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UNIT – I
Probability and Discrete Probability Distributions
1. Random Experiment: If the result of an experiment is not certain and is any one of the several
possible outcomes, then the experiment is called Random experiment.

2. Sample space: The set of all possible outcomes of an experiment is called the sample space
whenever the experiment is conducted and is denoted by S.

3. Event: Any subset of the sample space ‘S’ is called an Event.

Ex.1. While throwing a die, A={2,4,6} is an events. It is the event that the throw results in an even number. Here,
A is a compound event.
Ex.2. While tossing two coins, A={TT} is an event. It is the event that the toss results in two tails. Here, A is a
simple event.

4. Equally likely Events: A set of events is said to be equally likely if there is no reason to expect
one of them in preference to the others.
Ex. 1. While tossing a fair coin, the outcomes 'Head' and 'Tail' are equally likely.

Ex.2. While throwing a fair die, the events A={2,4,6}, B = {1,3, 5}&C={ 1,2, 3} are equally likely.

5. Exhaustive Events: A set of events is said to be exhaustive of the performance of the

experiment always results in the occurrence of at least one of them.

6. Mutually Exclusive Events: A set of events is said to the mutually exclusive if happening of
one of them prevents the happening of any of the remaining events.
Ex. 1. While tossing a coin, the outcomes 'Head1 and 'Tail' are mutually exclusive because when the coin is tossed
once, the result cannot be Head as well as Tail.

Ex.2. While throwing a die, the events A = {2, 4, 6}, B= {3,5} and C = {1} are mutually exclusive.

If A is an event, A and A' are mutually exclusive. It should be noted that intersection of mutually exclusive
events is a null event.

7. Classical Definition of Probability: If there are n mutually exclusive equally likely elementary
events of an experiment and m of them are favourable to an event A then the probability of A
denoted by P(A) is defined as min.

8. Axiomatic Approach to Probability: Let S be finite sample space. A real valued function P
from power set of S into R is called probability function if

(1) P(A)  0  A  S;

(2) P(S) = 1, P() = 0;

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(3) P(A  B) = P(A) + P(B) if A  B = . Here the image of A w.r.t. P denoted by P(A) is called
probability of A.

Note: 1) P(A) + P( A ) = 1

2) If A1  A2, then P(A1)  P(A2) where A1, A2 are any two events.
9. Odds in favour and odds against an Event: Suppose A is any Event of an experiment. The
odds in favour of Event A is P(A) : P( A ). The odds against of A is P( A ) : P(A).

10. Addition theorem on Probability: If A, B are any two events in a sample space S, then

P(A  B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A  B).

If A and B are exclusive events

P(A  B) = P(A) + P(B)

* P(A  B  C) = P(A) + P(B) +P(C) – P(A  B) P(A  C) – P(B  C) + P(A  B  C).

11. Conditional Probability: If A and B are two events in sample space and P(A)  0. The
probability of B after the event A has occurred is called the conditional probability of B given A
and is denoted by P(B/A).

n(A  B) P(A  B)
P(B/A) = =
n(A) P(A)

Similarly

P(A/B) = n(A  B) = P(A  B) .

n(B) P(B)

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12. Independent Events: The events A and B of an experiment are said to be independent if
occurrence of A cannot influence the happening of the event B.

i.e. A, B are independent if P(A/B) = P(A) or P(B/A) = P(B).

i.e. P(A  B) = P(A) . P(B).

Multiplication Theorem: If A and B are any two events in S then P(A  B) = P(A) P(B/A)
if P(A)  0. P(A  B) = P (B) P(A/B) if P(B)  0.

The events A and B are independent ifP(A  B) = P(A) P(B).

CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY

Let A and B be two events. Then, conditional probability of £ given A is the probability of
happening of B when it is known that A has already happened. On the other hand, the probability of
happening of B when nothing is known about happening of A is called unconditional probability of B.
The conditional probability of B given A is denoted by P{B\A). The unconditional probability is
P{B).

Let P(A) > 0. Then, conditional probability of event B given A is defined as-----

If P(A) = 0, the conditional probability P(B\A) is not defined.

If A and B are independent events, occurrence of B will be independent of occurrence of A. Therefore,

the conditional and unconditional probabilities are equal. That is, P(B\A) = P(B).
P( A  B)
P( B) 
P( A)
That is, P(A  B) = P(A).P(B)

INDEPENDENT EVENTS

Two events A and B are independent if and only if P(A  B) = P(A).P(B)

If two events are independent, the occurrence or non-occurrence of one does not depend on
the occurrence or non-occurrence of the other.

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EX-1
a. A card is drawn at random from a pack of cards.(i)What is the probability that it is a heart ?(ii) If
it is known that the card drawn is red, what is the probability that it is a heart?
b. A fair coin is tossed thrice. What is the probability that all the three tosses result in heads ?

Solution:
a. There are 52 equally likely, mutually exclusive and exhaustive outcomes. Let events A and B be —
A : card drawn is red.
B : card drawn is heart.

There are 26 red cards and 13 hearts in a pack of cards. Therefore, event A has 26 favourable outcomes
and event B has 13 favourable outcomes. Event A  B has 13 favourable outcomes because when any
of the 13 hearts is drawn A  B happens.

Therefore, P(A) = 26/52. P(B) = 13/52 and P(A  B)=13/52

(i)The unconditional probability of drawing a heart is ---
P(B) = 13/52 = ¼
(ii) The conditional probability of drawing a heart given that it is red card is-----
13
P( A  B)
P(B/A) = = 52  1
P( A) 26 2
52
B. Let events A, B, and C be------
A: the first toss results in head
B: the second toss results in head.
C: the third toss results in head.

Then, P(A) = P(B) =P(C) = ½

Since A, B, and C are results of three different tosses, they are independent. Therefore, probability that
all the three tosses result in head is ---
P[ 3 heads] = P(A  B  C) = P(A).P(B).P(C)
1 1 1 1
=   
2 2 2 8

EX-2: Two fair dice are rolled. If the sum of the numbers obtained is 4, find the probability that the
numbers obtained on both the dice are even-

Solution:
Let events A and B be —
A: the sum of the numbers is 4
B: the numbers on both the dice are even
Here, we have to find ----- P( A  B)
P(B/A) =
P( A)

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Event A has 3 favourable outcomes, namely, (1,3),(2,2) and (3,1)

P( A  B)
P ( B | A) 
B ( A)
 P[Sum 4] = P(A) = 3/36
Event (A  B) has 1 favourable outcomes, namely, (2,2).
 P[Sum 4 and number even] = P(A  B) = 1/36
Thus, P[Number even given Sum 4]
1
 36  1
3 3
36

EX-3 A box has 1 red and 3 white balls. Balls are drawn one after one from the box. Find the probability
that the two balls drawn would be red if
a. the ball drawn first is returned to the box before the second draw is made. (Draw with
replacement).
b. the ball drawn first is not returned before the second draw is made. (Draw without replacement).
Solution:

Let A : the first ball drawn is red

B : the second ball drawn is red.
Draw with replacement:
Here, P(A) =1/4 Also, since the first ball- is returned before the second draw is made, P(B|A) =1/4
 P[Two balls are red] = P(A  B)
= P(A).P(B|A)

= 1/4 * 1/4 =1/16

Draw without replacement:

Here, Since the first ball drawn is not returned before the second draw is made, P(B|A) =
0/4
.'. P [Two balls are red} = P(A  B)
= P(A).P(B|A)
= ¼ * 0/4 = 0

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EX:4

The probability that a trainee will remain with a company 0.6, The probability that an employee
earns more ten Rs.10,000 per year 0.5. The probability an employee is trainee who remained with the
company or who earn more then Rs.10,000 per year is 0.7. What is the probability earn more than
Rs.10,000 per year given that he is a trainee who stayed with the company

Solutions: event A: A trainee will remain with the company

Event B: A trainee earns more than Rs. 10,00.
Given P(A) = 0.6 P(B) = 0.5 P(A  B) = 0.7
We need to find
P( A  B) P( A)  P( B)  P( A  B) 0.4
P( B | A)     0.67
P( A) P( A) 0.6

EX:5
Suppose that one of the three men, a politician a bureaucrat and an educationist will be
appointed as VC of the university. The probabilities of there appointment are respectively 0.3,0.25,and
0.45. The probability that these people will promote research activities if there are appointed is 0.4,0.7
and 0.8 respectively. What is the probability that research will be promoted by the new VC
Solutions:
event A: Politician appointed as VC
event B: bureaucrat appointed as VC
event C: Educationist appointed as VC
event D: promotion of research activities
 P( A  P)  P( B  D)  P(C  D).
 P( D | A).P( A)  P( D | B).P( B)  P( D | C ).P(C )
 (0.3)(0.4)  (0.25)(0.7)  (0.45)(0.8)  0.655

EX:6 A box contains 4 green and 6 white bolls another box contains 7 green and 8 white bolls. Two
bolls are transferred from box 1 to box 2 and then a boll is drawn from box 2. What is the probability
that it is white?
event A: transferred balls are green
event B: transferred balls are white
event C: Among transferred balls one green & 1 white
event D: selection of a white ball from box 2.
 P( A  D)  P( B  D)  P(C  D)
 P( D | A).P( A)  P( D | B).P( B)  P( D | C ).P(C )
4
C2 8 6
C2 10 4 C1 6 C1 9
 10
.  .  10 
C2 17 10 C2 17 C2 17
 0.5412

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EX:7 Probabilities of Husband’s and wife’s selection to a post are 1/5 and 1/7 respectively, what is
the probability that.
•Both of them will be selected.
•Exactly one of them will be selected
•None of them will be selected
Solutions:
1
event A: selection of Husband P(A) =
5
1
event B: selection of Husband P(B) =
7
(i) P(both of them will be selected) = P(A  B) =P(A).P(B)
1 1 1
=  
5 7 35
(ii) P(exactly one of them will bw selected)
P( A  B)  P( B  A)
=  P( A).P( B)  P( B).P( A)
4 1 6 1 10
     .
5 7 7 5 35
P( A  B)
(iii) P(none of them will be selected) =  P ( A).P( B)
4 6 24
  
5 7 35
Bayes’Theorem

Suppose A1 , A2 , . . . An are partitions on S such that S  A1  A2 .....  An and Ai  A j   for i  j.

