https://bit.ly/2EnbvNv. Watch the video & summarise in 1
paragraph
b. View the animation on add/sitehttps://bit.ly/2OVGzerand critique it in the
discussion forum

6.0 References/Further Readings

Wang, H. Y. and Wang, Y. S. 2008. Gender differences in the perception and
acceptance of online games. British Journal of Educational
Technology.Vol.39, No. 5.Retrieved Aug. 14, 2014, from
http://www.doi1111/j.467-8535.2007.00773x
Botha A, Kourie D, and Snyman R, (2008), Coping with Continuous Change in
the Business Environment, Knowledge Management and Knowledge
Management Technology, Chandice Publishing Ltd.

134
Cook, S.D., and Brown, J.S. (1999), Bridging Epistemologies: the Generative
Dance between Organisational Knowledge and Organisational Knowing.
Organisation Science, vol. 10, no. 4.
Davenport, T. H., and Prusak, L. (2000), Working Knowledge: How
Organisations Manage What They Know, Harvard Business School Press,
Boston, MA.
Gamble, P.R., & Blackwell, J. (2001), Knowledge Management: A State of the
ArtGuide, Kogan Page Ltd.
Jackson, M.H. and Williamson, J. (2011), 'Challenges of implementing systems
for knowledge management: Static systems and dynamic practices', in
McPhee, R.and Canary H. (Eds.) Communication and organisational
knowledge: Contemporary issues for theory and practice. Routledge.
Maier, R. (2002). Knowledge Management Systems: Information and
Communication Technologies for Knowledge Management, Springer
Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

135
 STUDY SESSION 4
Managing Knowledge Reuse
Section and Subsection Headings:
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1- Three Roles for Knowledge Reuse
2.2- Knowledge Reuse Situations
2.3- Problems and Recommendations for Managing knowledge reuse
3.0Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions
5.0Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)
6.0References/Further Readings

Introduction:
You are welcome to study session 4, in the previous session, you learnt how
knowledge is identified, organised, and shared.
The issues were discussed from a broad perspective, relevant to both knowledge
reuse and knowledge creation
and acquisition. In this study,
you will learn about the specific
situations involved in
knowledge reuse and discuss
the different managerial
challenges. Fig. 3.4.1: Managing Knowledge Reuse

Source:http://images.slideplayer.com/5/1515850/slides/slide_9.jpg

136
1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes
After you have finished studying this session, you should be able to:
1. Identify the three roles for knowledge reuse
2. Identify knowledge reuse situations
3. Discuss the problems and recommendations for managing knowledge reuse

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Three Roles for Knowledge Reuse
Let us have a quick overview of the knowledge reuse process, and some useful
definitions. Knowledge reuse is the process of recovering salvaging or
processing to use Knowledge again especially in a different way after
reclaiming or reprocessing. Markus (2001) identifies three roles in the reuse of
knowledge:
1. Knowledge producer: The original creator of the knowledge
2. Knowledge intermediary: The one who packages and prepares the
knowledge so that it may be stored, retrieved, and shared. This may
involve any number of functions such as indexing, categorisation,
standardising, publishing, mapping, etc.
3. Knowledge consumer: The person who is the recipient and user of the
knowledge in question.
As Markus points out, these three functions may involve different people or
they may all be done by the same person. E.g., knowledge reuse by a person
accessing the documented (explicit) research of someone in a different part of
the organisation requires that the producer created the documents, that either he
or someone else prepared them so that they may be understood and retrieved,
and that the knowledge consumer retrieved and used it.
In other words the roles were filled by two or three people and the process
included explicit knowledge capture and sharing across the organisation.
Alternatively, in another scenario someone may want to use their own

137
documentation later on. This process involves just one person in all three roles
and the only function performed is capturing the knowledge in a way that will
allow retrieval at a later point.

For tacit knowledge, the role of intermediary could be defined as the expert
himself-since he must present the knowledge (through practice and
socialization) in a useable way to his student, team mates, etc.
It may also fall upon the person who identified this expert and made it possible
for others to reach him, e.g. if a knowledge manager creates an expert profile
for publishing on the intranet; this way, the knowledge manager creates an
explicit account of what the expert knows rather than promoting externalisation
of the knowledge itself.

To sum up, someone has to produce the knowledge, someone has to make this
knowledge available, and someone has to search for and use this knowledge.
This implies not just the capability, but also the willingness to share, to search,
and to retrieve.

2.2 Knowledge Reuse Situations

Fruchter and Demian (2002)
identify two very general types of
knowledge reuse:
Fig.3.4.2:Types of Knowledge Reuse

1. Internal: Where the knowledge producer uses his own knowledge at

some future point.
2. External: Where the knowledge consumer uses someone else's
knowledge.

138
 The authors point out that the latter has a much higher failure rate for
reasons that include the loss of contextual knowledge and information,
and knowledge that is not properly captured due to the costs involved.
A more detailed framework is offered by Markus (2001) who identifies
four knowledge reuse situations. These are defined below, drawing also
upon the work of Timbrell and Jewels (2002) who found support for
Markus's work through their study. The recommendation segments also
draw upon some of the issues discussed under knowledge-sharing, as well
as some of my own insights.
3. Shared Work Producers: People working in teams producing
knowledge for their own reuse. They are closest in knowledge-distance.
They generally will have a good understanding of what they need and
where to find it (including both documents and experts).
Knowledge reuse will however be harder within cross functional teams.
Markus also warns that the rationale for the decision making is often
forgotten. They need knowledge about how/what/why it was done, what
improvements could be made.
4. Shared Work Practitioners: People who perform similar work in
different settings (e.g. same position in different locations). Knowledge is
produced for someone else's use. Defining the knowledge needs is usually
easy, as is locating the right experts within the network (which is used
frequently). Basically, they need to know how to do something or why
something works.
5. Expertise-Seeking Novices: People who seek out knowledge they do not
normally work with. They are furthest in knowledge-distance. They have
great difficulty "defining the questions, locating and judging, the quality
of the knowledge sources, and applying the expertise."
(Timbrell&Jewels2002).

139
 6. Miners Secondary Knowledge: People who try to find knowledge in
work produced in different contexts, so as to apply it in other situations.
The knowledge and context of the consumer may be very different to the
producer. The main challenge here is defining the question. Often
requires complex search algorithms which are hard to create (such as
those used within text and data mining).
In-text Question
Explain three roles of reuse of knowledge identify by Markus (2001)

Answer
1. Knowledge producer: The original creator of the knowledge
2. Knowledge intermediary: The one who packages and prepares the knowledge so that
it may be stored, retrieved, and shared. This may involve any number of functions
such as indexing, categorisation, standardizing, publishing, mapping,etc.
3. Knowledge consumer: The person who is the recipient and user of the knowledge in
question.

2.3 Problems and Recommendations for Managing Knowledge Reuse

The managerial issues regarding knowledge reuse can be summarised as
follows:
Cost: The time and money necessary to organise, package, store, and retrieve
the knowledge. This is particularly true in the cases when tacit knowledge is
externalised into explicit knowledge such as documents. A great deal of cost is
associated with capturing context (something that is often impossible) and
with preparing the document for retrieval. Even with IT, the latter includes
categorisation, summarising, use of metadata, etc.

Content management is also necessary to check language and presentation, and

also to keep the repositories relevant and up to date. The cost associated with
the re-use of tacit knowledge involves setting up the right circumstances for it
to take place e.g.teams, mentoring, teaching, projects, etc., as well as the
systems that support communication and expertise location.

140
Specific requirements of specific individuals and groups: Presented in
Markus's four roles above. Management must be aware of the different
requirements, and support each situation accordingly. Articles on knowledge
reuse are still dominated by
IT theories which focus largely on organising, presenting, and retrieving
explicit knowledge.

Shared work producers, recommendations: For explicit knowledge, try to

maintain context; pay attention to indexing, categorisation, and other search
related functions; document rationale behind the knowledge. For cross-
functional teams assign a generalist to bring the knowledge together and to
ensure consistency.
For tacit knowledge support communication and informal networks (e.g.
between former team members). For cross-functional teams, use the
generalist to help define on-codified tacit expertise with individual team
members. Record this expertise together with the individual team roles.

Shared work practitioners, recommendations: If explicit, decontextualise

knowledge and provide all relevant information regarding indexing,
searching, and relevance. Use knowledge push to make potential recipients
aware of it. For tacit knowledge, create the right situations for socialisation, e.g.
teamwork, projects, informal communication, etc. Use IT as an expertise locater
and communication support, but understand its limitations in tacit knowledge
transfer.

