CAIE IGCSE HISTORY

Czechoslovakia (carved out of the old Austrian empire

and Germany - Bosnia & Herzegovina, Bohemia, &
1. Was the Treaty of Versailles Moravia)
Yugoslavia (Kingdom of Serbs, Croats & Slovenes then
fair? named ‘land of the South Slavs’)
Poland renewed, via Danzig, granted access to the sea
1.1. The Peace Treaties (Polish Corridor made = West Prussia and Posen) page 96
- they wanted it to be a watchdog on Germany, and bu er
Treaty of Versailles signed by Germany, 28th June 1919: against communism, although 30% not ethnically Polish,
took away 13% land, 12.5% population, 16% coal elds, so some demographic problems, an unfair amount of
nearly 50% iron and steel industry, ¾ iron ore. territory taken from Russia immediately led to war with
Terms: GARGLE Russia in 1921
Guilt: Article 231 appointed blame, called ‘diktat’. Syria and Lebanon=French Mandate; Palestine,
Arms restrictions: Army (100,000 soldiers), Navy (6 Transjordan & Iraq=British Mandate. Article 119 TOV: All
battleships, 15,000 sailors & no submarines), Airforce of Germany’s colonies were taken and given to France
is forbidden, demilitarized Rhineland, conscription and Britain as mandates.
ban, restrictions on the development of modern
weaponry such as Tanks 1.2. What were the motives and aims of
Reparations: 6.6 billion pounds,
German Territory: Alsace Lorraine to France, Danzig
the Big Three at Versailles?
to Poland, West Prussia & Posen form the Polish
Why was (any of the three leaders) dissatis ed with TOV?
corridor, East Prussia separated from rest of
Germany, Colonies: Togoland, Cameroon, German French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau was a realist,
South West Africa, and German East Africa given to wanted punitive peace and compensation, aimed to
victors. punish Germany without crushing them completely,
LE: League of the Nations established. wanted reparations (compensations for infrastructural
Treaty of St. Germaine with Austria, 1919: damage - France had been invaded twice since 1870),
Established Anschluss ban wanted military restrictions - Germany broken into
Imposed reparations smaller confederations + independent Rhineland +
Reduced army to 30,000 men permanent control of Saarland.
Ended dual monarchy American President Woodrow Wilson was an idealist who
Gave Galicia to Poland, Bohemia & Moravia to wanted to punish Germany but not too harshly, worried
Czechoslovakia & Bosnia & Herzegovina to Yugoslavia about the spread of communism if too weak and revenge
Severe economic problems as a result as industrial from Germans, and wanted to strengthen democracy
land gone to Czechoslovakia based on ’14 points’ = disarmament, League of Nations,
Displacement of people and self-determination. wanted to build a more peaceful
Treaty of Trianon with Hungary, 1920: world but
Induced economic crisis in Hungary
Transylvania to Romania, Slovakia & Ruthenia to There were problems with some of the main ideas:
Czechoslovakia; Slovenia, Croatia Yugoslavia
3 million Hungarians displaced Problems with self-determination: people of Eastern
Europe scattered across many countries e.g.: 25% of the
Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria, 1919: because it was a
people who lived in Czechoslovakia were not Czechs or
minor player in the war, it gained territory from Turkey.
Slovaks. 30% of Poland is not polish. Foreigners are ruling
Reduced army to 20,000 men armed force, 100 million-
3 million Hungarians. Some people were bound to be
pound reparations, lost lands to Greece, Romania,
Yugoslavia, and access to the Mediterranean Sea. ruled by another group with di erent customs and
languages because borders were arti cially imposed.
Treaty of Sevres with Ottoman Empire, 1920: Negation on
Problems with LON: ‘toothless’ without the military,
territorial terms led by Mustafa Kemal, which led to war
between Greeks and Turks - unsuccessful treaty, Arabs structurally insu cient & confusing, unanimous vote
required, ’mandates’ seen as colonialist, membership
were promised Arab state for siding with Britain & France
problems: US, Germany, USSR absent, org seemed euro-
to defeat Germany, Palestine problem till date.
centric and imperialist, supported TOV = seen as unfair
Treaty of Lausanne with Ottoman Empire, 1923: gave
British Prime Minister Lloyd George was a mediator,
disputed region of Smyrna back to Turkey after Young
Turk revolution wanted a punitive but just peace, wanted Germany to lose
colonies and navy as they threatened the hegemony of
The Outcome: the British Empire but did not want Germany to seek