Suppose the event B occurs if one of the events A1 , A2 , . . . An occurs. Thus we have the information of the
probabilities P ( Ai ) and P ( B / Ai ), i  1, 2.., n. We ask the following question:
Given that B has occured what is the probability that a particular event Ak has occured ? In other words
what is P( Ak / B) ?

n
We have P( B)   P(Ai ) P  B | Ai  ( Using the theorem of total probability)
i 1

P(Ak ) P  B/Ak 
 P(Ak | B) 
P(B)
P(Ak ) P  B/Ak 
 n

 P(A )P( B / A )
i 1
i i

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Ex-1. In a certain college 25% of boys of boys and 100% of girls are studying mathematics.the girls
constitute 60% of the student body.a)what is the probablity the mathematics is being studeid b)if a
student is selected at random and is found to be studying mathematics,find the probability that the
student is a girl? C)a boy?
Solution:P(B)=40/100=0.4
P(G)=60/100=0.6
Probability that Mathemtics is studied given that the student is a boy = P(M/B)=25/100=0.25
Probability that mathemtics is studied given that the student is a girl = P(M/G)=10/100=0.1
a) Probability that the student studied Mathematics = P(M)= P(G). P(M/G)+P(B). P(M/B)
There fore, by total probability theorem, P(M)=4/25.
P(G).P(M/G)
b) By Baye’s theorem, probability of Mathematics student is a girl = P(G/M) = = 3/8.
P(M)
P(B).P(M/B)
c) Probability of maths student is a boy = P(B/M)= = 5/8.
P(M)
Ex-2In a binary communication system a zero and a one is transmitted with probability 0.6 and 0.4
respectively. Due to error in the communication system a zero becomes a one with a probability 0.1
and a one becomes a zero with a probability 0.08. Determine the probability (i) of receiving a one and
(ii) that a one was transmitted when the received message is one.

Solution:Let S be the sample space corresponding to binary communication. Suppose T0 be event of

transmitting 0 and T1 be the event of transmitting 1 and R0 and R1 be corresponding events of
receiving 0 and 1 respectively.
Given P(T0 )  0.6, P(T1 )  0.4, P( R1 / T0 )  0.1 and P( R0 / T1 )  0.08.
(i) P ( R1 )  Probabilty of receiving 'one'
 P(T1 ) P( R1 / T1 )  P(T0 ) P ( R1 / T0 )
 0.4  0.92  0.6  0.1
 0.448
(ii) Using the Baye's rule
P (T1 ) P ( R1 / T1 )
P (T1 / R1 ) 
P ( R1 )
P (T1 ) P ( R1 / T1 )

P (T1 ) P ( R1 / T1 )  P (T0 ) P ( R1 / T0 )
0.4  0.92

0.4  0.92  0.6  0.1
 0.8214

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Ex- 3 In an electronics laboratory, there are identically looking capacitors of three makes A1 , A2 and A3
in the ratio 2:3:4. It is known that 1% of A1 , 1.5% of A2 and 2% of A3 are defective. What percentage
of capacitors in the laboratory are defective? If a capacitor picked at defective is found to be defective,
what is the probability it is of make A3 ?
Let D be the event that the item is defective. Here we have to find
P( D) and P( A3 / D).
2 1 4
Here P( A1 )  , P( A2 )  and P( A3 )  .
9 3 9
The conditional probabilities are P( D / A1 )  0.01, P( D / A2 )  0.015 and P( D / A3 )  0.02.
 P( D)  P( A1 ) P( D / A1 )  P( A2 ) P( D / A2 )  P( A3 ) P( D / A3 )
2 1 4
  0.01   0.015   0.02
9 3 9
 0.0167
and
P( A3 ) P( D / A3 )
P( A3 / D) 
P( D)
4
 0.02
 9
0.0167
 0.533

H.W-1. The chance that doctor a will diagnose a disease X correctly is 60%.the chance that a patient
will die by his treatment after correct diagnosis is 40% and the chance of death by wrong diagnosis is
70%.A patient of doctor A,who had disease X,died.what is the chance that his disease was diagnised
correctly?
H.W-2. A bag A contain 2 white and 3 red balls and a bag B contain 4 white &5 red balls .one ball is
drawn at random from one of the bags and it is found to be red find the probability that the red ball
drawn is from bag B.
H.W-3. First box contain 2 black ,3 red ,1white balls second box contains 1 black 1 red 2 white and
third box contain 5 black 3 red 4 white balls .of these a box is selected at random from it a red ball is
randomly drawn .If the ball is red find the probability that it is from second box.
H.W-4 suppose 5 men out of 100 and 25 women out of 10,000 are colore blind .a colour blind person
is choosen at random.what is the probability of the person being a male (assume male and female to be
in equal numbers?’

H.W5 ina bolt factory machine A,B,C manufacture 20%,30%,50% of the total of their output and
6%,3%,2% are defective.A bolt is drawn at random and found to be defective.find the probabilities that
it is manufactureed fromi)machineAii) machineBiii) machineC

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PROBABILITY MASS FUNCTION

Let X be a discrete random variable. And let p(x) be a function such that p(x) = P[X=x]. Then, p(x) is
the probability mass function of X.
Here, (i)p(x) ≥0 for all x
(ii)∑p(x) = 1

A similar function is defined for a continuous random variable X. Its is called probability
density function (p.d.f.). It is denoted by f(x).

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PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

A systematic presentation of the values taken by a random variable and the corresponding probabilities
is called probability distribution of the random variable.
BERNOULLI EXPERIMENT
A random variable X which assumes values 1 and 0 with respective probabilities p and q = 1-p is
called Bernoulli variables
The Bernoulli distribution is---
X 1 0
p(x) P q

Note1: Bernoulli distribution has one constant, namely, p. This constant p is called parameter of the
Bernoulli distribution. Different values of p(where 0<p<1) give different Bernoulli distributions.
Note2: Bernoulli distribution can also be written down as p(x) = px q1-x, x = 0,1
Note3: Here occurrence of the value 1 may be termed as “Success” and the occurrence of the value 0
may be termed as “Failure”.
Therefore, P[Success]=p and P{Failure] = q=1-p

Examples:
1. A fair coin is tossed. Let the variable X takes values 1 and 0 according as the toss
results in “Head” or “Tail”. Then, X is a Bernoulli variables with parameter p = ½..
Here, X denotes the number of Head obtained in the toss.

REPETITION OF BERNOULLI EXPERIMENT

Bernoulli experiment: Suppose a random experiment has two outcomes, namely, “Success” and
“Failure”. Let probability of Success be p and let probability of Failure be q=(1-p). Such an experiment
is called Bernoulli experiment or Bernoulli trial.

Let a Bernoulli experiment be conducted (repeated) n times. Let the variable Xi (i=1,2,3,…n) take
values 1 and 0 according as the ith experiment is a Success or a Failure. Then, Xi is a Bernoulli variate
with parameter p. It denotes the number of success in the ith experiment.

Let X = X1+X2+…..+Xn. Then, X denotes the number of success in these n repetitions.

Example:
1. Let coin be tossed 3 times. Let Xi (i=1,2,3) be a variate which takes values 1 and 0 according as
the ith toss result in “Head” or “Tail”. Then, X = X1+X2+X3 denotes “the number of head”
obtained in the 3 tosses.
Result:
If X1, X2, …Xn are independently and identically distributed (i,i,d) Bernoulli variates with common
parameter p, their sum X = X1+X2 + ….+Xn is a Binomial variate with parameters n and p

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MEAN & VARIANCE OF BERNOULLI DISTIBUTION

Let X be a Bernoulli variate with parameter p. Then, probability distribution of X is
X 1 0
p(x) P q
E ( X )   x. p( x)
 1 p  0  q  p
E ( X 2 )   x 2 . p( x)
 12  p  0 2  q  p
Var ( X )  E ( X 2 )  [ E ( X )] 2
 p  p2
 p(1  p)  pq

Thus, Mean is E(X) = P

Variance is Var(X) = p(1-p) = pq
Standard deviation is S.D.(X) = pq
BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION
A Probability distribution which has the following probability mass function (p.m.f) is called Binomial
distribution.
p(x) = nCx px qn-x, x=0,1,2,……n.
0<p<1; q=1-p
Here n, p are parameters the variable X is discrete and it is called Binomial variate.
Note1: Binomal p.m.f. has two independent constants, namely, n and p. These two constants are the
parameters of binomial distribution
Note2: A binomial distribution with parameter n and p is denoted by b(x;n,p) or B(n,p).

EXAMPLES FOR BINOMIAL VARIATE

1.Number of heads obtained in 3 tosses of a coin.

2.Number of male children in a family of 5 children
3.Number of bombs hitting a bridge among 8 bombs which are dropped on it.
4.Number of defective articles in a random sample of 5 articles drawn from a manufactured lot
5.Number of seeds germinating among 10 seeds which were sown

EX : The incidence of an occupational disease in an industry is such that the worker have 25% change
of suffering from it. What is the probability that out of 5 workers, at the most two contract that disease.
Solutions:

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X : number of workers contracting the diseases among 5 workers

Then, X is a binomial variate with parameter n=5 and

p = P[a worker contracts the disease] = 25/100 = 0.25

The probability mass function (p.m.f) is =P(x) = 5Cx(0.25)x (0.75)5-x, x=0,1,2,….5

The probability that at the most two workers contract the disease is ---
P[ X  2]  p (0)  p (1)  p (2)
 5 C 0 (0.25) 0 (0.75) 5  5 C1 (0.25)1 (0.75) 4  5 C 2 (0.25) 2 (0.75) 3
 0.2373  0.3955  0.2637
 0.8965

EX: In a large consignment of electric lamps, 5% are defective. A random sample of 8 lamps is taken
for inspection. What is the probability that it has one or more defectives.
Solution:
X: number of defective lamps
Then, X is B(n=8, p=5/100 = 0.05)
The p.m.f. is –
p(x) = 8 C x (0.05) x (0.95) 8 x , x  0,1,2,...8
P[sample has one or more defectives] = 1-P[no defectives]
= 1-p(0)
= 1 - 8C0 (0.05)0(0.95)8
= 1 – 0.6634 = 0.3366
EX : In a Binomial distribution the mean is 6 and the variance is 1.5. Then, find (i) P[X=2] and (ii)
P[X≤2].
Solution:
Let n and p be the parameters. Then,
Mean = np = 6
Variance = npq = 1.5
Variance npq 1.5 1
  
Mean np 6 4
Therefore, q = ¼ and p = ¾
Therefore, Mean = n*3/4 = 6
That is, n = 24/3 = 8
The p.m.f is -------
p(x) = 8Cx (3/4)x (1/4)8-x, x=0,1,2,…….8
(i) P[X=2] = 8C2 (3/4)2 (1/4)6 =252/65536=0.003845
(ii) P[X≤2] = p(0)+p(1)+p(2)
8
C0 (3/4) (1/4)8 + 8C1 (3/4)1 (1/4)7 + 8C2 (3/4)2 (1/4)6
0

= 277/65536 = 0.004227
POISSON DISTRIBUTION

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A probability distribution which has the following probability mass function (p.m.f) is called Poisson
distribution

Here, the variable X is discrete and it is called Poisson variate.