Expertise-seeking novices, recommendations: For explicit knowledge

contextualise knowledge but support reconceptualization in the context used by
the novice. For both knowledge types, try to codify the contents of the
knowledge source e.g. by defining the content of a document or the knowledge

141
of an expert. Provide awareness training. For tacit knowledge, follow the
recommendation postulated for shared work practitioners.

Miners Secondary Knowledge: Record context information such as metadata.

Provide relevant training regarding knowledge, data, and information
repositories, as well as analysis and search techniques. Implement IT systems
that match the needs of the consumer e.g. data mining and analysis tools, text
mining tools, etc.

Willingness: Both the producer who packages knowledge and the consumer
who seeks the knowledge must be willing. This brings us back to issues like
culture, which promote knowledge reuse and knowledge sharing. The cultural
aspect will be dealt with in the section on organisational culture change.
In-text Question
Itemize the problems and recommendations for managing knowledge reuse

Answer
1. Cost
2. Specific requirements of specific individuals and groups
3. Shared work producers, recommendations
4. Expertise-seeking novices, recommendations
5. Shared work practitioners, recommendations
6. Miners Secondary Knowledge
7. Willingness

3.0Conclusion/Summary
In this study, you have learnt that:
1. Knowledge reuse is the process of recovering, salvaging or processing to
use knowledge again especially in a different way after reclaiming or
reprocessing.
2. Elements of knowledge reuse include: roles of knowledge reuse,
knowledge reuse situations and problems for managing knowledge reuse.

142
 3. Articles on knowledge reuse are still dominated by IT theories which
focus largely on organising, presenting, and retrieving explicit knowledge
4. Shared Work Producers involves people working in teams producing
knowledge for their own reuse

4.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations &Out of Class activities) e.g.

a. Visit U-tube add https://bit.ly/2UgA5Fl. Watch the video & summarise in 1
paragraph
b. View the animation on add/sitehttps://bit.ly/30IXdivand critique it in the
discussion forum

6.0 References/Further Readings

Fruchter R. and Demian P., (2002).Knowledge Management for Reuse, CIB
Conference Paper, 2002
Markus, L. (2001). Toward A Theory of Knowledge Reuse: Types of
Knowledge Reuse Situations and Factors in Reuse Success. Journal of
Management Information Systems, summer 2001, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 57-
93.
Timbrell, T. G., and Jewels T. J. (2002). Knowledge Re-Use Situations in an
Enterprise Systems Context. Issues and Trends of Information
Technology
Management in Contemporary Organisations, 19-22 May 2002, Seattle,
Washington, USA.

143
 MODULE 4
Contents: Knowledge Management Strategy and Creation
Study Session 1: Knowledge Creation
Study Session 2: Knowledge Management Strategy
Study Session 3: KM and Core Competencies
Study Session 4: Careers in Knowledge Management

STUDY SESSION 1
Knowledge Creation
Section and Subsection Headings:
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1- Knowledge Creation
2.2- Managing Knowledge Creation
2.3- IT and Knowledge Creation
2.4- Knowledge Acquisition
2.5- The Role of Knowledge Management KM
3.0Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions
5.0Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)
6.0References/Further Readings

144
Introduction:
You are welcome to study , in this session, you will learn about knowledge
creation and the role of management in the
knowledge creation process, the use of
information technology (IT) for knowledge
creation and management, knowledge
acquisition and sources of knowledge
acquisition. You will also learn how
knowledge management initiative can lead
to knowledge creation and utilisation
Fig. 3.4.1: Knowledge Creation
Source: https://www.epi-q.com/wpcontent/
uploads/2013/03/knowledgecreation2.png

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

After you have finished studying this session, you should be able to:
1. Explain knowledge creation
2. Discuss the management of creation
3. Explain IT and knowledge creation
4. Define Knowledge acquisition
5. Explain the role of knowledge management

2.0 Main Content

2.1Knowledge Creation
Your ability to create new knowledge is often at the heart of the organisation's
competitive advantage. Sometimes this issue is not treated as part of knowledge
management since it borders and overlaps with innovation management
(Wellman, 2009).

Knowledge creation according to the Nonaka's SECI model is about

continuous transfer, combination, and conversion of the different types of

145
knowledge, as user practice, interact, and learn. Cook and Brown (1999)
distinguish between knowledge and knowing, and suggest that knowledge
creation is a product of the interplay between them.

The shift in condition between the possession of knowledge and the act of
knowing-something that comes about through practice, action, and interaction-
is the driving force in the creation of new knowledge. Furthermore, in order for
this interplay to be most fruitful, it is important to support unstructured work
environments in areas where creativity and innovation are important.

Box 3.4.1Definition of knowledge creation

Knowledge sharing and knowledge creation thus go hand in hand. Knowledge

is created through practice, collaboration, interaction, and education, as the
different knowledge types are shared and converted. Beyond this, knowledge
creation is also supported by relevant information and data which can improve
decisions and serve as building blocks in the creation of new knowledge.

2.2 Managing Knowledge Creation

The role of management in the knowledge creation process is thus as follows:
1. To enable and encourage knowledge sharing: On the tactical side, as
described in the previous subsection, management must understand where
and in what forms knowledge exists.
They must then provide the right forums for knowledge to be shared. For
tacit knowledge this implies a particular emphasis on informal
communication, while for explicit knowledge this implies a focus on a

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 variety of IT systems. On the strategic side (to be discussed in-depth
later), management must create/design the right environments, processes,
and systems that provide the means and willingness for it to take place.
2. To create a suitable work environment: This includes the notion of
creating interplay between knowledge and knowing. It implies offering
relevant courses and education, but most importantly allowing new
knowledge to be created through interaction, practice, and
experimentation.
Botha et al (2008) point to the importance of shared experiences in the
knowledge creation process when dealing with tacit knowledge, and the
need for an environment where these can be formed. March (1988)
discusses how our cultural norms often stifle innovation and new
knowledge creation.
He advocates environments where we recognise that goals can be created
through action, where intuition is accepted and valued, and where
experience is nothing more than a theory. These concepts bring us back to
the concept of theory in use (referring to work environments that do
not follow strict, "official" rules and procedures), and the acceptance
and support of environments that allow brainstorming, trial and error, and
unstructured interaction.
As an example, from innovation theory, one can refer to the practice of
establishing teams to solve problems, unhindered by the bureaucracy that
may exist in the firm.
Peters (1988) refers to the value of chaos and the advantage of smaller,
fast-acting teams. One common alternative is the use of cross-functional
project teams.
These are usually a group of experts from different parts of the
organisation, led by a "generalist" project leader. If these teams are
allowed the freedom to experiment and work in an autonomous or

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 virtually autonomous environment, it can be a great catalyst for
innovation and new knowledge creation.
Then, once the task is completed, the members return to their role in the
organisation, helping to spread this knowledge back into their own
community of practice. The project team itself can also facilitate the
creation of bridges between communities of practice, and at times may
even serve as a way to extend them.
Variations of this concept can be seen in several places in innovation
theory, notablyin Nonaka and Takeuchi's self-organising project teams in
the hypertext organisation.
3. To provide systems that supports the work process: These can be
groupware systems that facilitate communication or brainstorming.
However, they must not interfere with creative processes or communities
of practice, or enforce rigid organisational practices (espoused theory).
4. To provide knowledge workers with timely, relevant information and
data. In today’s fast paced environment this is virtually synonymous with
the implementation of IT systems which can store, retrieve, organise, and
present information and data ina helpful way.
In-text Question
Define knowledge creation by Nonaka's SECI

Answer
Knowledge creation according to the Nonaka's SECI model is about continuous transfer,
combination, and a conversion of the different types of knowledge, as users practice,
interacts, and learns

2.3 IT and Knowledge Creation

The use of IT for knowledge creation is very much the same as it is for
knowledge sharing, allowing for some degree of support in the transfer of all
knowledge types.
One important aspect is that it must support, and not interfere with, informal
collaboration.
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For example, groupware systems can be used to enhance communication
between communities or teams, particularly if they support varied (e.g. video,
audio, text-according to the needs of the individual firm), informal
communication.
Apart from this, IT also has an important role through information
management, by providing access to data and information, and allowing the
manager to perform in-depth analyses. More than that, IT systems can also be
programmed to spot trends in data and information and present that to the
manager. This essentially enables the manager to make better decisions and aids
knowledge creation by providing some of the building blocks for new
knowledge. IT tools can also be used in the innovation process (e.g. tools used
in the actual product design), but these are outside the scope of knowledge
management.