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revenge under pressure to ‘make Germany pay’, wanted Communists, November Criminals (‘Stab in back theory’)
to recover as trade partners as it created British jobs. Political violence- Spartacists 1919, Kapp Putsch 1920,
Munich Putsch, Ruhr Invasion 1923 (French killed 100
1.3. Why did all the victors not get German workers and expelled 100,000)
Economic problems &eventually, hyperin ation
everything they wanted? Rise of Hitler- Hitler used unpopularity of TOV to his
advantage by luring people to nationalist ideas of
They all made compromises. restoring homeland’s former glory
Clemenceau wanted harsh peace: a broken-up
Germany and an independent Rhineland and Was it fair?
disarmed German along with compensation. He got
limited compensation and military restrictions, a No: Too harsh, blamed the wrong people as Germany had
a new democratic government (forming it was one of
uni ed Germany and demilitarized Rhineland. He felt
conditions of peace agreement), German economy
this was not harsh enough, didn’t get independent
Rhineland or control of Saarland, crippled and people in near-starvation state, Germans not
Wilson wanted a just peace based on 14 points: he did fairly represented at the conference, ‘diktat’, other
not want Germany blamed (article 231 & reparations) countries were not blameless, expected treaty based on
in TOV but they were. He successfully established self- 14 points, war had devastating physical e ects:
farmers were recruited in army>disruptive
determination in Eastern Europe and League of the
Nations. Demilitarization was not achieved except by by 1918 only 50% milk production, 60% meat and
butter production of pre-war levels
force in Germany and TOV/LON ultimately not rati ed.
Britain wanted a compromise peace; was happy that potato supply run out 1916-1917 winter
German armed and naval forces were restricted, combined e ects of hunger and disease kill ¾ million
Lloyd received hero’s welcome, although the spread of Germans
communism still worrying him. Yes: economic troubles were self-in icted as other
countries raised taxes and practiced more Rigorous scal
There were disagreements over self-determination &
policy to pay for reparations (Britain had greater debt and
‘access to sea’ clause, the harshness of the treaty and
paid o more than Germany by introducing high taxes,
LON (Wilson wanted world parliament, Lloyd wanted to
too), Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was much harsher – 32%
get together in emergencies only.) Clemenceau resented
Wilson’s generosity wanted strong League with army. land, 34% population, 54% industry, 300 million gold
Ruble, nearly ¾ of its iron ore & half of its industry
Clemenceau felt that Britain was happy to treat Germany
fairly in Europe which threatened France yet were less
happy to treat them fairly when it came to concessions of 1.5. Could the Treaties be justified at
colonies and military which threatened Britain.
the time?
1.4. What was the impact of peace No: TOV led to rise of Hitler as army crippled = cruel,
genocidal regime, defeated nation’s disadvantage was
treaties on Germany up to 1923?
exploited so vengeance was probable, treaty ignored it,
bound to fail. Some were ine ective such as Treaty of
Reactions:
Sevres which were re-drawn after 3 years failed to
Horror & outrage, war guilt clause was particularly hated maintain peace.
Betrayed, blamed ‘November Criminals’, Jews, Yes: Mood of post-war urgency, state of near-starvation
Communists, Germans did not feel that they had lost the and infrastructural ruin, public pressure to punish
war as most of war went well for Germany. defeated parties, some people thought it was not harsh
Angry because government not represented at Versailles enough, and that German problems were self-inflicted by
conference (diktat). bad fiscal policy and Brest-Litovsk hypocrisy.
German army limited but disarmament not practiced by
other countries.
Reparations pushed country deeper into state of near- 2. To What Extent Was the
starvation, feared it would cripple economy
Colonies taken double standards for self-determination: League of Nations a
Germans displaced, not allowed to rule themselves
Success?
Impact:
2.1. How successful was the league in
New government had many enemies: Communists, the 1920s?
Nationalists, Army Internal scapegoats - Jews,

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Aims: discontent, trade issues, rise of extremism)