Note 1: λ is the parameter of Poisson, Poisson distribution has only one parameter
Note 2: Poisson distribution may be treated as limiting form of binomial distribution under the
following conditions. (Binomial distribution tends to Poisson distribution under the following
conditions.)
(i) p is very small (p→0)
(ii) n is very large (n →∞) and
(iii) np=λ is fixed

EXAMPLES FOR POISSON VARIATE

Many variables which occurs in nature vary according to the Poisson law. Some of them are
1. Number of death occurring in a city in a day
2. Number of road accidents occurring in a city in a day
3. Number of incoming telephone calls at an exchange in one minutes
4. Number of vehicles crossing a junction in one minutes.

EX : The number of accidents occurring in a city in a day is a Poisson variate with mean 0.8. Find the
probability that on a randomly selected day
(i)There are no accidents
(ii)There are accidents

Solutions:
Let X: number of accidents per day.
Then, X is P(λ=0.8).
The p.m.f. is –
e 0.8 (0.8) x
p( x)  , x  0,1,2,3,....
x!
(i) Probability that ob a particular day three are no accidents is ------------
P[no accidents] = P[X=0]=p(0)
e 0.8 (0.8) 0
=  e 0.8  0.449
0!
(ii) P[accidents occur] = 1-P[no accidents]
= 1-p(0) = 1-0.449 = 0.551

Ex: The number of persons joining a cinema queue in a minute has Poisson distribution with parameter
5.8. Find the probability that (i) no one joins the queue in a particular minute

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(ii)2 or more persons join the queue in the minute.

Solution:
Let X : number of persons joining the queue in a minute Then, is P(λ=5.8).
The p.m.f is -------------------
e 5.8 (5.8) x
p( x)  , x  0,1,2,3,....
x!
(i) P[no one joints the queue] = P[X=0] = p(0)
e 5.8 (5.8) 0
=
0!
 5 .8
= e =0.003

P[ X  2]
 1  P[ X  2]
 1  { p (0)  p (1)}
 e 5.8 (5.8) 0 e 5.8 (5.8)1 
(ii) P[two or more join] =  1    
 0! 1! 
 1  e 1  5.8
 5 .8

 1  0.003  6.8
 1  0.0204  0.9796

Ex: The average number of telephone calls booked at an exchange between 10-00 A.M. and 10-10
A.M. is Find the probability that on a randomly selected day 2 or more calls are booked between 10-00
A.M. and 10-10 A.M. On how many days of a year, would you expect booking of 2 or more calls
during that times gap.

Solutions:
Let X : number of telephone calls booked at the exchange during 10-00 A.M. to 10-10 A.M.
Then, X is P(λ=4).
The p.m.f is ---
e 4 4 x
p ( x)  , x  0,1,2,3,...
x!
P[2 or more calls] = 1-P[less than 2 calls]
= 1 – [p(0) +p(1)]
= 1 – e-4[(40)/0! +(41)/1!]
= 1 – 0.0183[1+4]
= 1 – 0.0915 = 0.9085
An year has 365 days. Out of these N = 365 days, the number of days on which there will be 2 or more
calls is ---
N *P[2 or more calls] = 365 * 0.9085 = 332
Ex: 2 percent of the fuses manufactured by a firm are expected to be defective, Find the probability
that a box containing 200 fuses contains

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(i) defective fuses

(ii) 3 or more defective fuse
Solutions:
2 percent of the fuses are defective. Therefore, probability that a fuses is defective is p = 2/100 = 0.02
Let X denote the number of defective fuses in the box of 200 fuses. Then, X is B(n = 200, p = 0.02)
Let X denote the number of defective fuses in the box of 200 fuses. Then, X is B (n = 200, p = 0.02)
Here, p is very small and n is very large. Therefore, X can be treated as Poisson variate with
parameter λ=np = 200 * 0.02 = 4.
The p.m.f. is ----

e 4 4 x
p ( x)  , x  0,1,2,3,...
x!
P[box has defective fuses] = 1-P[no defective fuses]
= 1 – p(0)
= 1 – e-4[(40)/0!
= 1 – 0.0183 =0.9817

P[3 or more defective fuses] = 1-P[less than 3 defective fuses]

= 1 – [p(0)+p(1) +p(2)]
= 1 – e-4[1+4+8]
= 1 – 0.0183*13
= 1 – 0.2379 =0.7621

Ex: The probability that a razor blade manufactured by a firm is defective is 1/500. Blades are supplied
in packets of 5 each. In a lot of 10,000 packets, how many packets would
(i)Be free defective blades?
(ii) Contains exactly one defective blade?(e-0.01=0.99)

Solution:
Let X be the number of defective blades in a packet of 5 blades. Then, X is B (n = 5, p = 1/500)
Since p is very small and n is sufficiently large, X is treated as Poisson variate with parameter
λ=np = 5*(1/500) = 0.01
e 0.01 (0.01) x
p ( x)  , x  0,1,2,3,...
x!
(i) P[ no defective blades] = p(0)
= e-0.01(0.01)0/0! = 0.99

The number of packets which will be free of defective blades is -----

N * P[no defective blades] = 10000*0.99 = 9900
(ii) P[one defective blade] = p(1)

The probability that a razor blade manufactured by a firm is defective is 1/500. Blades are supplied in
packets of 5 each. In a lot of 10,000 packets, how many packets would
(i)Be free defective blades?
(ii) Contains exactly one defective blade?(e-0.01=0.99)

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(ii) P[one defective blade] = p(1)

= e-0.01(0.01)1/1! = 0.0099

The number pf packets which will have one defectives blade is ----
N * P[one defective blade] = 10000*0.0099 = 99

Ex:On an average, a typist mistakes while typing one page. What is the probability that a randomly
observed page in free of mistakes? Among 200 pages, in how many pages would you expect mistakes?
Solutions:
Let X: number of mistakes in a page.
Then, X is P(λ=3).
The p.m.f. is ---
e 3 3 x
p ( x)  , x  0,1,2,3,....
x!
P[page is free of mistakes] = p(0)
e 3 30
  e 3  0.0498
0!
P[page has mistakes] = 1-P[Page has no mistakes]
= 1-0.0498=0.9502

Among 200 pages, the expected number of pages containing mistakes is ---
N*P[page has mistakes] = 200*0.9502=190

Ex: In a Poisson distribution P[X=2] = P[X=3]. Find P[X=4].

Solution:
Let λ be the parameter
Here, P[X = 2] = P[X=3]
e    2 e   3
 3 
2! 3!

1
3
And so, λ=3
The p.m.f. is ----
e 3 3 x
p ( x)  , x  0,1,2,....
x!
e 3 3 2
P[X=4] = p(4) =
4!
0.0498  81
=  0.1681
24

Ex: For a Poisson variables 3 * P[X=2] = P[X=4]. Find standard deviation.

Solution:

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Here, 3*P[X = 2] = P[X=4]

e   2 e   4
 3 
2! 4!
2
3
3 4
And so, λ2=36
That is , λ=3
Thus, the parameter is λ=6
The standard deviation S.D.(X) =   6  2.449

Exercise: The following data relates to the number of mistakes in each page of a book containing 180
pages.

No of mistakes per page: 0 1 2 3 4 5 or more Total

No. of Pages 156 16 5 2 1 0 180
Fit a Poisson distribution to the data. Obtain the theoretical frequencies

Solution:
Let X denotes the number of mistakes per page. Then, X is a Poisson variate. The parameter is ---

x
 fx
N
156  0  16  1  5  2  2  3  1  4  0  5

180
36
  0.2
180

The p.m.f is ---

e0.2 0.2 x
p( x)  , x  0,1,2,3,....
x!
The frequency function is---
e 0.2 0.2 x
T X  180  , x  0,1,2,3,....
x!
e 0.2 0.2 0
T0  180 
0!
 180  0.8187  147.37

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UNIT-I
QUESTION BANK
1. Define the following
Random variable (ii) Distribution function (iii) Condition probability
2. Definitions of conditional probability, baye’s theorem
3. define the expectation, variance, standard deviation
1
4. Find the mean and the variance of the uniform probability distribution given by f ( x) 
n
for x  1, 2, 3,  , n.
5. let x denote the number of heads in a single toss of 4 fair coins. Determine P(x<2),P(1<X<3)
6. A random variable x has the following probability distribution.
x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

P(x=x) K 2k 3k 4k 5k 6k 7k 8k

Find the value of K (ii) p(x 2) (iii) p(2  x ≤ 5).

7. Ten coins are thrown simultaneously. Find the probability of getting at least seven heads.
8. A sample of 4 items is selected at random from a box containing 12 items of which 5 are defective
find the expected number E of defective item
9. Let X denote the sum of the two numbers that appear when a pair of fair dice is tossed determine the
mean and variance

Binomial distribution problems

10. 20% of its items produced from a factory are defective. Find the probability that i) None is
defective. ii) One in defective iii) P(1< X < 4)
11. The incidence of occupational disease in an industry is such that the workers have a 20% chance of
suffering from it. What is the probability that out of 6 workers chosen at random, four or more will
suffer from the disease?
12.Determine the Binomial distribution for which the mean is 4 and variance 3. Also find its mode.

13.If in eight throws of a fair die, getting a 5 or 6 is considered as a success, find the mean and the
standard deviation of the successes.
14. The mean and variance of binomial distribution are 4 and 4/3 respectively. Find the probability of
occurrence of (a ) at most one success (b) least 3 successes.
15.A car hire firm has two cars, which it hires out day by day. The number of demands for a car on
each day is distributed as Poisson variable with mean 1.5. Calculate the proportion of days on which
(a) neither car is used (b) some demand is refused.