Knowledge creation depends upon the mechanisms described in the subsection

on knowledge sharing, combined with the ability to put knowledge into practice
in an environment which supports interaction and experimentation. The creative
process is a delicate one, and it is easily ruined by strict adherence to
organisational rules and regulations, or by bureaucracy. Similarly, IT systems
must be implemented with care (as discussed above), and not attempt to replace
processes vital to knowledge creation.

2.4 Knowledge Acquisition

Knowledge acquisition refers to the knowledge that a firm can try to obtain
from external sources. External knowledge sources are important and one
should therefore take a holistic view of the value chain (Gamble & Blackwell
2001). Sources include suppliers, competitors, partners/alliances, customers,
and external experts.
Communities of practice can extend well outside the firm.

149
Knowledge acquisition is a topic that could fill books and extend well outside
the knowledge management (KM) focus. For this reason, you should have a
detailed description of how to manage external relationships are beyond the
scope of this topic. However, since KM s inextricably linked to corporate
strategy, an overview of the options available to the organisation will be helpful
to understanding the full potential of KM role.

This subsection will discuss the knowledge available from the different
sources, and the managerial issues that must be considered. In the subsection
titled "External Knowledge Network", I will tie this back to the overall strategic
level and look at the process behind external knowledge acquisition.
The main sources are of knowledge acquisition are:
1. Customers
Customer knowledge comes in different forms. Gebert et al (2002)
identify three different types:
i. Knowledge for customer: The knowledge that the customers can
gain in order to satisfy their knowledge needs. It can include
product, market, and supplier knowledge. It can be sourced from
our company or from other external sources like other customers
and competitors (Zanjani 2008).
ii. Knowledge about customer: The kind of knowledge that enables
us to know the customer better, to understand their motivations,
and to address them better. Includes requirements, expectations,
and purchasing activities.
iii. Knowledge from customer: The kind of knowledge that deals
with products, suppliers, and markets. It can be used to improve
our products and services.
These three categories apply to actual knowledge acquisition as well as to data
and information, which can be processed and used to create knowledge (Zanjani

150
2008);e.g. data on purchasing habits could be analysed to create knowledge that
could improve marketing or design decisions.

Knowledge sharing is thus important, although it may take many different

forms depending on the area of business. KM is particularly important for B2B
relationships where the buyers are usually more prominent (i.e. either buy many
products or buy expensive products) and the products are more likely to be
customized to the needs of the customer.

This can, and often should result in a closer relationship with more detailed
communication and feedback, where the customers are involved as partners
when discussing modifications and improvements (Gerbert et al 2002).
Some possible KM initiatives thus include:
1. Collecting feedback
2. Collecting and processing marketing related information
3. Collecting suggestions
4. Involvement in development/design
Effective acquisition of customer knowledge is dependent on customer
relationship management. IT can be used in this context both as a means of
collecting feedback and enhancing communication and cooperation between
partners (the principles of knowledge sharing apply here within the confines
of the specific relationship).
It is also useful as a way to gather data and information regarding sales, trends,
feedback, and so on, which can then be used to create new knowledge within
the organisation.
2. Suppliers
Chan (2009) presents a classification for supplier knowledge based on
the concepts outlined by Gerbert et al (2002) regarding customer
knowledge. These are:

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 i. Knowledge for suppliers: This is the knowledge that suppliers
require and includes "production needs and forecasts, inventory,
products, customers, and markets" (Chan 2009).
ii. Knowledge about suppliers: This is knowledge that is used to
understand how the supplier can match the requirements of the
organisation; provide insight regarding quality, delivery, defects,
financial risks etc.
iii. Knowledge from suppliers: This refers to the knowledge that
suppliers have gathered from their dealings with the organisation.

The KM initiatives and the role of IT are similar to the ones presented in the
customer segment, with the organisation now taking on the role of customer.
Knowledge acquisition in this case also includes data and information which
can be processed and used as building blocks for new knowledge creation.
Gamble and Blackwell (2001) refer to compatible goals, cultural alignment, and
leadership commitment amongst the key factors for sustained, productive, long-
term relationships.
3. Competitors
This deserves mention but it is a fairly straightforward aspect of KM. It
simply involves collecting, organising and presenting the data,
information, and knowledge that the firm has acquired in such a way that
one can search, retrieve, and analyse it. Some of this falls within the
scope of information management, but it is particularly the process of
using these components to create better decisions and new knowledge
that is of interest here.
IT systems are very useful in this case, since the sources are largely
explicit and presumably require frequent updating and manipulation. Data
mining and analysis, document management systems with suitable search
functions and expert systems are most relevant here.

152
 4. Partners/alliances
Alliances intended to increase knowledge are a valuable potential
resource. However, these must be properly managed. Key success factors
include fostering trust, learning from your partner, and effectively
managing the creation of knowledge relevant to both parties. Knowledge
transfer can be facilitated by personnel exchanges, common projects and
other forms of regular interaction, technology sharing, etc. (Gamble
&Blackwell 2001).

Focusing on informal communication, collaboration, and socialisation is

of paramount importance for valuable tacit knowledge acquisition and
for extending communities of practice beyond the firm's borders.
Chan (2009) once again formulates a set of knowledge types based
around the work of Gerbert et al (2002):
i. Knowledge for partners: Knowledge which satisfies their needs,
including" knowledge about products, markets, and suppliers"
(Chan 2009).
ii. Knowledge about partners: Knowledge acquisition focused on
understanding the ability of your partners to perform their role in
the relationship. Includes distribution channels, products, services,
etc.
iii. Knowledge from partners: The knowledge that partners have
accumulated from dealing with the organisation.

IT can be used in this case very similarly to the way it is used inside the
organisation for knowledge sharing and knowledge creation (including
data/information analysis) -in other words supporting communication,
collaboration, experimentation, expertise location, analysis tools, etc. The exact
system has to fit the nature of the relationship and the business model.

153
What is of particular importance in this case is to safeguard the system so that
only that knowledge which the firm is willing to share becomes available. In the
80s, joint ventures between American and Japanese firms often resulted in a
lopsided endeavour favouring the latter, since the Japanese were far more
willing to listen and the Americans were far more willing to talk.

It is important you remember that the goal here is two way learning; that a
relationship will not last forever; and that a partner today may be a competitor
tomorrow. KM must therefore be very aware of what knowledge is being
shared, and the IT systems must reflect this policy.

2.5 The Role of Knowledge Management KM

Very broadly speaking, there are a couple of roles where KM efforts should
feature heavily once the target has been acquired. These are:
To identify the valuable/redundant knowledge sources in the target
organisation:
This is a very difficult process since it involves the understanding of the target
company's tacit and embedded knowledge locked within people, communities,
processes, networks, procedures, etc.

One of the major causes of failure in M & A is that during the restructuring
process, key people are let go by mistake or key communities are disrupted.
The old adage that the company should be seen more like a living organism than
a machine holds very true here.

To combine this (relevant) knowledge with the organisation's knowledge

assets to achieve synergy: This is the essence of many M & A; the notion that
the whole should be greater than the sum of its parts. Integrating acquired

154
companies is difficult task, heavy on people management and the creation of a
common culture.

It is hard to say how much of this falls within KM specifically, and there
certainly are no universal rules on this topic. Fundamentally, the same
principles on knowledge sharing, reuse, and creation apply here, with a
particular focus on culture, networks, and incentives, within a different and
potentially hostile environment.
Other expertise
This refers to the other sources of external knowledge available to a firm, and
includes hiring new personnel or acquiring the services of consultants.
The role of KM in these cases is to make sure that the right knowledge is
acquired.

Essentially the process has two parts, on the one hand the strategic and tactical
requirements of the firm must be taken into account, and on the other these must
be compared to the knowledge assets of the organisation.
If external services are acquired from consultants or other temporary service
providers, KM must work together with strategic management to determine if
this knowledge is worth integrating into the firm by assessing the need to reuse
it in the future vs. the cost of transferring it into the organisation.
If it is deemed as something that should be integrated, then the right learning
situations must be established to transfer the knowledge into the firm. These
could be mentoring relationships, use of project teams that include
organisational members, courses and education, etc.
In-text Question
Give a brief explanation on IT and knowledge creation

Answer
The use of IT for knowledge creation is very much the same as it is for knowledge sharing,
allowing for some degree of support in the transfer of all knowledge types.

155
One important aspect is that it must support, and not interfere with, informal collaboration.
For example, groupware systems can be used to enhance communication between
communities or teams, particularly if they support varied (e.g. video, audio, text -according
to the needs of the individual firm), informal communication.
Apart from this, IT also has an important role through information management, by
providing access to data and information, and allowing the manager to perform in-depth
analyses. More than that, IT systems can also be programmed to spot trends in data and
information and present that to the manager.