The great depression increased economic competition
Discourage aggression- seemed strong as it had both between markets and people willing to ght for
means of arbitration (tribunals) and means of in uence markets, leading to rearmament. France rearmed
(collective security). Aaland Islands, Upper Silesia, worried about German development work began at
Bulgaria, BUT Vilna, Corfu, Ruhr Invasion the Maginot Line
Encourage cooperation in business and trade- Locarno Countries considered imperialistic and aggressive
treaties were successful but had nothing to do with LON. means to feed their people and keep up morale (e.g.,
Encouraged economic recovery (Dawes plan), attempted Japan- Manchuria, Italy- Abyssinia) and gained support
to strengthen league failed (1924) BUT could not impede as people were desperate for solutions.
the Great Depression or reduce its impact and was The great depression led to appeasement being a
impaired permanently by it. Thereafter, competition and viable option to deal with when dealing with
hostility in business and trade increased. aggressors.
Disarmament-only German disarmed. Disarmament tried Inevitably, it was not inevitable; profound successes with
to limit the tonnage of tanks, limit the size of artillery, humanitarian work, undermined by the decision of weak,
prohibit civilian bombing, and prohibit chemical warfare, sel sh, imperialistic leaders, the great depression
but… all countries were unlikely to follow, so the plan was encouraged the pursuit of self-interest and made failure
doomed from the start. Britain and France were divided inevitable.
on the issue, with no uni ed approach. Planes capable of
bombing civilians & manufacture chemical weapons are
not banned. Successful disarmament e orts had little to
2.3. How successful was the League in
do with LON. e.g.: the Washington Disarmament the 1930s?
Conference (1922) to limit the size of navies. Attempts to
disarm were rejected by Britain in 1923. After Great Discourage aggression: Unsuccessful
Depression, militarism radically increased anyway
Improving living and working conditions –helped the USSR Manchuria (1931): in order to resettle their growing
with the plague in Siberia. Helped with cholera, dysentery, population, revive export industry and gain resources,
smallpox, malaria, yellow fever, leprosy. Emancipated Japan achieved these aims militaristic ally by invading
200,000 slaves in Sierra Leone and 400,000 repatriated. Manchuria. Lord Lyton Commission takes 1 year to issue
Started WHO & ILO, still present. Tanganyika railway work report. By this time, Japan already set up Manchukuo
conditions improved (even though there was still a 5% government. Japan ignores LON orders, leaves in 1933
fatality rate). Introduced a 48-hour working week (but not and points out cruelty of British conquest in China when
all countries implemented it). Provided valuable criticized. Britain & Frances are nancially and militarily
information on drug tra cking, prostitution, and slavery unprepared, make excuses: too far, too chaotic. No action
successfully to a large extent. (Page 239) was taken. USA’s absence would weaken any economic
sanction. FAILED as aggressors who are permanent
members of LON broke rules and left. Japan took over all
2.2. How far did weakness in League’s of China at Nanking. This encouraged Hitler and Mussolini
organization make failure inevitable? as they learnt aggression paid due to LON’s weaknesses.
Made League seem weak and ine ective when standing
Role of League’s Weaknesses: (page 234) Unanimous up to big powers.
voting meant crisis resolution was ine cient and slow. Abyssinia (1935-6): Italy’s Motives: Revenge for 1896
Secretariat understa ed and a muddle. when Italy was defeated by tribesmen in Abyssinia, victory
Permanent court of justice did not have means of = good propaganda during great depression, more
in uence, could only give advice. resources and market to resolve economic disarray,
Structure was confusing learnt from Hitler and Kwatung Army, was successful
US absent weakened economic sanctions previously with Corfu (1923). Mussolini invades violently
The absence of an army meant that LON relied on major at Wal-Wal oasis, League could not impose any e ective
powers’ help, leading to Britain and France pursuing their sanctions such as on oil* or at Suez Canal as they would
interests. Great powers had di erent rules from those hurt British economy. (Page 251). Britain and France
that applied to smaller countries. signed the Hoare-Laval Pact to appease Mussolini. Invited
Role of other factors: The League had some successes him in early 1935 to join formalized anti-German protest:
despite structural disadvantages. A bigger role played by Stresa Front: Abyssinia not mentioned at this conference
the great depression>goodwill was gone as trade and at all. France and Britain need Italy as ally against Hitler.
industry deteriorated, and the leadership of LON (Britain, Contextual notes:
France, Italy) Manchuria = North-East China. China was a good
Great Depression increased pursuit of self-interest bu er against communism, weak due to civil war. The
due to domestic crises (high unemployment and Kwatung army already controlled South Manchurian

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Chinese railway. Bombing at Mukden, blaming China =

3.2. What were the consequences of
excuse to take over ‘to restore peace’. Manchukuo=
Puppet government set up by Japan February 1932. the failures of the League in the 1930s?
Claimed to be merely settling a local di culty, China
was in state of anarchy, invasion to ensure self- Manchuria and Abyssinia, along with disarmament failure,
defense for peace. led to LON losing all credibility. ‘Nail in the co n’ for its
Abyssinia next to Anglo-Egyptian territory of Sudan authority.
and British colonies of Uganda, Kenya, and Somalia Exposed League’s weaknesses
i.e. right at the League’s footsteps. Britain & France unprepared for war and wanted to avoid
Disarmament: Geneva Disarmament Conference (1932- it as much as possible. Needed to buy time to prepare.
4): conference disrupted by Hitler’s demand for ‘equality Led to appeasement, which made Hitler more con dent
of status’ and permission to rearm. France outraged and Led to the second world war
reluctant. Britain more optimistic. Failed due to pursuit of
self- interest by Britain*. Divide in approach to aggressors 3.3. How far was Hitler’s foreign policy
due to di erent vulnerabilities = major weakness. 1933
onwards: open disarmament (rearming also good for to blame for the outbreak of war in
employment). 1939?
Why did disarmament fail?
Only Germany expected to disarm - unfair basis Role of Hitler’s foreign policy: expansionism intent clearly
No one was serious about it. France blatantly ignored outlined in Mein Kampf, Nazi Party gained support in
the covenant Germany and he gambled his way to rearmament,
Depression increased economic competition. Military Rhineland, Sudetenland, Czechoslovakia, Poland.
provided jobs and defense for colonies/markets. Willingness to ght for his interest would ultimately lead
Depression led to extremism in badly a ected to war.
countries with few colonies like Germany, Italy & Japan Role of other factors: his foreign policy was more
Britain and France were divided on the issue gambling* than planned; encouraged by appeasement
Both disarmament and aggression curbing e orts failed (e.g. Rhineland 29 Czechoslovakia). Failure of the League
in the 1930s. meant there was no condemnation or collective security
to impede him. Treaty of Versailles weaknesses exploited,