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16.The mean and variance of binomial distribution are 4 and 4/3 respectively. Find the probability of
occurrence of (a ) at most one success (b) least 3 successes
17.If the probability of a defective bolt is 0.2 find mean and variance for the distribution of bolts in a
total of 400
18. Out of 800 families with 5 children each, hoe many would you expect to have a)3 boys b)5 girls
c)either 3 or 3 boys
19.Determine the probability of getting the sum 6 exactly 3 times in 7 throws with a pair of fair dice
20.a die is thrown 6 times if getting an even number is a success, find the probabilities of i)at least one
success ii)<3 success iii)4 success
21.Two dice are thrown five times find the probabilities of getting 7 as sum i)at least one success
ii)2times iii)P(1<X<5)
22. if 3 of 20 tyres are defective and 4 of them randomly chosen for inspection, what is the probability
that only one of the defective tyre will be included
23.if the probability of a defective bolts is 1/8 find i)the mean ii)the variance for the distribution of
defective bolts of 640
Poisson distribution problems
24.The mean value for an event X to occur is 2 in a day. Find the probability of event X to occur thrice
in a day
25. A car hire firm has two cars, which it hires out day by day. The number of demands for a car on
each day is distributed as Poisson variable with mean 1.5. Calculate the proportion of days on which
(a) neither car is used (b) some demand is refused.
26.if a bank received on the average 6 bad cheques per day find the probability that it will received 4
bad cheques on any given day
27.Average number of accidents on any day on a national highway is 1.8. Determine the probability
that the number of accidents is (i) at least one (ii) at most one
28.if a random variable has a poisson distribution such that P(1)=P(2) find i)mean ii)P(4) iii)P(x>1)
iv)P(1<X<4)
29.A random variable X has the following probability function:

X -2 -1 0 1 2 3

P(x) 0.1 K 0.2 2K 0.3 K

Then find (i) k (ii) mean (iii) variance (iv) P(0 < x < 3)
30.Out of 800 families with 5 children each, how many would you expect to have (i)3 boys (ii)5 girls
(iii)either 2 or 3 boys ? Assume equal probabilities for boys and girls..
31.Average number of accidents on any day on a national highway is 1.8. Determine the
probability that the number of accidents is at least one (ii) at most one
32.The mean and variance of a binomial variable X with parameters n and p are 16 and Find P( X < 1)

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UNIT-II

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NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

A probability distribution which has the following probability density functions(p.d.f) is called Normal
distribution

Here, the variable X is continuous and it is called Normal variate.

Note 1: The distribution has two parameters, namely, µ and σ.(Here, Π=3.14 and e=2.718.

Note 2 : This normal distribution has Mean E(X) = µ and Variance = V(X) = σ2. S.D.(X)=σ.

Note 3: A normal variate with parameters µ and σ is denoted by N(µ,σ2)

Note 4: The normal p.d.f. can also be written as-

EXAMPLES FOR NORMAL VARIATE

Many of the variables which occur in nature have normal distribution. Some examples are –
1.Height of students of a college
2.Weight of apples grown in an orchard
3.I.Q(Intelligence Quotient) of a large group of children.
4.Marks scored by students in an examination
PROPERTIES OF NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
(Properties of normal Curve)
A normal distribution with parameters µ and σ has the following properties.

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1.The curve is Bell –shaped

a. It is symmetrical (Non-skew).
That is β1 = 0
b. The mean, media and mode are equal

2. The curve is asymptotic to the X-axis. That is, the curve touches the X-axis only at -∞ and+∞.

3. The curve has points of inflexion at µ - σ and µ +σ.

4. For the distribution ….

a. Standard deviation = σ
b. Quartile deviation = 2/3 σ (approximately)
c. Mean deviation = 4/5 σ (approximately)

5. For the distribution –

a. The odd order moments are equal to zero.
b. The even order moments are given by –

Thus, µ2 = σ2 and µ4 = 3σ4

6. The distribution is mesokurtic. That is,β2 =3.

7. Total area under the curve is unity.

P[a < X ≤ b]= Area bounded by the curve

and the ordinates at a and b

a. P[ µ - σ < X ≤ µ + σ ] = 0.6826 = 68.26%

b. P[µ – 2σ < X ≤ µ + 2σ] = 0.9544 = 95.44%
c .P[µ – 3 σ < X ≤ µ + 3σ] = 0.9974 = 99.74%

STANDARD NORMAL VARIATE (SNV)

A normal variate with mean µ=0 and standard deviation σ =1 is called Standard Normal Variate. It is
denoted by Z. Its probability density function is –

The graph of standard normal distribution is shown in the figure

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The shaded area in the figure represents the probability that the variate takes a value between 0 and z.
This area can be read from the table of areas under Standard Normal Curve. Corresponding to nay
positive z, the area from 0 to z can be read from this table.
X 
Let X be a normal variate with mean µ and standard deviation σ. Then Z  is a Standard

Normal Variate

Therefore, to find any probability regarding X, the Standard Normal Variate can be made use of.
Note: The Standard Normal Variate (SNV)is denoted by N(0,1).

EX-1;
X is a normal variate with mean 42 and standard deviation 4. Find the probability that a value taken
by X is
(i)less then 50 (ii) greater than 50
(iii) less than 40 (iv) greater than 40
(v) between 43 and 46 (vi) between 40 and 44
(vii) between 37 and 41.

Solution:
X is a normal variate with parameters µ=42 and σ=4
Therefore,

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is a Standard Normal Variate.

(i)

= P[Z<2]
= area from(-) to 2
= [area from(-) to 0]+[area from(-)0 to 2
= 0.5 + 0.4772(from the table)
= 0.977200

= P[Z>2]
= area from 2 to 
= [area from 0 to  ] - [area from 0 to 2]
= 0.5 - 0.4772(from the table)
= 0.0228

= P[Z < -0.5]

= area from(- ) to (-0.5)
= area from 0.5 to 
= [area from 0 to ] - [area from 0 to 0.5]
= 0.5 - 0.1915
= 0.3085

= P[Z > -0.5]

= area from (-0.5) to 
= area from (-0.5) to 0] + [area from 0 to ]
= [area from 0 to 0.5] + [area from 0 to ]
= 0.1915 + 0.5
= 0.6915

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= P[-0.5 < Z < 0.5]

= area from -0.5 to 0.5
= area from -0.5 to 0] + [area from 0 to 0.5]
= area from 0 to 0.5] + [area from 0 to 0.5]
= 0.1915 + 0.1915
= 0.3830

= P[-1.25 < Z <-0.25]

= area from –1.25 to 0.25
= area from 0.25 to 1.25
= area from 0 to 1.25] - [area from 0 to 0.25]
= 0.3944 – 0.0987
= 0.2957

EX2

Height of students is normally distribute with mean 165 cms. And standard deviation 5 cms. Find the
probability that height of a students is
more than 177 cms.
less than 162 cms

Solution:
Let X denote height. Then, X is a normal variate with parameters µ = 165 cms. And σ=5 cms.

Is N(0,1).

(i) Probability that the student is more than 177 cms tall is –

= P[Z > 2.4]

= area from 2.4 to 
= [area from 0 to ] – [area from 0 to 2.4]
= 0.5 – 0.4918
= 0.0082

ii) Probability that the student is less than 162 cms. Tall is -----

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= P[Z < -0.6]

= area from (-) to (-0.6)
= area from 0.6 to 
= [area from 0 to ] – [area from 0 to 0.6]
= 0.5 – 0.2258
= 0.2742

EX3

Mean life of electric bulbs manufactured by a firm is 1200 hrs. The standard deviation is 200 hrs.
(i) In a lot of 10,000 bulbs, how many bulbs are expected have life 1050 hrs. or more?
(ii) What is the percentage of bulbs which are expected to find before 1500 hrs. of service?

Solution:
Let X denotes the life of the bulbs. Then, X is a normal variate with parameters µ=1200hrs σ=200 hrs

(i) Probability that life of a bulb is 1050 hrs. or more is ---

=P[ Z ≤ -0.75]
=0.2734 + 0.5
=0.7734

In a lot of n=10,000 bulbs, expected number of bulbs with life 1050 hrs. or
more is ---
N * P[X≥1050]=10000*0.7734=7734

(ii) Probability that life of a bulb is 1050 hrs. or more is ---

=P[ Z < 1.5]

=0.5 + 0.4332
=0.9332

The percentage of bulbs with life less than 1500 hrs is ---
100 * P[X<1050]=100*0.9332=93.32

EX4

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The mean and standard deviation of marks scored by a group of students in an examination are 47 and
10 respectively. If only 20% of the students have to be promoted, which should be the marks limits for
promotion?

Solution:
Let X denotes marks. Then, X is a Normal variate with parameters µ=47 and σ=10.

is N(0,1).

Let a be the marks above which if a student scores he would be promoted. Then, since only 20% of the
students have to be promoted the probability of a student getting promotion should be 20/100=0.2
Therefore,

a  47
And so, P[Z≥.z] = 0.2 where z=
1
That is, [area from z to ∞]=0.2
That is, [area from 0 to z]=0.3
From the table of areas, the value of z for which [area from 0 to z] = 0.3 is z=0.84
Therefore, z=0.84.
And so,

Thus, the marks limit for promotion is a = 55.4

Curve fitting method-1

Least Square Fit of a Straight Line

Suppose that we are given a data set of observations

from an experiment. Say that we are interested in fitting a straight line

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to the given data. Find the ' ' residuals by:

Now consider the sum of the squares of i.e

Note that is a function of parameters a and b. We need to find a,b such that is minimum. The
necessary condition for to be minimum is given by:

The condition yields:

i.e

Similarly the condition yields

Equations (5) and (6) are called as normal equations,which are to be solved to get desired values for a
and b.

The expression for i.e (3) can be re-written in a convenient way as follows:

Example-1: Using the method of least squares, find an equation of the form

that fits the following data:

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Solution: Consider the normal equations of least square fit of a straight line i.e

Here =5.

From the given data, we have,

Therefore the normal equations are given by:

30a +10b =243 ................(3)

10a+5b=76.......................(4)

On solving (3) and (4) we get

a = 9.1 , b= - 3 ................................................................(5)

Hence the required fit for the given data is

y=9.1x - 3 ...................... ..(6)

method-2

Experimental data may not be always linear. One may be interested in fitting either a curve of the

form or However, both of these forms can be linearized by taking

logarithms on both the sides. Let us look at the details:

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On taking logarithms on both the sides we get:

Say

Using (3) in (2) we get

which is linear in .

On taking logarithms we get

Say

we get

Example-1: By the method of least square fit a curve of the form to the following data:

Solution.