3.0Conclusion/Summary
In this study, you have learnt that
1. Knowledge creation is about continuous transfer, combination, and
conversion of the different types of knowledge, as users practice,
interacts, and learns in an organisation.
2. Management must understand where and in what forms knowledge exists.
3. The use of IT for knowledge creation is very much the same as it is
foreknowledge sharing,
4. Knowledge acquisition refers to the knowledge that a firm can try to
obtain from external sources.

4.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations &Out of Class activities) e.g.

a. Visit U-tube add https://bit.ly/2ILTqN7. Watch the video & summarise in 1
paragraph
b. View the animation on add/sitehttps://bit.ly/2YL54Qfand critique it in the
discussion forum

5.0 References/Further Readings

Botha A, Kourie D, and Snyman R, (2008), Coping with Continuous Change in
the Business Environment, Knowledge Management and Knowledge
Management Technology, Chandice Publishing Ltd.
Chan, J. O. (December 1, 2009), Integrating knowledge management and
relationship management in an enterprise environment, Communications

156
 of the IIMA
Cook, S. D., and Brown, J. S. (1999), Bridging Epistemologies: the Generative
Dance between Organisational Knowledge and Organisational Knowing.
Organisation Science, vol. 10, no. 4.
Gamble and Blackwell 2001: An older text, but a very well written one,
presenting an excellent overview of KM, which extends beyond what is
offered in most books (e.g. discussing external relationships).
Gebert, H., Geib, M., Kolbe, L., and Riempp, G. (2002). Towards customer
knowledge management: integrating customer relationship management
and knowledge management concepts, St. Gallen: University of St.
Gallen, Institute of Information Management.
March J. G. (1988). Technology of Foolishness, in March, J.G., Decisions in
Organisations, Oxford: Blackwell, p253-265
Peters, T. J. (1988). A Skunkwork Tale. In Managing Professionals in
Innovation Organisations. A Collection of Readings, Katz R. (ed),
Cambridge, MA:Ballinger p433- 441
Zanjani M. S., Rouzbehani, R., and Dabbagh, H. (2008) Proposing a Conceptual
Model of Customer Knowledge Management: A Study of CKM Tools in
British Dotcoms. World Academy of Science, Engineering and
Technology 38.

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 STUDY SESSION 2
Knowledge Management Strategy
Section and Subsection Headings:
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1- Managing Organisational Structures
2.1.1- Types of Organisational Structures
2.2- Organisational Culture Change
2.2.1-Defining and Mapping Organisational Culture
2.3- Managing Organisational Culture Change
2.4- Knowledge Retention
2.5- Knowledge Retention Strategy
3.0Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0Self-Assessment Questions
5.0Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)
6.0References/Further Readings

Introduction:
You are welcome to study
session 2, in this session you
will learn about knowledge
management strategy and how
long-term knowledge
management strategy affects. Fig 4.2.1: Knowledge Management Strategy

Source: http://images.slideplayer.com/19/5737780/slides/slide_12.jpg

Knowledge management process deals with the general ways knowledge can be
generated and managed. Strategic investments represent the company’s
choices/options so as to enable and enhance the processes outlined earlier (e.g.

158
Knowledge generation and sharing) and to help define which knowledge is
relevant(i.e. in line with strategic objectives) and which is not.
1. Organisational Structures
2. Organisational Culture
3. Knowledge Retention
4. Core Competencies
5. External Knowledge Network
6. Knowledge Management Systems
7. Summary: Knowledge Management Best Practices

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

After you have finished studying this session, you should be able to:
1. Explain organisational Knowledge Management Strategy
2. Define organisational culture change
3. Discuss the management of organisational culture change
4. Explain knowledge retention
5. Discuss knowledge retention strategy

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Managing Organisational Structures
This study helps us deal with the physical and non-physical divisions and
barriers that influence the way knowledge management (KM) operate. By
"organisational structure", it means the layout of the company itself and also
to the various bodies that exist within it.
It is important for you to note that many elements within this topic stretch well
outside our focus, and volumes could be written on it alone. The focus here will
be only on the general elements that are directly related to KM.

159
2.1.1 Types of Organisational Structures
Organisational structures
deal with the way the firm is
organised, and the way
people relate to one another.
Broadly speaking, there are
two types of organisational
structure, namely: Fig 4.2.2:Types of organisational structure

These two concepts are not independent, and the formal structure may greatly
influence informal networks, both positively and negatively.
Formal: The formal organisational structure is the official structure of the
organisation, which is normally displayed on an organisational chart, and
which denotes the hierarchical relationships between members of the firm. It is
beyond the scope of this lecture to offer a discussion on the various formal
organisational structures. However, there are a few things that are relevant to
KM:
1. The formal organisational structure must not be so rigidly enforced so as
not to stifle informal structures such as communities of practice, where
knowledge sharing and creation may take place. It is the knowledge
manager's job to understand the knowledge dynamics of the organisation
and to recognise how the formal and informal structures coexist.
2. The formal organisational structure, particularly in a larger firm with
separate departments, will impact knowledge flows. There is no set
structure that is best, since most have advantages and disadvantages
depending upon the business type, firm size,etc. However, studies seem
to indicate that flatter, decentralised structures are more effective for KM.
3. This also makes sense logically, since knowledge flows would be less
hindered in such a structure. Implementing changes to formal structures

160
can thus mean restructuring the organisation, but it can also mean
enforcing existing structures to a lesser or greater degree.

Informal: The unofficial organisational structures are the ones that are
created through informal networks, as a result of working within the
organisation. They represent the way people actually interact. Brown and
Duguid (1992) advocated looking at the firm as a community of
communities. Increasingly, the value of these informal structures is being
understood, and the knowledge manager must learn to identify and
support these networks. This process is closely related to KM, since
knowledge flows and repositories (particularly tacit) are dependent upon
these structures. KM therefore must play central role in their
management, including identification of the structures and the knowledge
they hold, implementing changes, bridging gaps between communities,
and so on. Unfortunately, implementing changes to informal social
networks is difficult without running the risk of disrupting them. There is
however several ways that managers can influence social networks:
i. Generalists (sometimes referred to as gatekeepers) can be used to
identify communities and their expert know-how, and to help
coordinate activities such as cross-functional projects.
ii. Project teams and other teamwork can serve as a means to bridge
the gap between communities.
iii. Common physical meeting areas can allow communities to grow
and flourish.
iv. Virtual socialization and people finders can support communities
of practice.
v. Common vision, goals, ideals, social gatherings etc. and a climate
of trust can serve as a way to lessen the distance between
organisational members and communities.

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2.2 Organisational Culture Change
The concept of organisational culture has already been discussed in a previous
subsection. I will therefore keep my introduction to the subject to a minimum,
and instead focus almost exclusively on organisational culture change.
Organisational culture represents the way things are done in an organisation,
encompassing the values, beliefs, and attitude that generate a common
framework for interpreting events.
Knowledge sharing, and thus all aspects related to knowledge management
(KM), depends upon organisational culture. Trust is a particularly important
issue, since workers need to feel secure that they are not jeopardising
themselves by engaging in knowledge sharing.
In order for proper cooperation to take place, management must create a culture
where knowledge sharing is seen as beneficial for the individual as well as the
organisation.
Managing organisational culture change is therefore at the very core of KM and
organisational learning processes.
In-text Question
What is managing organisational structures?

Answer
Managing organisational structures is the study deals with the physical and non-physical
divisions and barriers that influence the way knowledge management (KM) operate.

2.2.1 Defining and Mapping

Organisational Culture
Johnson (2001) presents a
model called the cultural web
(see below), outlining the
various components of
organisational culture. Fig 4.2.3:Components of organisational structure

162
The paradigm: The set of assumptions shared and taken for granted by the
organisation.
Rituals and Routines: These represent "the way we do things around here".
They point to what is valued, and include behaviours that are taken for granted
as being correct.
Stories and myths: The organisation's folklore that passes on the common
perception of past events, thus reinforcing beliefs and passing them on to
newcomers.
Symbols: All the symbolic elements of the firm, including titles and dress
codes.
Control Systems: Systems that are designed to promote certain activities by
rewarding correct behaviour and monitoring performance.
Organisation Structures: The formal structure of the organisation, as
explained in the subsection on organisational structures (though in this case it is
considered solely in regards to its influence on culture).
Power structures: The more powerful groups are also most likely to be
involved in shaping the paradigm. A big problem arises when "the main targets
for change are also those who hold the power." (Bali et al 2009).
Johnson (2001) advocates culture mapping according to this framework so as to
assess the culture as a whole and be able to determine its compatibility with
strategy.