3. Why had International and this discontent largely shaped his foreign policy.
Expansionist intent not new to Germany- ‘greater
Germany’ vision resonated by Kaiser also- German
Peace Collapsed by 1939? foreign policy’ and aggressive nationalism in general to
blame for war, not just Hitler’s nationalism.
3.1. What were the long-term
consequences of the peace treaties of *1960s view of British Historian AJP Taylor – Hitler; a logical
gambler not planner
1919-1923?
Made LON look less credible as it upheld a treaty that was 3.4. Describe the events comprising
seen as unfair. Britain abandoned France when it came to evidence of Hitler’s aggression
enforce the terms.
Hitler used discontent over TOV terms to rise to power:
Really Stealthy, Rad Attacks Sometimes May Cause Problems
war guilt, disarmament, reparations, and colonies.
Discontentment from peace treaties, in combination with Rearmament (1935): initially secret rearmament to
the great depression that fostered the rise of extremism reduce unemployment, Hitler disrupted Geneva
and political violence, spurred aggression from Japan, conference, took Germany out of LON. This boosted Nazi
Italy, and Germany support as people wanted Rearmament. Britain thought
Disarmament and self-determination clauses also caused reasonable & not good enough for war and good bu er
problems: against communism, thought TOV unfair so did nothing
Only Germany was disarmed. Hitler exploited the Saar plebiscite (1935): 90% wanted to return to German
disadvantage to rise to power by exposing the rule = good morale booster
hypocrisy of the League. Rhineland (1936): 30,000 German troops reoccupied the
Displacement of nationalities. Lots of small, Rhineland strip. British public perceived it as reasonable
economically weak states drained the League’s to want to defend backyard. Violation of TOV & Locarno,
resources very big risk as if failed Hitler would’ve lost support of
army, humiliating, negative propaganda and would be

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forced to withdraw. Hitler chose carefully even though happen sooner or later
they were outnumbered and lacked essential equipment League of the Nations failed after Manchuria, Abyssinia
& air support. Triggered by: USSR-France mutual support and unsuccessful disarmament attempts.
treaty (1935), Hitler claimed ‘encirclement threat’ Appeasement intensi ed Hitler’s aggression. Britain and
Anschluss (1938): Nazis demonstrated, some Austrians France unprepared for war and had little other choice
wanted union, riots in Austria, Hitler persuaded Austrian Nazi Soviet Pact paved way for the invasion of Poland
Chancellor Schuschnigg that Anschluss only way to solve gave USSR time to rearm
crisis was union, on being refused help from Britain and Violation of the Munich Pact & Polish guarantee led to war
France he called referendum. This was an Election of
intimidation, in March 1938 Hitler’s troops walked in
without military interference. Britain felt it was right, Lord However other important factors also played a role in starting
Halifax assured Hitler the war:
Spanish Civil War: Hitler & Mussolini supported General
Appeasement also very important in causing war by
Franco’s right-wing extremist rebels against communist
encouraging Hitler’s aggression
supporter of the Republican government. LON helpless.
Failure of League caused by Great Depression meant
Condor legion bombed Guernica. (Nationalist victory).
appeasement inevitable & Hitler aggression unchecked
Dress rehearsal/testing ground for WW2.
Polish guaranteed invasion would certainly result in war
Munich Pact (1938): Czechoslovakia (pg. 267) Triumph?
Treaty of Versailles inspired Hitler’s revenge therefore
Averted war, gain time, people learnt to not trust Hitler
very large role to play
(Opinion poll Oct 1938- 93% did not believe his claim of
have no more territorial ambition in Europe) or Sell out?
Public relief overstated-not really peace just preparation 3.7. How important was the Nazi-Soviet
period, appeasement failed, Allies lost important ally. Pact?
Trigger: claim that Czech government mistreating
Germans in Sudetenland, wanted to ’rescue’ them by 1st Background: Stalin was alarmed by Hitler’s aggression as
Oct. Britain sees demands as unreasonable and mobilizes he had openly stated his intent to destroy communism.
army, war imminent. Resolved with Munich pact & joint Stalin joined LON in 1934 for security purposes but it was
declaration (peace for our time) on 29th September 1938. soon powerless. France and Britain had not resisted
Czechs and USSR not consulted about conceding German Rearmament or expansion in east Europe, failed
Sudetenland to Germany. to stand up to Hitler in Rhineland and Czechoslovakia.
Czechoslovakia: 15 March 1939, invaded with no Stalin signed mutual Defense treaty with France in 1935
resistance from Britain or France. but did not trust France. Attempts to form alliance with
Poland invasion: 1st September 1939 Britain and France failed in March 1939 as Chamberlain
did not trust Stalin. Stalin did not trust Hitler, saw Britain’s
3.5. Was the policy of appeasement Polish guarantee, which was intended to warn Hitler, as
support for USSR’s potential enemies.
justi ed? Nazi Soviet Pact signed between Molotov and Ribbentrop
on 24th August 1939.Stalin signed because:
(Coined by Chamberlain and Daladier)
Could not rely on Britain and France for defense
Yes: major domestic problems: high unemployment and against Hitler due to appeasement
large debts, militarily and economically weak & needed to Hitler would let Stalin expand control into Baltic States
buy time, LON failed ∴ appeasement only feasible option, which Britain and France would never allow
saw Hitler’s demands as reasonable, no support for a war Allowed USSR to buy time to prepare for war
within commonwealth & US and memories of war still Signi cance:
strong Hitler ‘standing up to communism’ Cleared the way for German invasion of Poland
Poland fell
No: encouraged Hitler’s aggression mistook Hitler for
Guaranteed war with Britain and France
sane politician and trusted Hitler too much, allowed
Germany to grow strong and it alienated the USSR, Established that appeasement had failed
leading to Nazi-Soviet pact that made the war more likely,
lost Czechoslovakia as important ally.