Consider

On taking logarithm on both the sides we get

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Say

Using (3) in (2) we get

Data in modified variables

Normal equations corresponding to the straight line fit (4) are:

From the modified data we get

normal equations take the form:

On solving for we obtain,

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The desired curve is

method-3Least Square fit of a parabola

Given a data set of n observations , of an experiment .Now we try to fit a best

possible parabola

following the principle of least square. Finding the appropriate parabola amounts to determining the

constants that minimize the sum of the squares of the residuals given by

The necessary condition for E to be minimum is

Now the condition yields

i.e

Similarly yields

i.e

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Finally yields

Equations (4), (5) and (6) are called as normal equations whose solution yields the values of the
constants a, b and c and thus the desired parabola.

Example-1: Given the following data from an experimental observation

y: 9.4 11.8 14.7 18.0 23.0

x: 1.0 1.6 2.5 4.0 6.0

fit a parabola in the form following the principle of least square.

Solution) Here

The normal equations for finding a parabolic fit are:

(1)

The normal equations are:

(2)

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On Solving (2) for we get

UNIT-II
QUESTION BANK
 k (1  x 2 ) 0  x 1
1.A random variable X has density function: f ( x)  
 0 elsewhere.
Find the value of k and the probabilities that X will take on a value(a)between 0.1 and 0.2 (b) greater
than 0.5.
2. Define probability density function. If a random variable has the probability density function
 2e  2 x x0
f ( x)  
 0 elsewhere,
find the probabilities that it will take on a value(a) between 1 and 3 (b) greater than 0.5.
3. Let F(X) be the distribution function of random variable X given by
𝑐𝑥 3 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = { 1, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 > 3Determine (i) c (ii) mean (iii) p(x>1)
0, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 ≤ 0
4. A random variable X has density function
 ce3 x x0
f ( x)   Find (a) the constant c (b) P ( 1  X  2 ) (c) P ( X  3 ) .
 0 elsewhere.

 sin x / 2 0  x  
5. probability density function of a random variable X is f ( x)   find the mean
 0 elsewhere.
,mode, mean deviation of the normal distribution
 0 x 1
 1 x  3
F ( x)   K ( x  1)4 x3
6.A continuous random variable X has the distribution function 1
 .

determine i) k ii)mean iii)variance

7.Find the probability that a random variable having the standard normal distribution will take on a
value between 0.87 and 1.28 between  0.34 and 0.62.

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8.If X is a normal variate with mean 30 and the standard deviation 5, find the probabilities that
(a) 26  X  40 (b) X  45 .
9.In a normal distribution, 7% of the items are under 35 and 89% are under 63. Find the mean and the
standard deviation of the distribution.
10.In a normal distribution 31% of the items are under 31% and 8% are over 64. Find the mean and
standard deviation of the distribution.
11.If the height of 300 students are normally distributed with mean 172 centimeters and standard
deviation 6 cm, how many students have heights greater than 184 centimeters; between 164 and 180
centimeters (inclusive) and equal to 172 centimeters?
12. If the masses of 300 students are normally distributed with mean 68 kgs and standard deviation
3 kgs how many students have masses (i)Greater than 72 kgs (ii) Less than or equal to 64kgs (iii)
Between 65 and 71 kgs inclusive ?
13.Chief characteristics of Normal distribution.
Fit a straight line to the following data:
x: 1 2 3 4 6 8
y: 2.4 3 3.6 4 5 6
14.Estimate Y at x  2.25 by fitting an indifference curve of the form y  ax  b to
the following data:
1 2 3 4
x
y 3 1.5 6 7.5
15.Fit a least-squares parabola y  a  bx  cx 2 to the following data:
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
2.4 2.1 3.2 5.6 9.3 14.6 21.9
16.Fit a parabola for the following data:
X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Y 2 6 7 8 10 11 11 10
17.Predict Y at x  3.75 by fitting a power curve to the following data:
X 1 2 3 4 5 6
Y 2.98 4.26 5.21 6.10 6.80 7.50

18.Fit an exponential curve of the form y  a e b x to the following data:

x 1 2 3 4
y 7 11 17 27

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19.Derive the formulae for finding Mean, Median and Mode of a Normal distribution? In a normal
distribution, 31% of the items are under 45 and 8% are over 64. Find the mean and S.D. of the
distribution?
20. The mean and standard deviation of a normal variable are 8 and 4 respectively. find i)
p(5  x  10) ii) p ( x  5)
21.Write the properties of the Normal Distribution
22.Write the importance and applications of Normal Distribution

23.A continuous random variable has the probability density function

kxe x , for x  0,   0
f (x)   Determine (i) k (ii) Mean
0, otherwise
(iii) Variance

24.If the masses of 300 students are normally distributed with mean 68 kg and standard deviation3 kg
how many students have masses: greater than 72 kg (ii) less than or equal to 64 kg (iii) between 65
and 71 kg inclusive

25.What is the area under the whole normal curve?

26.Where the traits of normal distribution lies.
27.Write the properties of continuous random variable

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UNIT-III

Advantages of Probability Sampling

The following are the basic advantages of probability sampling methods:

•Probability sampling does not depend upon the existence of detailed information about the universe
for its effectiveness.
•Probability sampling provides estimates which are essentially unbiased and have measurable
precision.
•It is possible to evaluate the relative efficiency various sample designs only when probability
sampling is used
SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION AND STANDARD ERROR
Suppose a sample of size n is drawn from a population and the sample mean x is calculated. From the
population, many such sample of the same size can be drawn. For each of these samples, x can be
calculated. And so, there can be many values of x Suppose these different values of x are tabulated
in the form of a frequency distribution, the resulting distribution is called Sampling distribution of x
The standard deviation of this sampling distribution is called Standard Error (S.E)

The distribution of values of a statistic for different samples of the same size is called sampling
distribution of the statistic.

Standard Error (S.E.) of a statistic is the standard deviation of the sampling distribution of the
statistic.
Sampling distributions of other statistics such as sample variance, sample median, etc., can also be
written down. In each of these case, the corresponding standard deviation would be the standard error
(SE).

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Consider a population whose means is μ and standard deviation σ. Let a random sample of size n be
drawn from this population. Then, the sampling distribution of x has mean μ and standard error
 . That is, E( x ) = μ and S.E.( x ) = 
n n
Let a random sample of size n1 be drawn from population whose mean is μ1 and
σ1 standard deviation. And also, let a random sample of size n2 be drawn from another population
whose mean is μ2 and standard deviation is σ2 . Let x 1 be the mean of the first sample and x 2 be the
mean of the second sample . Then,
 12  22
E ( x1  x 2 )  ( 1   2 )andS .E.(( x1  x 2 ))  
n1 n2
STATISTICAL HYPOTHESIS

A statistical hypothesis is an assertion regarding the statistical distribution of the population. It

is a statement regarding the parameters of the population

Statistical hypothesis is denoted by H

Examples:
1. H: The population has mean μ = 25
2. H: The population is normally distributed with mean μ=25 and standard deviation

In a test procedure, to start with, a hypothesis is made. The validity of this hypothesis is tested. If the
hypothesis is found to be true, it is accepted. On the other hand, if it is found to be untrue, it is rejected

The hypothesis which is being tested for possible rejection is called null hypothesis. The null
hypothesis is denoted by H0. Hypothesis which is accepted when the null hypothesis is rejected is
called alternative hypothesis The alternative hypothesis is denoted by H 1.
CRITICAL REGION
From a population many samples of the same size n can be drawn. Let S be the set of all such sample
of size n that can be drawn from the population. Then, S is called sample space. While testing a null
hypothesis, among the samples which belong to S, some samples lead to the acceptance of the null
hypothesis, whereas, some others lead to the rejection of the null hypothesis. The set of all those
samples belonging to the sample space which lead to the rejection of the null hypothesis is called
critical region. The critical region ids denoted by ω. The critical region is also rejection region. The
set of samples which lead to the acceptance of the null hypothesis is the acceptance region. It is (S-
ω).

In fact, to decide whether the sample in hand belongs to ω, the criterian |Z| > k is adopted. And so, in
effect, the critical region is defined by |Z| >ks.

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UNIT-III
QUESTION BANK
1. Explain different Types and Classification of sampling
2. Which error is called producer’s risk?
3. Which error is called consumer’s risk.
4. When the single tailed test is used.
5. What is test statistics for testing single mean?
6. How to calculate limit for true mean.
7. A population consists of six numbers 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24. Consider all samples of size two
which can be drawn without replacement from this population.i) Find the means of sampling
distribution of means ii)the population standard deviation iii)the mean of the sampling
distribution of means iv) the standard deviation of the sampling distribution of means.
8. A population consists of the five numbers 3, 4, 7, 9, and 12. Consider all possible samples of
size two, which can be drawn with replacement from this population. Find:
the mean of the population the standard deviation of the populationthe mean of the sampling
distribution of means the standard error of means.
9.A population consists of five numbers 2,3,6,8,11.consider all possible samples of size two which
can be drawn with replacement from this population find i)mean of the population ii)the mean of
the sampling distribution of the mean iii)the standard deviation of the sampling distribution of the
mean iv) the standard deviation of the population
10 What is the effect on S.D if a sample is taken from an infinite population of sample size is
increased from 400 to 900
11.The mean height of students in a college is 155 cms &S.D is 15 what is the probability that the
mean height of 36students is less than 157 cms
12. A random sample of size 100 is taken from an infinite population having the mean 76 and
variance256 what is the probability that x will be b/w 75&78
13.A random sample of size 64 is taken from an infinite population having the mean 51.4 and
variance68 what is the probability that the mean of the sample will a)exceed52.9 b)50.5&52.3 c)be
less than 50.6

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UNIT-IV
TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS
 Null Hypothesis (N.H) denoted by H0 is statistical hypothesis, which is to be actually tested
for acceptance or rejection. NH is the hypothesis, which is tested for possible rejection under
 the assumption that it is true.
 Any Hypothesis which is complimentary to the N.H is called an Alternative Hypothesis denoted
 by H1
 Simple Hypothesis is a statistical Hypothesis which completely specifies an exact parameter.
N.H is always simple hypothesis stated as a equality specifying an exact value of the
parameter. E.g.
N.H = H0 :  = 0 N.H. = H0 : 1- 2= 

Composite Hypothesis is stated in terms of several possible values.