2.3 Managing Organisational Culture Change

Wellman (2009) presents a series of leadership roles that will help facilitate
organisational culture change towards a knowledge friendly culture:
1. Acknowledge the existence and influence of organisational culture: It
must be brought into the open so people can see and understand how it
affects activities

163
 2. Have a clear and persistent vision of what the culture should be and
of what changes need to be applied: This vision must be understood by
management at all levels and spread across the organisation.
3. Consciously manage culture: Wellman suggests using health
assessments and employee surveys to evaluate progress and direction.
Expanding upon this, one might add the use of incentives (whatever is
suitable within that particular organisation) and of using managers as
intermediaries between different cultures within the organisation.
Management must strive to create a culture where knowledge sharing is
perceived as beneficial to the whole and also to the individual. In other
words, through shared vision, incentives, etc. they must foster an
atmosphere of trust to ensure that individuals have faith in the principle of
reciprocity. They must also bridge cultural differences that exist between
different communities and power structures within the organisation.

Gardner presents a somewhat more concrete approach to organisational

culture change. He states that it is dependent on redefining the assumptions that
shape the common understanding, or in other words the paradigm.
It thus involves introducing "anomalies" that present a reality that cannot be true
under the old assumptions. As more and more anomalies are presented, people
will eventually abandon old beliefs and frames of understanding and eventually
be willing to adopt new ones.

No matter what, organisational culture change is a difficult process that is likely

to meet significant resistance. Its stubbornness is due in part to the fact that it is
history dependent, woven into everyday practice, and used as socialising
mechanism for newcomers (Beitler 2005). However, as Beitler argues, despite
all the hurdles, managing culture simply must be done.

164
2.4 Knowledge Retention
Knowledge retention involves capturing knowledge in the organisation so that it
can be used later. In a previous section on organisational memory, Walsh and
Ungson(1991) defined five knowledge repositories, namely individuals,
culture, transformations (i.e. procedures & formalised systems), structures (e.g.
formal and informal networks), and external activities.

This is where knowledge can exist or be retained in an organisation. In this

section, you will learn about the managerial side, so as to answer the question:
How can management promote the retention of (crucial) knowledge?

Most often, one hears of knowledge retention in the context of losing key
employees and using techniques such as exit interviews to try to capture their
knowledge. In reality, knowledge retention should be integrated into how the
organisation operates and start well
before a key employee is about to
depart. Although it is considered
crucial for long term organisational
success, few organisations have
formal knowledge retention
strategies (Liebowitz 2011). Fig 4.2.4:Knowledge retention

A knowledge retention strategy as a part of knowledge management (KM) will

identify the knowledge resources that are at risk and must be retained, and then
implement specific initiatives so as to keep these resources in the firm. Like
most other KM-related processes and strategies, success depends upon
successful knowledge sharing and having a knowledge sharing and learning
organisational culture.

165
Apart from the more general knowledge sharing initiatives that a firm may use -
e.g. support of formal and informal knowledge networks (social areas, social
media, meetings, company functions, knowledge fairs, expertise locator, etc.),
changing the organisation culture, etc. - examples of tools and techniques which
can be used specifically for knowledge retention include (adapted from Smith
2007, Liebowitz2009, and Liebowitz 2011):
1. Implementing reward structures to encourage sharing of key knowledge.
2. Use of project teams and cross-functional project teams.
3. After-action reviews.
4. Storytelling.
5. Mentoring programs & job shadowing.
6. Interviews & exit interviews.
7. Job rotation.
8. Company procedures/processes manuals.
9. Taking advantage of the knowledge of retirees.

2.5 Knowledge Retention Strategy

Doan et al (2011) identify three basic questions that must be asked when
considering knowledge retention:
a. What knowledge may be lost?
b. What are the organisational consequences of losing that knowledge?
c. What actions can be taken to retain that knowledge?
Expanding upon these questions, one can outline several concrete steps
necessary in the formulation of a knowledge retention strategy, and they are:
1. Understanding your risk factor: Liebowitz (2011) identified
a. The average age of your employees is high
b. The company has placed insufficient focus on:
i. knowledge capture
ii. mentoring programs

166
 iii. employee training and development
c. Information is difficult to find or is often misplaced.
d. There is little informal communication in the organisation.
e. Many knowledgeable employees are leaving the organisation.
2. Classifying your knowledge: Knowing the knowledge resources of the
organisation, including where they are and in what form they exist
(something covered under knowledge organisation and assessment).
3. Understanding which knowledge is most critical (also covered knowledge
organisation and assessment).
4. Understanding the pillars of knowledge retention (Liebowitz 2009 &
2011): Knowledge retention consists of a wide range of tools, some easy
and some hard to implement. Liebowitz identifies four categories which
encompass all the initiatives within knowledge retention. These are:
a. Recognition and reward structure: Management has the choice to
use either intrinsic motivators (i.e. which make the job itself more
satisfying, such as praise or recognition) or extrinsic motivators
(i.e. which offer benefits unrelated to the job, such as money)
(Gamelgaard2007). These must take organisational as well as
national cultural factors into account (Gamelgaard2007), but
overall the most effective and longer lasting appear to be intrinsic
motivators (Gamelgaard2007&Liebowitz2009). However, a
combination of both is usually the way to go.
b. Bidirectional knowledge flow: Establishing a two-way system of
knowledge capture, where knowledge is not only passed down
from the senior employee to the junior employee, but also vice
versa.
c. Personalisation and codification: Personalisation refers to
connecting people and includes tools such as mentoring, job
rotation, knowledge fairs, communities, and so on, while

167
 codification includes tools like after action reviews, various
knowledge repositories, lessons learned systems, etc. (Liebowitz
2009).
d. The golden gem: Bringing back important retirees in various
capacities. This includes rehire programs, consultancy, part-time
work, temporary jobs, etc. (Corporate Executive Board 2005).
Using a phased retirement system (e.g. leave of absence – part
timework – casual rehire) can also help to slowly lose a key
employee and to gradually transfer all his key knowledge to the
organisation (Corporate Executive Board 2005).
5. Understanding the success factors: Doan et al (2011), following a
comprehensive review of knowledge retention literature, arrive at the
following key success factors:
a. Top management support
b. Knowledge retention strategy
c. Learning culture
d. Human resource practices (since knowledge resides in people,
knowledge retention is closely linked to HR practices including
recruitment, education, rewards, and performance management)
e. Information and communication technology tools:
In-text Question
Explain five components of organisational structure

Answer
1. The paradigm: The set of assumptions shared and taken for granted by the organisation.
2. Rituals and Routines: These represent "the way we do things around here". They point to
what is valued, and include behaviours that are taken for granted as being correct.
3. Stories and myths: The organisation's folklore that passes on the common perception of
past events, thus reinforcing beliefs and passing them on to newcomers.
4. Symbols :All the symbolic elements of the firm, including titles and dress codes.
5. Control Systems: Systems that are designed to promote certain activities by rewarding
correct behaviour and monitoring performance.

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3.0Conclusion/Summary
In study session 14, you have learnt that:
1. Organisational structures and organisational culture can influence
knowledge management and knowledge retention.
2. Knowledge retention involves capturing knowledge in the organisation so
that it can be used later. It identifies three basic questions that must be
asked when considering knowledge retention.
3. Knowledge retention consists of a wide range of tools, some easy and
some hard to implement.

4.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations &Out of Class activities) e.g.

a. Visit U-tube add https://bit.ly/2EpU3H2. Watch the video & summarise in 1
paragraph
b. View the animation on add/sitehttps://bit.ly/2WHSRGm and critique it in the
discussion forum

6.0 References/Further Readings

Bali, R., Wickramasinghe, N., and Lehaney B. (2009) Knowledge management
primer, London: Routledge.
Beitler, M. (2005).Organisational Culture Change: Is It Really Worth the
Effort? Retrieved on February 2011 from
http://ezinearticles.com/?Organisational-Culture-Change:--Is-It-Really-
Worth-the-Effort?&id=102525
Brown, J. S. and Duguid, P., (1991) Organisational Learning and Communities
of Practice. Toward a Unified View of Working, Organisation Science
vol.2,no.1.
Corporate Executive Board (2005), Attraction and Retention Bonuses and
Rewards, Corporate Leadership Council
Johnson, G.. (2001), Mapping and Re-Mapping Organisational Culture: A

169
 LocalGovernment Example, retrieved February 2011 from
http://www.strategyexplorers.com/whitepapers/Culture-Web.pdf
Liebowitz, J. (2009). Knowledge Retention: Strategies and Solutions, CRC
Press,LLC
Liebowitz, J. (2011) Knowledge retention: What practitioners need to know,
retrieved October 2012 from
http://www.kmworld.com/Articles/ReadArticle.aspx?ArticleID=73363
Smith, L.D. (2007), Knowledge Retention, presentation retrieved from October
2012from
http://www.levidsmith.com/papers/ldsmith_knowledge_retention.pdf

170
 STUDY SESSION 3
KM and Core Competencies
Section and Subsection Headings:
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1- Core competencies
2.2- What are Knowledge Management Systems?
2.3- Problems and Failure Factors
2.4- Adoption, Acceptance and Assimilation
3.0Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0Self-Assessment Questions
5.0Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)
6.0References/Further Readings

Introduction:
You are welcome to study session 3,in this session, you will learn about
organisation members for
knowledge management issues
and the establishment of
knowledge management system.
The knowledge management
definition presented earlier,
involved the reuse and creation of relevant knowledge. Fig 4.3.1: KM and Core

Competencies
Source: http://cdn.logicaldoc.com/images/knowledge-
management/knwledge-management-life-cycle-bgrey.png

The word (KM) to the concept of organisational core competencies. The

challenge here is to discuss this subject without relevant to KM.