3.6. Why did Britain and France declare

war on Germany in September 1939?
Hitler’s actions and policies- Hitler was determined to
undo Treaty of Versailles from very beginning, would

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However, Stalin
4. Who was to Blame for the Wanted to occupy more and wanted a bu er zone after
the loss of 20 million lives.
Cold War? By July 1945, the USSR controlled the Baltic States,
Finland, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, and
Romania.
4.1. Introduction
In 1945, communists took power in Albania, Bulgaria
Agreement from Yalta on Feb 1945 Deteriorating in July 1945 (elected by coalition, executed opposition), & E Germany
In 1947, communists took over Romania (abolished
at Potsdam
monarchy), Poland (arrested opposition, won by-election)
Spirit of cooperation had deteriorated to open Hungary – arrested and executed opposition using secret
disagreement (no common enemy) due to a change of police churches were attacked.
leadership (Truman was staunch anti-communist) In 1948, communist leader Gottwald took power in
Agreements to form Germany being split into 4 zones Czechoslovakia by controlling the radio, army, and police
deteriorated over details of borders. and arresting opposition. Non-communist minister
Agreement to form a reparation commission deteriorated Masaryk committed suicide.
over exact amounts. Soviets wanted inde nite reparations In 1949, GDR was established
from Soviet Zones and 10% of Industrial equipment from
West Zones. Britain and France thought this was too 4.4. How did the USA respond to Soviet
much.
Agreements from the Polish ‘government of national unity’ expansionism?
deteriorated as Stalin had non-communists arrested.
Free elections that were agreed on did not take place in The US gave aid to Greece and Turkey during their civil
Europe. Communists were coming to power, which wars when Britain withdrew (Feb 1947) to prevent
violated the percentage agreement. The Truman Doctrine (12th March 1947) introduced
Agreements to have Russia join the war against Japan containment* and Marshall's plan to extenuate Soviet
with the US were ignored as Truman dropped the atomic footholds in Europe, preventing the breeding ground for
bomb. totalitarianism by eliminating poverty. Containment: The
USA accepted Eastern Europe as a communist sphere but
would ‘contain’ any further expansion. Prepared to send
4.2. Why did the USA-USSR alliance money, equipment, and advice to any country under
begin to break down in 1945? communist threat, e.g., Greece and Czechoslovakia.
Initially not approved by Congress, when communists won
Ideological di erences: politics, lifestyle, post-war aims: the civil war in Czechoslovakia (1948), Marshall Aid worth
USSR - communist with dictator, one-party state with $17 billion was released. (March 1948).
secret police, totalitarian, terror, propaganda, and no civil Marshall Aid was o ered to all countries, including the
liberties. The USA had capitalism, multiparty elections, USSR & discussed during the Paris Conference (July 1947),
freedom but Stalin forbade communists to go. Started Cominform
And civil liberties. USSR wanted a weak Germany, a (Oct 1947) and COMECON to support iron curtain
sphere of in uence, and reparations; The USA wanted a economies.
strong Germany and no reparations. Iron Curtain's speech led to an atmosphere of tension,
Hostility in the past: white counter-revolutionary forces recrimination, and mutual demonisation.
tried to destroy the USSR in 1917, the Russian Revolution What were the aims of the Marshall Plan?
and Polish invasion in 1921, and the USSR signed a Nazi- To aid in rebuilding of Europe
Soviet pact To restore the economy and, curb communism’s
Increasing tension due to: appeal, and spread capitalism
Stalin refused to join the UN Form allies close to the USSR & extenuate their
Delay of D-Day and opening a second front. foothold
Expand markets to prevent a worldwide slump
4.3. How had the USSR gained control Dominate Europe by making them dependent on $
Cominform aims:
over Eastern Europe? Spread revolution and provide assistance to Soviet
satellites & communist parties
Trigger: political vacuum and anarchy, want to restore law Defend satellites against US in uence
and order Keep a close eye on satellites
Ensure loyalty
Red Army had occupied Eastern Europe according to
All Eastern European countries must be communist
Percentages Agreement (right) spheres of in uence.