 Alternative Hypothesis(A.H) is a composite hypothesis involving statements expressed as

inequalities such as < , > or 
i) A.H : H1:  > 0 (Right tailed) ii) A.H : H1:  < 0 (Left tailed)
iii) A.H : H1: 0 (Two tailed alternative)

Type I error: Reject H0 when it is true

Type II error: Accept H0 when it is wrong (i.e) accept if when H1 is true.
Accept H0 Reject H0

H0 is True Correct Decision Type 1 error

H0 is False Type 2 error Correct Decision

 If P{ Reject H0 when it is true}= P{ Reject H0 | H0}= and
P{ Accept H0 when it is false}= P{ Accept H0 | H1} =  then , are called the sizes of Type
I error and Type II error respectively. In practice, type I error amounts to rejecting a lot when
it is good and type II error may be regarded as accepting the lot when it is bad.

  and  are referred to as producers risk and consumers risk respectively.

 A region (corresponding to a statistic t) in the sample space S that amounts to rejection of H 0
is called critical region of rejection.
  Level of significance is the size of the type I error ( or maximum producer’s risk)
 The levels of significance usually employed in testing of hypothesis are 5% and 1% and is
 always fixed in advance before collecting the test information.

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 A test of any statistical hypothesis where AH is one tailed( right tailed or left tailed) is called
a one–tailed test. If AH is two-tailed such as: H0:  = 0, against the AH. H1 : 0 (  > 0
 and
  < 0) is called Two-Tailed Test.
 The value of test statistics which separates the critical ( or rejection) region and the acceptance
region is called Critical value or Significant value. It depends upon (i) The level of
 significance used and (ii) The Alternative Hypothesis, whether it is two-tailed or single tailed
 From the normal probability tables we get
Critical Value Level of significance ()
(Z) 1% 5% 10%
Two-Tailed test -Z/2 = -2.58 -Z/2 = -1.96 -Z/2 = -1.645

Z/2 = 2.58 Z/2 = 1.96 Z/2 = 1.645
When Right-Tailed
test
Z = 2.33 Z = 1.645 Z = 1.28
Left-Tailed Test
Z = 2.33 Z = 1.645 Z = 1.28
the size of the sample is increased, the probability of committing both types of error I and II (i.e) 
and  are small, the test procedure is good one giving good chance of making the correct
decision.
 P-value is the lowest level ( of significance) at which observed value of the test statistic
is significant.
 A test of Hypothesis (T. O.H) consists of
1. Null Hypothesis (NH) : H0
2. Alternative Hypothesis (AH) : H1
3. Level of significance: 
4. Critical Region pre determined by 
5. Calculation of test statistic based on the sample data.
6. Decision to reject NH or to accept it.

CRITICAL REGION
From a population many samples of the same size n can be drawn. Let S be the set of all such sample
of size n that can be drawn from the population. Then, S is called sample space. While testing a null
hypothesis, among the samples which belong to S, some samples lead to the acceptance of the null
hypothesis, whereas, some others lead to the rejection of the null hypothesis. The set of all those
samples belonging to the sample space which lead to the rejection of the null hypothesis is called
critical region. The critical region ids denoted by ω. The critical region is also rejection region. The
set of samples which lead to the acceptance of the null hypothesis is the acceptance region. It is (S-
ω).

In fact, to decide whether the sample in hand belongs to ω, the criterian |Z| > k is adopted. And so, in
effect, the critical region is defined by |Z| >ks.

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ERRORS OF THE FIRST AND THE SECOND KIND

(Type I and type II errors)

While testing a null hypothesis against an alternative hypothesis, one f the following four situations
arise

Actual fact Decision based on the Error

sample
1 H0 is true accept H0 correct decision -
2 H0 is true reject H0 wrong decision Type I
3 H0 is not true accept H0 wrong decision Type II
4 H0 is not true reject H0 correct decision -

Here, in situations (2) and (3), wrong decisions are arrived at. These wrong decisions are Error of the
first kind (Type I error) and Error of the second kind (Type II error) respectively. Thus,

(i) Error of the first kind (Type I error) is taking a wrong decision to reject the null hypothesis
when it is actually true.

(ii) Error of the second kind (Type II error) is taking a wrong decision to accept the null
hypothesis when it is actually not true.

The probability of occurrence of the first kind of error is denoted by α. It is called level of significance.
Thus, the level of significance is the probability of Type I error. It is the probability of rejection
of the null hypothesis when it is actually true. Usually the level of significance is fixed at 0.05 or
0.01. In other words, the level is fixed at 5% or 1%.
The probability of occurrence of the second kind of error is denoted by β.
The value (1- β) is called power of the test. Power of a test is the probability of rejecting H0 when it
is not true.

While testing, the level of significance α is decided in advance. Then, the critical value k is determined
in such a way that the power (1- β) is maximum.
Thus, the critical value k is based on the level of significance. For tests which are based on normal
distribution, if α=0.05, the critical value is k = 1.96. If α=0.01, the critical value is k = 2.58.

Note: In fact, a decision to accepts H0, is based only on the given data. And so, rather than making
an assertive statement ‘H0 is accepted’, we would make a statement ‘H0 is not rejected’. However,
at the level of this book, we will not bother about the subtle difference between these statements

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TWO-TAILED AND ONE-TAILED TESTS (Two-sided and one-sided testes)

While testing H0, if the critical region is considered at one tail of the sampling distribution of the
test statistic, the test is one-tailed test

One the other hand, if the critical region is considered at both

the tails of the sampling distribution of the test statistic,
the test is two-tailed test.

Test of significance for large samples

let x be the observed number of successes in the sample and z is the standard
x  0
normal variable the Z 


EX-1A coin was tossed 960 times and returned heads 183 times test the hypothesis that the coin is
unbiased use a level of significance
SOLUTION:
N=960
Probability of getting head p=1/2
U=np=960X1/2=480
 = npq  960 *1 / 2 *1 / 2  15.89
1.Null Hypothesis (NH) : H0 the coin is unbiased
2. Alternative Hypothesis (AH) : H1 the coin is biased
3. Level of significance:  =0.05
x  0
4. Calculation of test statistic based on the sample data. Z  =

183  480
Z  19.17
15.89
5. Decision to reject NH or to rejected t it

H.W-1A dice was tossed 960 times and it falls with 5 upwards 184 times test the hypothesis that the dice
is unbiased use a level of significance0.01
H.W-2A coin was tossed 400times and returned heads 216 times test the hypothesis that the coin is
unbiased use a 0.05 level of significance
H.W-3A dice was tossed 256 times and it turned up with an even digit 150 times is the dicei biased

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Test of significance Of A Single Mean large samples

Suppose the mean of a population is known. We want to test whether the mean is a given value µ 0. The
null hypothesis is H0: µ=µ0. The alternative hypothesis is H1:µ≠µ0.
For a large random sample of size n from the population, under H0, the distribution of
x  0
Z is N(0,1)

n

The test statistic is x  0

Z 
/ n
For the sample, if the calculated value |Z| cal>k, H0 is rejected. On the other hand, if |Z|cal≤ k, H0 is
accepted.

For the level of significance α=0.05, the critical value is k = 1.96. However, for α=0.01, the critical
value is k = 2.58.

Note: Here, if σ is not known, the test statistic is Z  | x   0 | where s is the sample standard deviation 23.A

n
EX-1 sample of 64 student have a mean weight of 70 kgs can this be regarded as a sample from a
population with mean weight of 56 kgs and S,.D 25 kgs
SOLUTION:
n=64
x=70kgs
U=56kgs
 =25kgs
1.Null Hypothesis (NH) : sample of 64 student have a mean weight of 70 kgs can this be
regarded as a sample from a population with mean weight of 56 kgs and S,.D 25 kgs
2. Alternative Hypothesis (AH) : sample cannot be regarded as one comping from the
population
3. Level of significance:  =0.05
x  0
Z 
4. Calculation of test statistic based on the sample data.  / n =70-56/25/8=4.48
5. Decision to reject NH or to rejected t it

2.A random sample of 200 tins of vanaspathi has mean weight 4.97 kgs and standard deviation 0.2kgs.
Test at 1% level of significance, that the tins have 5 kgs. Vanaspathi
Solution:
H0 : µ=5kg
H1: µ≠5kg
4.97  5
Under H0 Z 
02 / 200

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=2.12
Ztab=2.58 at 1% l.o.s
Since Zcal < Ztab, we accept H0 at 1% l.o.s i.e the tins have 5 kgs of vanaspathi at 1% l.o.s

3. A random sample of 100 rods drawn from a lot of rods has mean length 32.7cms. And standard
deviation 1.3cms. Can it be concluded that the lot has mean 32 cms?
Solution:
H0 : µ=32
H1: µ≠32
32.7  32
Under H0 Z   5.38
1.3 / 100
Ztab=1.96 at 5% l.o.s
Since Zcal > Ztab, we reject H0 at 5% l.o.s i.e the lot does not have mean 32 cms

H.W-1A sample of 900 members has a mean of 3.4 cms and S.D 2.61 cms is this sample has been taken
from a large population of mean 3.25 cms and S.d 2.61 cms if the population os normal and its mean is
unknown find the 95%confidence limit of the ture mean
H.W-2A sample of 400 items is taken from a population whose S.d is 10 the mean od sample is 40.
Test whether the sample has come from population withmean38 also calculated 95% confidence limit
for the true population
H.W-3.The mean lifetime of 100 fluorescent light bulb produced by a company is computed to be
1570 hours with a standard duration of 120 hours. If  is the lifetime of all the bulbs produced by the
company, test the hypothesis that  = 1600 hours against the alternative hypothesis:   1600 hours
using a load of significance of 0.05
H.W-4.A random sample of size 25 from a normal population has the mean 47.5 and the standard
Deviation 8.4. Does this information tend to support the claim that the mean of the population is  =
42.1?
H.W-5.A process of making certain bearings is under control if the diameters of the bearings have a
mean of 0.50 cm. What can we say about this process if a sample of 10 of these bearings has a mean
diameter of 0.5060 cm and a standard deviation of 0.0040 cm?
H.W-6.A sample of 900 members is found to have a mean of 3.4 cm. Can it be reasonably regarded as
a truly random sample from a large population with mean 3.25 cm and S.D. 1.61cm?

TEST FOR EQUALITY OF TWO MEANS

The null hypothesis is H0 : µ1=µ2 (the means of the two populations are equal). The alternative
hypothesis is H1 : µ1≠µ2. Under H0, let µ be the common means and let σ1 and σ2 be the standard
deviations of the two populations.
Let a random sample of size n1 be drawn from the first population. Let the sample be x1 . Also, let a
random sample of size n2 be drawn from the second population. Let the mean of this sample be x 2
x1  x 2 | x1  x 2 |
Then, Z  is N(0,1) And so the test statistic is | Z |
 12  22  12  22
 
n1 n2 n1 n2

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For the samples, if |Z| cal > k, H0 is rejected.