171
1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes
After you have finished studying this session, you should be able to:
1. Define core competencies
2. Explain knowledge management systems
3. Discuss the problems and failures of knowledge management systems
4. Define the term adoption, acceptance and assimilation

2.0 Main Content

2.1Core competencies
Definitions vary greatly. The term was originally coined by Pralahad and Hamel
(1990) who defined it as "the collective learning of the organisation, especially
how to coordinate different production skills and integrate multiple streams of
technologies".

Since then it has been defined in multiple ways, but very generally, core
competencies refer to the firm's primary expertise, which is a source of
sustained competitive advantage. Arriving at a more precise definition is not
necessary for our purpose here. Suffice it to say, that these are key capabilities,
which, from the resource-based perspective of the firm, are the primary drivers
of innovation and competitive advantage.

Core competencies thus have a large knowledge component, and managing

them is, in the very least, a product of corporate strategy working with KM and
innovation management. This simplified model has strategy dictating the overall
direction, KM managing the knowledge dynamics, and innovation
management turning core competencies into profitable core products.
To understand the role of KM, you should take a look at how core competencies
are managed:

172
1. Identifying and assessing core competencies: The firm should map out
its key competencies, possibly linking them directly to specific core
products. Then, an evaluation must take place, assessing what one has vs.
what one needs to have (as determined by strategy and the competitive
environment).KM is responsible for identifying where the key
knowledge is located, including the tacit expertise and knowledge
embedded in products, routines, etc, as well as identifying knowledge
gaps.
2. Sustaining core competencies: Organisational core competencies, like
all knowledge assets, have the virtue of improving rather than
depreciating through use. Conversely, lack of use will lead to erosion of
any skill set. The role of KM here is twofold, on the one hand, it must
keep stock of the state of key knowledge assets and, on the other, and it
must leverage key knowledge assets across the organisation.
3. Building core competencies: Your Building new core competencies
involves interplay between knowledge, practice, coordination, and
refinement. Knowledge assets must be built, enhanced, combined, and
coordinated in an environment that supports experimentation and
improvement. Building core competencies can be a complicated
endeavour since sustained competitive advantage is derived from assets
that are hard to imitate (DierickxandCool1989).From a KM perspective,
this implies the build-up of specific tacit knowledge and expertise (i.e.
uncodified knowledge that is generally more valuable, and inherently
more difficult to copy and transfer), often across multiple departments or
functions.
4. Unlearning core competencies: Organisations have a habit of trying to
keep doing what they have always been doing. Unlearning a competency
when it is no longer useful is one of the key aspects of a successful firm,

173
 and history is riddled with examples of companies that have failed to do
so.
In the process of unlearning, KM again plays an important role by identifying
and managing the firm's knowledge assets in the right direction. This may be
done through-training, restructuring, creating new knowledge flows, external
knowledge acquisition, outright removal, etc.
The specific dynamics of the processes of knowledge creation, knowledge
acquisition, knowledge sharing, and knowledge reuse, which are central to the
management of core competencies, have been discussed earlier. The purpose
of this section is to emphasize that KM is not just a collection of individual
initiatives. The build-up of skills and competencies, involving the coordination
of multiple KM disciplines with other organisational functions, must often be
managed according to long-term strategic goals and coordinated across the
organisation.

Knowledge Management Systems

The issue of knowledge management systems has probably always been the
most discussed and debated topic within knowledge management (KM). Even
though knowledge management systems are not the most important part of KM
(with some arguing that they are not even absolutely necessary), this is still
the subject that generates most interest.
Consider the impact of IT in all the knowledge management strategy
subsections, with particular emphasis on its role in knowledge sharing. From
this point on, the discussion will be organised as follows:
i. This subsection will discuss the theoretical implementation of knowledge
management systems and its impact on the organisation.
ii. The section titled "KM Tools" will look at some of the main categories of
systems available.

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2.2 What are Knowledge Management Systems?
Knowledge management systems refer to any kind of IT system that stores
and retrieves knowledge, improves collaboration, locates knowledge sources,
mines repositories for hidden knowledge, captures and uses knowledge, or in
some other way enhances the KM process.

If the explanation above makes the definition of these systems seem vague, that
is because there is no consensus as to what constitutes a knowledge
management system, much like there is no consensus regarding KM.
Furthermore, since KM is involved in all areas of the firm, drawing a line is
very difficult. James Robertson (2007) goes as far as to argue that organisations
should not even think in terms of knowledge management systems.
He argues that KM, though enhanced by technology, is not a technology
discipline, and thinking in terms of knowledge management systems leads to
expectations of "silver bullet" solutions. Instead, the focus should be
determining the functionality of the IT systems that are required for the specific
activities and initiatives within the firm.
1. Groupware systems & KM 2.0
2. The intranet and extranet
3. Data warehousing, data mining, & OLAP
4. Decision Support Systems
5. Content management systems
6. Document management systems
7. Artificial intelligence tools
8. Simulation tools
9. Semantic networks
These categories will cover the vast majority of the systems that people will
normally link directly to KM.

175
In-text Question
Define the core competencies by Pralahad and Hamel (1990)

Answer
Pralahad and Hamel (1990) define core competencies as "the collective learning of the
organisation, especially how to coordinate different production skills and integrate multiple
streams of technologies".

2.3 Problems and Failure Factors

Too often, the effects of technology on the organisation are not given enough
thought prior to the introduction of a new system. There are two sets of
knowledge necessary for the design and implementation of a knowledge
management system (Newell et al.,2000):
1. The technical programming and design know-how
2. Organisational know-how based on the understanding of knowledge
flows
The problem is that rarely are both sets of knowledge known by a single person.
Moreover, technology is rarely designed by the people who use it. Therefore,
firms are faced with the issue of fit between IT systems and organisational
practices, as well as with acceptance within organisational culture (Gamble &
Blackwell 2001). Botha et al
(2008) stress the importance of understanding what knowledge management
systems cannot do.

They point to the fact that introducing knowledge sharing technologies does not
mean that experts will share knowledge - other initiatives have to be in place.
Akhavan et al(2005) identify several additional failure factors including: lack of
top management support, organisational culture, lack of a separate budget, and
resistance to change.

176
Building upon all these, and incorporating previously discussed elements,
failure factors of knowledge management systems are as follows:
a. Inadequate support: managerial and technical, during both
implementation and use.
b. Expecting that the technology is a KM solution in itself.
c. Failure to understand exactly what the firm needs (whether
technologically or otherwise).
d. Not understanding the specific function and limitation of each individual
system.
e. Lack of organisational acceptance, and assuming that if you build it, they
will come – lack of appropriate organisational culture.
f. Inadequate quality measures (e.g. lack of content management).
g. Lack of organisational/departmental/etc. fit - does it make working in the
organisation. Easier? Is a system appropriate in one area of the firm but
not another? Does it actually disrupt existing processes?
h. Lack of understanding of knowledge dynamics and the inherent difficulty
in transferring tacit knowledge with IT based systems (see segment on
tacit knowledge under knowledge sharing).
i. Lack of a separate budget. Link directly to KM.

2.4 Adoption, Acceptance and Assimilation

According to Hecht et al. (2011), the process of successful implementation has
three stages: adoption, acceptance, and assimilation. Based on recognised
models and theories, the authors identified three comprehensive sets of factors
affecting these three elements. The resulting model organised the KMS
implementation factors into the following categories:
1. Adoption:
a. Influenced by design: Innovation characteristics, fit, expected
results, communication characteristics.