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American reaction to Cuban revolution (1958, led by Fidel

4.5. What were the consequences of
Castro Castro-claimed he wanted to merely run Cuba
the Berlin Blockade? without American interference. However, by summer
1960 he was receiving arms from USSR):
Background: As Marshall Aid (response to Czech frosty relationship with no direct confrontation
communists – paranoia) was started in March 1948, Stalin Castro nationalized American assets, therefore;
began partial blockage on roadways to Berlin. Aim: to US banned the buying of sugar July 1960
stamp his authority on Berlin as he was helpless about US ended all trade relations by Oct 1960
everything else, force allies out of Berlin, making West US broke o diplomacy with Cuba in January 1961.
Berlin dependent on USSR, he wanted to destroy Not prepared to tolerate Soviet satellite 160 km o
Germany & saw Marshall Aid as dollar imperialism which coast of Florida.
was a threat to USSR, also to stop Germany recovering to April 1961–Bay of Pigs invasion: 1400 anti-Castro CIA
prevent threat to USSR. On 1st June 1948, West Germany trained exiles attempt to overthrow Castro. Met by 20,
was a new country – FDR and on 23rd June had a new 000 troops armed with tanks and modern weapons, all
currency = which led to economic crisis for USSR. captured or killed. Kennedy humiliated.
Consequences: Germany permanently divided. Iron Aftermath: Bay of Pigs asco encouraged spread of
curtain concept strengthened. An open confrontation of communism, consolidated Castro’s power & popularity,
the cold war, tensions got much worse. NATO formed in led to Cuba being aligned with Moscow. May 1962: USSR
1949 and Warsaw Pact in 1955 - two armed camps. Arms publicly announced military support for Cuba. July 1962:
race also began set up a ‘tense balance’ with no hot war Cuba best equipped army in Latin America. On 11th Sept.,
which was symbolic of the cold war period. Tensions US warned USSR against nuclearization of Cuba
increased as allies merged zones (1946 – Trizonia), new Cuban Missile Crisis:
currency/new countries/iron curtain speech, Berlin Ongoing tensions at all time high: competition, space
blockade, Marshall Aid. (1945- 1949) race, arms race, nuclear testing, Vietnam war, failed
Destalinization: Policy started by Khrushchev during the Vietnam summit and Berlin Wall
era of peaceful coexistence. Tito (Yugoslavia) was allowed On 14th Oct 1962, an American U-2 spy plane ew
autonomy to ease relations, who then left Warsaw Pact. over Cuba and discovered nuclear missile bases, also
Closed down Cominform as a part of his policy of 20 ships carrying missiles from USSR
reconciliation with Tito. Khrushchev thought Stalin was Kennedy’s options (page 349):
inhumane, so he invited Tito to Moscow and dismissed Do nothing: would be very dangerous to overreact but
Molotov, executed Beria (head of state secret police), set did not want to show weakness
free political prisoners, pulled out of Austria, met western Surgical air attack: destroy missiles but if any were left
leaders at post war summits (July ’55) and criticized they may be used in counter attack and
Stalin’s Purges, terror, tyranny on 20th party congress, There may be soviet collateral damage. Attack without
eased relation with China, reduced arms expenditure, advance warning was immoral.
improved living standards. Main aim did not change: must Invade Cuba by sea and air: would guarantee soviet
create bu er against attack from West through Warsaw response to protect Cuba or within soviet sphere of
Pact. in uence
Diplomatic pressures through UN: would avoid con ict
4.6. Who was more to blame for the but US would look weak
Blockade/quarantine: show US was serious but not an
cold war? act of war, but would not get rid of existing missiles
Khrushchev’s intent:
Blame USSR for radical ideology dedicated to world To defend Cuba
revolution and justi es perception of threat
To rest American strength – whether they would back
Blame USA for underestimating USSR’s loss and
o or face up
misperceiving defense as hostility To trap the USA into nuclear war – he did not even try
Blame both for miscommunication, tension, and to hide them
ideological di erences. To get upper hand in arms race due to concern over
missile gap would prevent US ever launching 1st strike
5. How E ectively Did USA To bargain with USA for concessions: remove military
bases in Turkey & Italy (events of pg. 350 = important!)
Contain the Spread of Aftermath: helped to thaw relations and allayed pursuit of
brinkmanship. White House to Kremlin hotline sets up,
Communism? 1963 – Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

5.1. America and events in Cuba 5.2. American involvement in Vietnam

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Who were the Viet Minh? Pressure on USSR and China – they had fallen out of an
alliance, USA tried to improve relations with them
During the Second World War, when France (ex-colonial individually (SALT with USSR, Feb 1972 Nixon visited
ruler of Vietnam) was defeated by Germany, Japan took China) to persuade them to pressure North Vietnam to
control of Vietnamese resources (coal, rice, rubber, end the war
railways, roads) which led to the formation of a strong Peace negotiations with North Vietnam – early 1969 –
anti-Japanese resistance movement called Viet Minh, led Henry Kissinger met with Vietnamese Le Duc Tho
by communist Ho Chi Minh, who inspired Vietnamese Vietnamization of the war e ort – building up South
peasants to ight for an independent Vietnam. In 1945 Vietnamese forces and withdrawing 400, 000 US troops
they entered Hanoi and declared independence > led to from April 1969 to end of 1971
war in 1946 between French and Viet Minh. When Bombing – increased bombing campaigns against North
communists took over in China, American paranoia grew, Vietnam to show he was not weak. Also, invaded Viet Cong
and they spent $500 million a year to keep up anti-Viet bases in Cambodia.
Minh e ort and keep Vietnam non-communist.

Why did US fail to defeat the Viet Minh?