On the other hand, if |Z| cal ≤ k, H0 is accepted. For the level of significance α=0.05, the critical value
is k = 1.96. However, for α=0.01, the critical value is k = 2.58. Here, if σ1 and σ2 are not known, the
| x1  x 2 |
test statistic is | Z | . Where s1 and s2 are the sample standard deviations
s12 s 22

n1 n2
EX.The mean of two large samples of sizes 1000 and 2000 members are 67.5 and 68 inches can the
samples be regarded as drawn from the same population of S.D 2.5 inches
SOLUTION:
n1=1000,n2=2000
x1=67.5,x2=68
 =2.5kgs
1.Null Hypothesis (NH) : the sample have been drawn from the same population  =2.5kgs

2. Alternative Hypothesis (AH) : u1is not equal to u2

3. Level of significance:  =0.05
| x1  x 2 |
4. Calculation of test statistic based on the sample data. | Z | =
 12  22

n1 n2
67.5  68
| Z |  5.16
2.5  1  1 
2

 1000 2000 
5. Decision to reject NH or to rejected t it

2.The mean and standard deviation of heights of 100 randomly selected boys are 163 cms and 3 cms,
respectively. The mean and standard deviation of heights of 80 randomly selected girls are 161 cms
and 2 cms, respectively. Can it be concluded at 1% level of significance that boys and girls are equally
tall?
Solution:
H0 : µ1= µ2
H1: µ1≠ µ2

163  161
Under H0 Z   5.35
32 2 2

100 80

Ztab=2.58
Since Zcal > Ztab, we reject H0 at 1% l.o.s i.e boys & girls do not have equal height at 1% l.o.s.

3. The standard deviation of length of fibre manufactured by process A is 0.5cms, and standard
deviation of length of fibre manufactured by process B is 0.6cms. A sample of 40 randomly selected

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fibres from process A has mean length 16.7 cms. A sample of 60 randomly selected fibres from
process B has mean length 16.4 cms. Test whether process A and process B differ with regard to length
of fibre manufactured by them.
Solution:
H0 : µ1= µ2
H1: µ1≠ µ2

16.7  16.4
Under H0 Z   2.71
(0.5) 2 (0.6) 2

40 60

Ztab=1.96.
Since Zcal > Ztab, we reject H0 at 5% l.o.s i.e there is a significant difference in the mean length of fibre
manufactured by process A & process B.
H.W-1The mean life of a sample of 10 bulbs was found to be 1456 hours and with S.D of 423 hours The
second sample of 17 bulbs was chosen different batch shoed a mean life of 1280 hours hours and with
S.D of 398 hours is there a significant difference between the mean of two batches

H.W-2The average marks scored by 32 boys is 72 with a S.D of 8 while that for 36 girls is 70 with a S.d 6
does this information that the boys perform better than girls at level of significance

TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE FOR SINGLE PROPORTION

Suppose the proportion of an attribution in a population is not known, we want to test whether the
proportion is a given value P0 . The null hypothesis is H0: P = P0. The alternative hypothesis is H1: P ≠
P0 .

In a large random sample of size n from the population, let x units posses the attribute. Then, the
sample proportion is p=x/n
p  P0
Ans so, Z  is N(0,1).
p 0 Q0
n
p  P0
Therefore, the test statistic is Z 
p 0 Q0
n

For the samples, if |Z|cal > k, H0 is rejected.

On the other hand, if |Z|cal ≤ k, H0 is accepted.
For the level of significance α=0.05, the critical value is k = 1.96. However, for α=0.01, the critical
value is k = 2.58.

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EX-1 In a sample of 1000people in Karnataka 540 are rice eaters and the rest are wheat eaters can we
assume that both eaters and wheat eaters are equally popular in this state at 1%level of significance
SOLUTION:n=1000,p=sample proportion of rice eaters=540/1000=0.54
P= population proportion of rice eaters=1/2=0.5
Q=0.5
p  P0 0.54  0.5
Z   2.532
p 0 Q0 0 .5 X 0 . 5
n 1000
Decision to accept NH or to accept it
2.Pass experience shows that among borewells dug by a firm, 78% are successful. The firm digs 65
borewells in a district. Among them 58 were successful. Can we conclude that these figures agree with
the past experience? [Test both at 5% and 1% levels]
Solution:
H0 : P= 0.78
H1: P≠0.78
58
 0.78
Under H0 Z  65  0.219
0.78  0.22
65

Ztab=1.96 at 5% l.o.s
Ztab=2.58 at 1% l.o.s

Since Zcal < Ztab, we accept H0 at both the levels. i.e figure agree with past experience at 5% and 1%
l.o.s.

3. In a random selection of 85 workers of a factory, 18 were unmarried. Can we conclude that 20%
workers of the factory are unmarried?
Solution:
H0 : P= 0.20
H1: P≠ 0.20
18
 0.20
Under H0 Z  55  0.271
0 .2  0 .8
55

Ztab=1.96 at 5% l.o.s

Since Zcal < Ztab at 5%, l.o.s, we accept H0 i.e. 20% of the workers in the factory are unmarried.

H.W-1.In a big city 325 men out of 600 mens were found to be smokers does this information support
the conclusion that the majority of men in this city are smokers

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H.W-2.A dice was thrown 9000 times and of these 3220 yieled a 3 or 4 is this consistent with the
hypothesis that the was unbiased
H.W-3.A random sample of 500 pineapples was taken a large consignment and 65 were found to be
bad find the % of bad pineapples in the consignment
H.W-4.Among 900 people in a state 90 were found to be chapati eaters estimate 99%confidence limit
for the true proportions
H.W-5.If 80 patients are treated with an antibiotic 59 got cured find a 99%cinfidence limits to the true
population

TEST FOR EQUALITY PROPORTION

Suppose there are two populations with unknown proportions, and we wish to test whether the
proportions( of certain attributes) in the two populations are equal. The null hypothesis is H0 : P1=P2
(the proportions are equal). The alternative hypothesis is H 1 : P1≠ P2

Under H0, let P be the common proportion. Let a large random sample of size n1 be drawn from the
first population. Among these n1 units, let x1 units possess the attribute, so that the sample proportion
is p1=x1/n. Also let a large random sample of size n2 be drawn from the second population. Among the
units, let x2 units posses the attribute, so that sample proportion is p 2 = x2/n2.

The test statistic is –

Generally, the common proportion P will not be known. And so, it is estimated from the samples.
This estimates is

And also,
For the samples, if |Z|cal > k, H0 is rejected.
On the other hand, if |Z|cal ≤ k, H0 is accepted.

PROBLEMS
1.Among 80 electric bulbs manufactured by Process A, three were defective. Among 130 electric bulbs
manufactured by process B, two were defective. Test whether the proportion of defectives in the two
process differ.

Solution:
H0 : P1= P2
H1: P1≠ P2

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7 2

Under H0 Z  80 130  2.506
 9   201  1 1 
    
 210   210  80 130 

Ztab=1.96

Since Zcal > Ztab at 5%, l.o.s, we rejected H0 i.e. 5% l.o.s i.e proportion of defective bulbs differ in
process A & process B.
2. The proportion of substandard crackers among 400 crackers manufactured by firm A is 0.12. The
proportion among 500 crackers manufactured by firm B is 0.08. Test at 1% level of significance that
the proportion is the same among the products of the two firms

Solution:
H0 : P1= P2
H1: P1≠ P2

0.12  0.08
Under H0 Z   1.988
0.10.9 1  1 
 400 500 

Ztab=2.58 at 1% l.o.s

Since Zcal <Ztab, we accepts H0 at 1% l.o.s. i.e proportion is same among the products of the two firms.
H.WRandom samples of 400 men and 600 women were asked whether they would like to have a
flyover near their residence 200 men and 325 women were in favour of the proposal test the hypothesis
that proportion of men and women in favour of the proposal are same at 5%level
H.W. In a city A 20% of a random sample of 900 school boys has a certain slight physical defect in
another city B 18.5% of a random sample of 1600 school boys has a certain slight physical defect is
the difference b/w the proportions significance at 0.05 level of significance
H.WIn two large populations there are 30% and 25% respectively of fair haired people is this
difference likely to be hidden in sample of 1200 and 900 from the population

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UNIT-IV
QUESTION BANK
1. Write a short note on Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis Type I and Type II errors (c)
Critical region (d) Level of significance
2. Explain basic steps involved in testing of hypothesis.
3. The means of two large samples of sizes 1000 and 2000 members are 67.5 inches and 68.0
inches respectively. Can the samples be regarded as drawn from the same population of S.D 2.5
inches
4. A sample of 26 bulbs gives a mean life of 990 hrs. With S.D. of 20 hours. The manufacture
claims that the mean life bulb is 1000 hrs. is the sample not up to the standard
5. If p=0.15 q=0.85 n=10 find confidence limits
6. A manufacture claimed that at least 95% of the equipment which he supplied to a factory
conformed to specifications. An examination of a sample of 200 pieces of equipment
revealed that 18 were faulty. tEst his claim at 5% level of significance.

7.In a big city 325 men out of 600 men were found to be smokers. Does this information support
the conclusion that the majority of men in this city are smokers.

8.A die is thrown 9000 times and of these 3220 yielded 3 or 4. Is this consistent with the
hypothesis that the die was unbiased?
9.Before an increase in excise duty on tea, 800 persons out of a sample of 1000 persons were
found to be tea drinkers. After an increase in duty 800 people were tea drinkers in the sample of
1200 people. Using standard error of proportions state whether there is a significant decrease in
the consumption of tea after the increase in the excise duty
10.In two large populations there are 30% and 25% respectively of fair haired people. Is this
difference likely to be hidden in samples of 1200 and 900 respectively from the two populations.
11.A sample of 900 members has a mean of 3.4 cms and SD 2.61 cms. Is the sample from a large
population of mean is 3.25 cm and SD 2.61 cms. If the population is normal and its mean is
unknown find the 95% confidence limits of true mean.
12.An insurance agent has claimed that the average age of policy holders who issue through him
is less than the average for all agents which is 30.5 years. A random sample of 100 policy
holders who had issued through him gave the following age distribution.
Age 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40
No of 12 22 20 30 16
persons
Test the significant difference at 5% level of significance
13.The mean score of a random sample of 60 students is 145 with a SD of 40. Fine the 95 %
confidence limit for the population mean.
14.The means of 2 large samples of 1000 and 2000 members are 67.5 inches and 68 inches
respectively. Can the samples be regarded as drawn from the same population of SD 2.5 inches.