177
 b. Not influenced by design: Environment, technological
infrastructure, resources, and organisational characteristics.
2. Acceptance
a. Influenced by design: Effort expectancy, performance expectancy.
b. Not influenced by design: Social influences, attitude towards
technology use.
3. Assimilation:
a. Influenced by design: social system characteristics, process
characteristics.
b. Not influenced by design: Management characteristics, institutional
characteristics.

Step 1: KMS Adoption

Some of the key factors identified by Hecht et al (2011) are: characteristics,
commercial advantage, cultural values, information quality, organisational
viability, and system quality. To promote KMS adoption:
1. Start with an internal analysis of the firm.
2. Evaluate information/knowledge needs & flows, lines of communication,
communities of practice, etc. These findings should form the basis of
determining the systems needed to complement them.
3. Make a thorough cost-benefit analysis, considering factors like size of
firm, number of users, complexity of the system structure, frequency of
use, upkeep& updating costs, security issues, training costs (including
ensuring acceptance) etc. vs improvements in performance, lower
response time, lower costs (relative to the previous systems) etc.
4. Evaluate existing work practices and determine how the systems will
improve -and not hinder the status quo.
5. One very interesting rule of thumb presented by Botha et al (2008), is that
"the more tacit the knowledge, the less high-tech the required solution".

178
 For example, expert knowledge is often best supported by multimedia
communication technology and by expert finders. Beyond that, it is about
human interaction and collaboration.

Step 2: KMS acceptance

Some of the factors outlined by Hecht et al. (2011) include: anxiety, ease of
use, intrinsic motivation, job-fit, results demonstrability, and social factors.
Promoting acceptance can be improved by:
1. Involve the users in the design and implementation process when
possible(Liebowitz 1999).
2. Involve the user in the evaluation of the system when applicable
(Liebowitz1999).
3. Make it as user friendly and as intuitive as possible (Frank 2002).
4. Support multiple perspectives of the stored knowledge (Frank 2002).
5. Provide adequate technical and managerial support.
6. Use product champions to promote the new systems throughout the
organisation.

Step 3: KMS Assimilation

Some of the factors identified by Hecht et al. (2011) include: knowledge
barrier, management championship, process cost, process quality, and
promotion of collaboration. Assimilation can be improved by:
1. Content management (Gamble & Blackwell, 2011): In order for the
system to remain useful, its content must be kept relevant through
updating, revising, filtering, organisation, etc.
2. Perceived attractiveness factors (Gamble & Blackwell, 2001): This
includes not only the advantages of using the KMS, but also of
management's ability to convince users of these advantages.

179
 3. Proper budgeting: i.e. planning expenses and implementing a KMS that is
cost efficient.
4. Focus on collaboration. In particular, consider the adoption of enterprise
2.0 /KM 2.0 systems, which by design promote collaboration while
generally being inexpensive and often quite popular.
5. Management involvement: The system must be championed by
management at all levels.
Naturally, these factors do not apply to all systems. Some are fairly
straightforward and accepted in today's society (e.g. email). However, the
strategic implications of implementing knowledge management systems that
significantly aim to change the way things are done in the organisation requires
proper consideration and careful planning.
In-text Question
What are the failure factors of knowledge management systems

Answer
1. Inadequate support: managerial and technical, during both implementation anduse.
2. Expecting that the technology is a KM solution in itself.
3. Failure to understand exactly what the firm needs (whether technologically or
otherwise).
4. Not understanding the specific function and limitation of each individual system.
5. Lack of organisational acceptance, and assuming that if you build it, they willcome –
lack of appropriate organisational culture.

3.0Conclusion/Summary
In study session 15, you have learnt:
1. The core competencies in knowledge management, how they are
managed and why it is necessary to identify them.
2. The knowledge management systems, problems and failures.
3. About the two sets of knowledge necessary for the design and
implementation of a knowledge management system.
4. About Adoption, Acceptance and Assimilation

4.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations &Out of Class activities) e.g.

180
a. Visit U-tube add https://bit.ly/2TWjgPI. Watch the video & summarise in 1
paragraph
b. View the animation on add/sitehttps://bit.ly/2KyaVzBand critique it in the
discussion forum

6.0 References/Further Readings

Akhavan, P., Jafari, M., and Fathian, M. (2005), 'Exploring Failure-Factors of
Implementing Knowledge Management Systems in Organisations',
Journal ofKnowledge Management Practice, [electronic], vol. 6, May,
pp. 1-8, Available:
http://www.tlainc.com/jkmpv6.htm
Dierickx, I., and Cool, K., (December 1989). Asset Stock Accumulation and
Sustainability of Competitive Advantage. Management Science, Vol. 35,
No.12, Printed in U.S.A.
Frank, U. (2002). A Multilayer Architecture for Knowledge Management
Systems. In Barnes, S. (ed), Knowledge Management Systems: Theory
and Practice. Thomsen Learning
Gamble and Blackwell 2001: An older text, but a very well written one,
presenting an excellent overview of KM, which extends beyond what is
offered in most books (e.g. discussing external relationships).
Hecht, M., Maier, R., Seeber, I., and Waldhart, G. (2011), "Fostering adoption,
acceptance, and assimilation in knowledge management system design",
in:Lindstaedt, S., Granitzer, M.: i-KNOW '11 - Proceedings of the 11th
International Conference on Knowledge Management and Knowledge
Technologies.Graz, Austria - September 07-09, New York: ACM Digital
Library, ISBN 978-1-4503-0732-1, pp. 1 - 8.
Liebowitz, J. (1999). Information Technology Management: A Knowledge
Repository, CRC Press LLC, 1999
Newell, S., Scarbrough, H., Swan, J., Hislop, D. (2000). Intranets and

181
 Knowledge Management: De-centred Technologies and the Limits of
Technological
Discourse. In Prichard, C., Hull, R., Chumer, M., Willmostt, H. (Ed),
Managing Knowledge: Critical Investigations of Work and Learning,
Machmillan Business.
Prahalad, C. K., and Hamel, G. (1990). The Core Competence of the
Corporation.Harvard Business Review, May/June.
Robertson, J. (2007). There are no "KM Systems. Step Two Designs. Retrieved
February 2011 from
http://www.steptwo.com.au/papers/cmb_kmsystems/index.html

182
 STUDY SESSION 4
Careers in Knowledge Management
Section and Subsection Headings:
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1- Knowledge Management Positions and Roles
2.2- Knowledge Management Skills
2.3- Knowledge Managers and the (chief knowledge officer) CKO
3.0Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0Self-Assessment Questions
5.0Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)
6.0References/Further Readings

Introduction:
Welcome to study session 4, this will be our last study session of this module.
In this study, you will understand the modalities involved in pursuing a career
in knowledge management. You will examine the kind of KM educations and
courses you can find from a general perspective. In the other subsections you
will learn about the positions that are
available within this field and roles and
then at the skills that are required for a
knowledge management career.

Fig 4.4.1: Careers in Knowledge Management

Source:https://www.healthcareers.nhs.uk/sites/default/files/styles/
hero_image/public/hero_images/Staff-by-a-desk.JPG?itok=rHM2tHeB

KM can be taken as a stand-alone discipline or as part of a broader education.

Courses and certifications exist at all levels, though it is usually taken as a
graduate level subject. As with all subjects, the depth of the course will affect

183
the kind of position that you are qualified for within the spectrum of KM-related
positions (see "Knowledge Management Positions and Roles").Generally
speaking, KM programs tend to have either a managerial/business or an IT
focus. Since KM is now inextricably linked to technology at least to some
degree, there will be a certain degree of overlap; however, the educational
programs available in the various institutions do tend to have a "business
school" or "IT school" focus.

Similarly, positions in companies often reflect this.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

After you have finished studying this session, you should be able to:
1. Explains knowledge management positions and roles
2. Discuss knowledge management skills
3. Discuss knowledge managers and the chief knowledge officers

2.0 Main Content

2.1Knowledge Management Positions and Roles
In this section you will understand the knowledge management roles that one
may find in a company. It is important to note that different companies may
have some, all, or none of these positions.
Furthermore, many will be part time roles (Skyrme 2011), representing a
portion of an employee’s/manager’s responsibilities; this can even be the case
for a top position like a CKO (Ning 2006). Alternatively, multiple roles may be
integrated into one position, or the knowledge management responsibilities may
be a part of more general functions (e.g. an intellectual capital manager, an
information worker, etc.).
However, these are the general roles that one can expect to fulfil in one capacity
or another if one pursues a career in KM.