What was the domino theory?
US had hi-tech tactics that used B-52 bombers, artillery
American theory that USSR trying to spread communism and helicopters and killed innocent people demoralizing
all over Asia; Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Burma, India may their own troops and losing local support (South
fall to communism one after the other like a row of Vietnamese peasants) whereas the Viet Minh used
dominoes after Vietnam, the rst domino. guerrilla warfare tactics, which were appropriate to the
nature of the war and the relief features of Vietnam – they
used booby traps, land mines, did not wear uniform and
What were the Geneva agreements of 1954?
mixed with and helped the peasants which made it
They split up Indochina into di erent countries like Laos, di cult to distinguish them and they won local support.
Cambodia, Vietnam, and Thailand American troops were inexperienced and South
Split Vietnam at 17th parallel. Vietnamese government was ine cient and corrupt,
Vietminh pulled out of south (replaced by Diem), French whereas Viet Cong represented people well and had been
pulled out of north (replaced by Ho Chi Minh) ghting with Japan since World War 2 and later on with the
Free elections to take place July 1956 French. They were determined to achieve independence
and victory, whatever the cost. American troops had hit
rock bottom morale, it was an unpopular war – whereas
Why did US get involved? Viet Cong was motivated for uni cation.
US had supplies coming from 8000 miles away whereas
Containment: domino theory – paranoia about Indochina,
Viet Cong were supplied weapons by USSR and China
China had turned communist in 1949 – Viet Minh seen as
through HO Chi Minh trail. Could not attack this trial
Chinese puppets and containment in Korea failed had to
without escalating the war.
compete with USSR.
French army (AVRN) too weak, ill equipped and ine cient
to defeat Viet Cong (Viet Minh) and could not cope with Why did the war rouse so much opposition in America?
guerrilla warfare. South Vietnam could not win by itself.
US had been attacked by North Vietnamese patrol boats – Casualties, ghting for their country 8000 miles away –
USS Maddox in the Gulf of Tonkin (August 1964) ; February public did not buy it, failures & horrors of war and My Lai
1965 –Vietcong had attacked US airbases, US soldiers massacre publicized. Johnson had to cancel ‘The Great
killed Society’ reform plan due to the cost. Even Martin Luther
King opposed the war. Containment had failed and 58,
000 casualties. 1973 Truman Doctrine abandoned.
How did the US get involved?

US was attacked and needed to face up to communism Vietnam & containment: A failure
Had been pouring in $500 million to support the French
against Viet Minh communists already Militarily
Supported Diem’s corrupt and ine cient government who Politically = sped up domino e ect. By 1975, both Laos
would have to give in to communists on their own. and Cambodia were communist

How did US get out? 6. How Secure was the

USSR’s Control Over Eastern

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Eastern European countries to reject communism would

Europe, 1948-1989? not be permitted to abandon communism ‘even if it meant
a third world war.’
On 20th August 1968, 500,000 Warsaw Pact troops
6.1. Opposition to Soviet control in
invaded Czechoslovakia. Dubeck was arrested and
Hungary & Czechoslovakia, USSR’s replaced by Gustav Husak.
E ects: return to communist control, 47 anti-communists
reaction?
were detained, and publishing companies were sacked.
Hungarian uprising causes: In 1968, Albania resigned from the Warsaw Pact because
it thought the USSR was too liberal since Stalin died.
Poverty due to reparations, patriotism (hatred of AVH and Unlike Czechoslovakia, which was strategically and
censorship and Soviet presence – troops, shops, streets, centrally placed and industrious, Brezhnev did not think it
schools), Religion ban (Cardinal Mindzentsky out in jail), was essential and made no e ort to force Albania back
hated lack of freedom, encouraged by destalinization and into the Pact.
expected US (Eisenhower) to help. Riots by students on
23rd October: smashed statue of Stalin and attacked AVH 6.2. Why was the Berlin Wall built in
(secret police). Imre Nagy asked Russia to withdraw from
the Warsaw Pact and declared neutrality for Hungary, and 1961?
freedom was achieved on 29th October.
Soviet reaction: 4th November = rebellions crushed, Nagy Growing tensions – ghting in Vietnam and Laos & Bay of
killed, Janos Kador replaces Nagy. Results: Pigs invasion
200, 000 refugees ed to Austria Refugees: Brain drain in poor, strict East Germany led to
Repression and control by the USSR in Hungary economic loss. 2000 refugees per day moved to West
continued Berlin. 3 million had moved to West Berlin.
30,000 Hungarians killed Sabotage – West Berlin used for espionage
West is horri ed by the polarization of the Cold War 13th August 1961 = Berlin wall barbed wire all of the
The US gains determination to contain communism. border except for checkpoint Charlie, USSR propaganda
Player motives: Eisenhower did not think Hungary was success, hundreds killed trying to escape over subsequent
worth war. decades.
USSR vetoed investigations. It was a symbol of division portrayed di erently by the
Britain and France were preoccupied with the Suez East (who portrayed it as a protective shell) and West
Crisis. portrayed it as a prison wall)
Russia wanted to keep a bu er zone of friendly states Causes:
and could not have Nagy leave the Warsaw Pact. Worries about the arms race – nuclear testing was
Nagy was too capitalistic, hard-liners within the USSR, expensive, immoral, and damaging to the
and China pushed the USSR to stop damaging environment; there was a Campaign for Nuclear
communism by allowing Nagy to rule. Disarmament (CND) in the West
Prague Spring background: In 1967, Czechoslovakian Arms race limitation e orts due to economic strain
students and writers complained about the lack of (also due to rising oil prices)>SALT 1 (1972) and SALT
freedom and economic problems. Novotny (Czech leader) 2
received no help from Brezhnev (USSR leader). On 5th End and shock of the Vietnam War: The USA, USSR,
January 1968, Dubeck (reformer) took over as a leader of and China improved relations
KSC (communist party). Announced ‘Action Plan’ in April – Shock of the Cuban Missile Crisis and the state of
more freedom of speech, ‘socialism with a human face’ – near-thermonuclear war
removed state controls over industry – new model of The Helsinki Agreement recognized Soviet control over
socialism four months = freedom in Czechoslovakia. Eastern Europe, concluded a trade agreement, and Russia
Causes: driven by detente (improving relations with the promised to respect human rights.
West) and Romania’s break free from the Warsaw Pact. Helsinki Conference (August 1975), the Nuclear Test Ban
Czechs hated economic control and censorship. They Treaty (1963), which led to the Nuclear Non-proliferation
thought the US would help. Treaty (NPT, 1968), and China joining the UN were major
Soviet reaction: 3rd August 1968 – declaration on achievements.
Czechoslovakia to politically stabilize Limitations:
Brezhnev was under pressure from Ulbricht (hardline The Non-Proliferation Treaty did not stop other
leader of East Germany) and Gomulka (hardline leader of countries from developing nuclear weapons - Israel
Poland) to restrain the reform of communism as they and China.
were worried that their people would demand capitalist SALT 1 was ine ective as neither the USA nor the
freedoms. Brezhnev was criticized for being too liberal.* USSR complied. SALT 2 had collapsed as singing was
announced Brezhnev doctrine = would not allow any delayed, and in June 1969, the US did not ratify.