184
Chief Knowledge Officer (CKO) / Chief Learning Officer (CLO): This
represents the highest position within the field of KM. The CKO or CLO is
responsible for the overall strategy, planning, and implementation. The CKO or
CLO will be responsible for (Rusonow2003 in Dalkir2005):
1. Formulating KM strategy
2. Handling KM operations
3. Influencing change in the organisation
4. Managing KM staff
Due to the importance of this position, the required knowledge and skills of the
CKO(or CLO) are specifically addressed in the section on Knowledge
Management Skills.

Knowledge Manager: This is a general term for an executive who works with
the CKO to implement knowledge initiatives and who manages KM efforts
(Department of Navy, CIO). Examples of projects undertaken by knowledge
managers include strategizing KM and change management, taxonomy
construction, social network analysis, etc. (Ning2006).

KM Champions / Knowledge Leaders: They promote KM in an organisation

(Dalkir 2005), often by championing specific initiatives, e.g. re-designing the
intranet, facilitating communities of practice, constructing taxonomies, etc.
(Ning2006).

Knowledge Navigators / Knowledge Brokers: Someone who knows where

knowledge is located (Dalkir2005) and who connects people with knowledge to
those who need it (Skyrme 2011).
Knowledge Synthesizers / Knowledge Stewards: This role is responsible for
keeping knowledge up to date (Skyrme2011) and recording significant
knowledge to organisational memory (Dalkir2005).

185
Knowledge Editor: Someone who manages the format and language of explicit
knowledge so that a user can more easily utilize it (Skyrme2011).

Knowledge Analyst: Someone who translates user needs into knowledge

requirements (Skyrme2011).

Knowledge Transfer Engineer: This person captures and codifies tacit

knowledge so as to facilitate its reuse. He also facilitates the transfer of tacit
knowledge by connecting relevant people (Department of Navy, CIO).

Knowledge Systems Engineer: This is a systems expert who creates solutions

for KM initiatives through the use of portals, intranets, databases, and so on
(Department of Navy, CIO).
Apart from this, there are a whole host of positions involved directly or
indirectly within KM, including everything from content publishers, human
resource roles, mentors, librarians, etc (Dalkir 2005). In some capacities, such
positions may receive a designation which includes “knowledge
management”, e.g. knowledge management assistant.
The roles and positions outlined above are not exhaustive; there are countless
other ways to organise and name the KM functions. However, they should cover
the main responsibilities of KM workers and managers.

2.2 Knowledge Management Skills

In this section I will draw upon several sources to outline the skills necessary
for a career within knowledge management. Evidently, different positions will
emphasize different aspects of KM, with leadership positions requiring a great
ability to manage, influence, and organise, while technical positions would
focus more on IT skills(relatively speaking).

186
Over the years, there have been several approaches to defining these skills from
various perspectives. Below I will talk first about the skills of the knowledge
worker and then specifically of knowledge managers and the CKO or CLO
(henceforth referred to as the CKO).

The Skills of Knowledge Workers

On a very general level, Mohanta (2010) identifies six characteristics that all
knowledge workers need to some degree:
1. Possessing factual and theoretical knowledge
2. Finding and accessing information
3. Ability to apply information
4. Communication skills
5. Motivation
6. Intellectual capabilities.
This provides a foundation for understanding the basic knowledge management
skillset, but it does not include the skills needed for more specialized positions,
e.g. within management or IT
systems.
For this we turn to the
knowledge management skills
map presented by TFPL
(2000). Fig 4.4.2: The Skills of Knowledge Workers

TFPL is a UK-based recruitment, training, and consultancy company for the

knowledge, information, and data industries. Their knowledge management
skills map is the result of an extensive survey of over 500 organisations.
According to their research, they defined the following general categories, each
consisting of a large set of skills:

187
 a. Strategic & Business Skills: Includes business planning, industry
knowledge, strategic thinking, leadership, and organisational skills.
b. Management Skills: Includes business processes, people management,
process mapping, team building, and measurement.
c. Intellectual & Learning Skills: Includes problem solving, mentoring,
conceptual thinking, being analytical, and the ability to deal with
ambiguity.
d. Communication and Interpersonal Skills: Includes listening,
negotiation, marketing, team working, and consulting.
e. Information Management Skills: Includes codification, content
management, information processes, taxonomies, and IT applications.
f. IT skills: Includes database management, information architecture,
programming, software applications, and workflow.

Depending on the specific KM position, some of these skills will be emphasized

ahead of others. For example, according to TFPL, a knowledge worker would
rely more heavily on communication & interpersonal skills and thinking &
learning skills, while requiring least ability within management. By contrast, a
CKO would require little skill within information management and IT, and high
skills in the other categories(particularly within strategic & business skills).
Another useful skill is identified by Skyrme(2011), who notes that "knowledge
networking" is considered a key ability for their KM team members.
Knowledge networking is explained as the ability to connect with people and
continuously expand one’s networks to include other knowledgeable persons.

2.3 Knowledge Managers and the (chief knowledge officer) CKO

McKeen & Staples (2002) conducted a survey of 41 knowledge managers and
from it they created a tentative portrait of the knowledge manager:
a. Highly educated

188
 b. Already a seasoned organisational performer. Chosen for KM based on
proven performance.
c. Seeks new knowledge
d. Likes "being at the forefront of something new and exciting"
e. Derives more motivation from a challenge than from formal power
f. Receives intrinsic rewards from helping others
g. A risk-taker
h. Sees KM as a way to "make a mark within the organisation".

Looking more closely at the CKO, TFPL regard the most important
characteristics of a CKO to be first and foremost strategic & business skills,
followed by thinking &learning skills and communication & interpersonal
skills. Baren 2011 offers a similar though more specific perspective, by
identifying five core areas within which CKOs should possess as many skills as
possible. These are:
1. Knowledge Management Experience
2. Learning Industry Experience
3. Technology Project Management
4. Matrix Management Skills
5. Industry Subject Matter Expertise

Again, the emphasis is on very strong management skills, though with certain
specialisations. For instance, in his experience within technology management,
the CKO should have rolled out new solutions and acted as a liaison between
business and technology. His matrix management skills should include enabling
cross-functional teams and being comfortable in a "matrix reporting
environment" (Baren 2011).

189
This concludes this article on knowledge management skills. Hopefully, it
should have helped shed some light on the type of skills required by knowledge
workers, and particularly on what constitutes a competent knowledge manager
and/or CKO.
In-text Question
Mention the Skills that are required of a Knowledge Workers

Answer
1. Possessing factual and theoretical knowledge
2. Finding and accessing information
3. Ability to apply information
4. Communication skills
5. Motivation
6. Intellectual capabilities.

3.0Conclusion/Summary
In study session 16, you have learnt that:
1. The term ‘Knowledge Manager’ is a general term for an executive who
works with the CKO to implement knowledge initiatives and who
manages KM efforts
2. Strategic & Business Skills includes business planning, industry
knowledge, strategic thinking, leadership, and organisational skills.
3. McKeen & Staples (2002) conducted a survey of 41 knowledge managers
and from it they created a tentative portrait of the knowledge manager

4.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations &Out of Class activities) e.g.

a. Visit U-tube add https://bit.ly/2TgY9LW. Watch the video & summarise in 1
paragraph
b. View the animation on add/sitehttps://bit.ly/31EA3KFand critique it in the
discussion forum

6.0 References/Further Readings

Baren A. (2011). Skills for Knowledge Management Leaders retrieved 12

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 October2012 from http://alanbaren.blogspot.dk/2005/09/skills-for-
knowledgemanagement.html
Dalkir K. (2005), Knowledge Management in Theory and Practice, Elsevier Inc.
KM Skills Map, TFPL (2000), available from tfpl.com Knowledge Management
Career Area, Department of Navy Chief Information Officer, retrieved
23march 2015 from
http://www.doncio.navy.mil/workforce/cpg_km.htm#jobroles
McKeen, J.D., and Staples, D.S., "Knowledge Managers: Who They Are and
What They Do?", chapter in Handbook on Knowledge Management (Ed.
ClydeHolsapple), Springer-Verlag, New York, USA, 2002
Mohanta (2010).Knowledge worker productivity improvement processes,
technologies and techniques in defence R&D laboratories: an evaluative
study, Bharath University, School of Management Studies
Ning K.S. (2006), A Career in Knowledge Management?, KMS, retrieved 12
October2012 from
http://knowledge.typepad.com/ikms_newsletter/2006/05/a_career_in_kno
.html
Skyrme, D. (2011a), 'A Knowledge-Enriching Culture', [Online], Available at
http://www.skyrme.com/kmroadmap/culture.htm [03 Jan. 2013]

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