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America supported Israel, and Russia supported Egypt Why Soviet/Polish government clamped down by martial
and Syria in the Arab-Israeli war. Division and proxy law on Solidarity in December 1981:
war rituals continued. Increasing signs Solidarity acting as a political party –
The Helsinki Agreement achieved nothing, and the more of a threat. Talked of setting up new government
USSR continued to repress the soviet sphere. without communist party.
Table tennis and space meetings were just one-o Poland sinking into chaos – food shortages, rationing,
propaganda stunts. rising unemployment, strikes out of control. Russia
USSR (Brezhnev) was still committed to an anti- worried people would turn to Solidarity and not
capitalist world revolution. communism.
The US improved relations with China speci cally to Solidarity was also sinking into chaos. Many di erent
drive a wedge between the USSR and China and groups in the union, one group issued a statement
diplomatically isolate the Soviet Union. that Poles were ghting “for your freedom and ours”.
Why did the Cold War freeze again in the 1980s? Pg. 411 Groups threatened to pull Solidarity apart – Lech
Walesa unable or unwilling to control them. Threat to
6.3. Signi cance of ‘Solidarity’ in Poland Russia.

for decline of Soviet in uence in

6.4. Responsibility of Gorbachev for the
Eastern Europe collapse of Soviet control of Eastern
Background to Solidarity: Europe?
Regular protests in Poland usually about low wages or
high food prices Role of Gorbachev:
In the late 1970’s the economy hit crisis & government Brezhnev ignored the need for reforms in the 1980s;
could not solve the problems with propaganda. internal corruption, USSR in crisis, being locked in a
1976 – 1979 were terrible years for Polish industry, costly and unwinnable war in Afghanistan (‘Soviet
1979 being the worst. Vietnam’), the economy not generating growth,
Small independent trade unions were set up and chronic alcoholism and demotivation amongst
strikes broke out all over the country. workers draining the economy, too much money spent
1980 free trade union (Solidarity started by Lech on arms race, genuinely wanted to introduce
Walesa) they wanted free trade unions & right to economic reform and recovery.
strike Introduced ‘Perestroika’ (restructuring), an open
Government agreed all 21 of their demands. debate on the economy, ‘Glasnost’ (openness), made it
Membership of solidarity grew to 9.4 mill. (Jan 1981) legal to buy and sell for pro t
Poland sinks into chaos. Abandoned Brezhnev doctrine
December 1981 Brezhnev orders Red Army Encouraged nationalism in the soviet sphere
maneuvers on Polish border, introduces Martial Law Role of other factors:
imprison Lech Walesa and 10,000 others & suspends Arms race/costs of competing with USA, industrially,
solidarity. militarily and proxy wars, especially in Afghanistan,
Why Soviet/Polish government accepted Solidarity in cause too much strain
1980: Nationalism in satellite states and the rise of Solidarity
Union was strongest in most important industries – in Poland
ship building and heavy industry – general strike would There were also spiritual in uences from the Pope
cripple economy. and Islam and the attraction of Western consumption
Not seen as a threat to communist party. Only 5% due to a reduction in censorship
members thought Solidarity plans> government A drastic fall in oil prices in the 1980s deprived the
Lech Walesa tried to avoid provoking any disputes and Soviet Union of resources that were necessary at a
portrayed and accepted as folk hero. critical time.
Solidarity spirit attracted West & was good
propaganda

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