15.The mean yield of wheat from a district A was 210 pounds with SD 10 pounds per acre from a
sample of 100 plots. In another district the mean yield was 220 pounds with sD 12 pounds from a
sample of 150 plots. Assuming that the SD of yield in the entire state was 11 pounds test whether

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there is any significant difference between the mean yield of crops in the two districts.

16.A manufacture claimed that at least 95% of the equipment which he supplied to a factory
conformed to specifications. An examination of a sample of 200 pieces of equipment revealed that
18 were faulty. tEst his claim at 5% level of significance.

17.A random sample of 500 apples were taken from the large consignment and 65 were found to be
bad. Find the percentage of bad apples in the consignment.

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UNIT-V
SMALL SAMPLES
Degree of freedom: the number of independent variable which make up the statistics is know as
the degree of freedom.and it is denoted by V(nu)
The total number of observations (n) less the number of independent cons taints (k) V=n-k

t-distribution/student t-distribution
if x1,x2,x3,.....xn be any random sample of size n draw from a normal population with mean 
x
and variance  2 then the test statistics t is defined by t  where X=sample mean and
S
n
n
(x _ X ) x
t is an an unbiased estimated of  2 the test statistics t  is a ramdom
i 1 n 1 S
n
variable having the t distribution with V=n-1 degree of freedom and with probability density
V 1 / 2 
 t2 
function f (t )  y 0 1   where V=n-1 and is a constant got  f (t )dt  1 this is know
 V  
t-distribution/student t-distribution
properties of distribution
1.the shape of the t distribution is bell shaped
2.the t distribution curve is also symmetric
3. it is symmetric about the line t=0
4.mean=median=mode
5.the mean of the standard normal distribution and as well as t distribution is zero
Applications
1.to test the significance of the sample mean when population variance iss not given
2. to test the significance of the mean of the sample
3.to test the significance of the difference between two sample mean
4.to test the significance of an observed sample correlation coefficient and sample regression
coefficient
Method-1. To test the Significance of the Mean of a Random Sample. In determining whether
the mean of a sample drawn from a normal population deviates significantly from a stated value
(the hypothetical value of the populations mean), when variance of the population is unknown
we calculate the statistic:

t
X    n
S
where X = the mean of the sample
µ= the actual or hypothetical mean of the population
n=the sample size
S= the standard deviation of the sample

 X  X 
2

S
n 1

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Ex-1

The manufactures of a certain make of electric bulbs claims that his bulbs have a mean life of 25
months with a standard deviation of 5 months. A random sample of 6 such bulbs gave the
following values.

Life in months: 24, 26, 30, 20, 20, 18

Can you regard the producer’s claim to be valid at 1% level of significance? (Give that the table
values of the appropriate test statistics at the said level are 4.032, 3.707 and 3.499 for 5.6 and 7
degree of freedom respectively)

Solutions: Let us take the hypothesis that there is no significant difference in the mean life of
bulbs in the sample and that of the population. Applying t-test:

t
X    n
S
CALCULATION OF X and S
(X  X ) x2
X x
24 +1 1
26 +3 9
30 +7 49
20 -3 9
20 -3 9
18 -5 25
Σ X =138 Σ x 2 =102

X 
X 
138
 23
n 6

S 
x 2


102
 20.4  4.517
n 1 5

| 23  25 | 2  2.449
 6  1.084
4.517 4.517

ν=n-1=6-1=5. For ν=5, t0.01=4.032.

The calculated value if t is less than table value. The hypothesis is accepted. Hence, the
producer’s claim is not valid at 1 level of significance.

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Ex-2

A random sample of size 16 has 53 as mean. The sum of the squares of the deviations taken from
mean is 135. Can this sample be regarded as taken from the population having 56 as mean?
Obtain 95% and 99% confidence limits of the mean of the population. (for ν=15, t0.05 = 2.13 for
ν=15, t0.01 = 2.95)

Solutions: Let us take the hypothesis that there is no significant difference between the sample
mean and hypothetical population mean. Applying t test:
X 
t n
S
X  53,   56, N  16,  ( X  X ) 2  135

S
 X  X   135
3
n 1 15
| 53  56 | 3 4
t 16  4
3 3
ν=16-1=15. . For ν=16, t0.05 = 2.13
The calculated value of t is more than the table value. The hypothesis is rejected. Hence, the
sample has not come from a population having 56 as mean.

95% confidence limits of the population mean

S
X t 0.05
n
3
 53   2.13
16
 53  1.6  51.4to54.6

99% confidence limits of the population means

S
X t 0.01
n
3
 53   2.95
16
3
53   2.95
4
 53  2.212  50.788to55.212

method-2. Testing Difference Between Means of Two Samples (Independent Samples)

Given two independent random samples of size n1 and n2 with means X 1 and X 2 and standard
deviations S1 and S2 we may be interested in testing the hypothesis that the samples come from
the same normal population. To carry out the test, we calculate the statistic as follows:
Where X 1 = mean of the first sample

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X1  X 2 n1n2
t 
S n1  n2

X 2 = mean of the second sample

n1 = number of observations in the first sample
n2 = number of observations in the second sample
S = combined standard deviation

 X    X 
2 2
 X1  X2
S
1 2

n1  n2  2

The value of S is calculated by the following formula:

Ex-1
Two types of drugs were used on 5 and 7 patients for reducing their weight.
Drug A was imported and drug B indigenous. The decrease in the weight after using the drugs
for six months was as follows:
Drug A : 10 12 13 11 14
Drug B : 8 9 12 14 15 10 9
If the bias correction due to small is ignored, pooled estimate of the standard deviation can be
n1 S12  n 2 S 22
S
n1  n 2
obtained by:

Is there a significant difference in the efficacy of the two drugs? If not, which drug should you
buy? (For ν=10, t0.05=2.223)

Solution: Let us take the hypothesis that there is no significant difference in the efficacy of the
two drugs. Applying t-test
X  X2 n1n2
t 1
S n1  n2

X1 X 1  X1  X 1  X1 
2
X2 X 2  X2  X 2  X2 
2

10 -2 4 8 -3 9
12 0 0 9 -2 4
13 +1 1 12 +1 1
11 -1 1 14 +3 9
14 +2 4 15 +4 16
10 -1 1
9 -2 4
∑ X1 ∑ ∑ X2 ∑

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=60 X 1  X1 
2 =60
X 2  X2 
2

=10 =44

However, it is advisable to take account of bias.

X1 
 X 1  60  12; X 2   X 2  77  11;
n1 5 n2 7

 X    X 
2 2
 X1  X1 10  44 54
S    2.324
1 1

n1  n2  2 572 10

X1  X 2 n1 n2
t
S n1  n2
12  11 5  7 1.708
  0.735
2.324 5  7 2.324

ν =n1+n2 – 2 = 5+7-2 = 10
ν=10, t0.05 = 2.228.

For the calculated value of t is less than the table value, the hypothesis is accepted. Hence, there
is no significance in the efficacy of two drugs. Since drug B is indigenous and there is no
difference in the efficacy of impoted and indigenous drug, we should buy indigenous drug, i.e.,
B.
n1 S12  n 2 S 22
S
n1  n 2

Ex-2
For a random sample of 10 persons, fed on die A, the increased weight in pounds in a certain
period were:
10, 6, 16, 17, 13, 12, 8, 14, 15, 9
For another random sample of 12 persons, fed on diet B, increase in the same period were:
7, 13, 22, 15, 12, 14, 18, 8, 21, 23, 10, 17
Test whether the diets A and B differ significantly as regards her effect on increase in weight.
Given the following:
Degree of freedom 19 20 21 22 23
Value of t at 5% level 2.09 2.09 2.08 2.07 2.07

Solutions: Let us take the null hypothesis that A and B do not differ significantly weight regard
to their effect on increase in weight. Applying t-test

X1  X 2 n1n2
t
S n1  n2

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 X    X 
2 2
 X1  X1
S
1 1

n1  n2  2

Calculating the requires values:

Persons fed on diet A Persons fed on diet B

Increases in Deviations
weight from mean 12
X1  X1  
2 Increases
in weight
Deviations
from mean

X2  X2
2

X1 
X1  X1  X2 15

X2  X2 
10 -2 4 7 -8 64
6 -6 36 13 -2 4
16 +4 16 22 +7 49
17 +5 25 15 0 0
13 +1 1 12 -3 9
12 0 0 14 -1 1
8 -4 16 18 +3 9
14 +2 4 8 -7 49
15 +3 9 21 +6 36
9 -3 9 23 +8 64
10 -5 25
17 +2 4
∑ X1 =120 
∑ X 1  X 1 =0 
∑ X1  X1 = 
2

∑ X 2 =180 ∑ X 2  X 2  
∑ X2  X2
2

120 =0 =44

Mean increase in weight of 10 persons fed on diet A

X1 
 X 1  120  12; pounds
n1 10
Mean increase in weight of 12 persons fed on diet A

X2 
 X 2  180  15; pounds
n2 12

 X    X 
2 2
 X1  X1 120  314 434
S    4.66
1 1

n1  n2  2 10  12  2 20
X 1 =12, X 2 =15, n1 = 12, n2 = 12, S = 4.66. Substituting the values in the above formula

12  15 10  12 3
t    2.34  1.51
4.66 10  12 4.66
ν =n1+n2 – 2 = 10+12-2 = 20.

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For ν=20, the table value of t at 5 percent level is 2.09. The calculated value is less than the table
value and hence the experiment provides no evidence against the hypothesis. We, therefore,
conclude that diets A and B do not differ significantly as regards their effect on increase in
weight is concerned.

Method-3. Testing Difference between Means of Two samples( Dependent Samples or

Matched Paired Observations)
d 0 d n
t  n or t 
S S
Where d = the mean of the differences
S = the standard deviation of the differences
The value of S is calculated as follows:

 d  d   d  (d )
2 2

S or
n 1 n 1

It should be noted that t is based on n-1 degree of freedom.

Ex-1

To verify whether a course in accounting improved performed, a similar test was given to 12
participants both before and after the course, The original marks – recorded in alphabetical order
of the participants – were44, 40, 61, 52, 32, 44, 70, 41,47,72,53, and 72. After the course, the
marks were in the same order, 53, 38, 69, 57, 46, 39, 73, 48,73,74,60 and 78. Was the course
useful?

Solutions: Let us take the hypothesis that there is no difference in the marks obtained before and
after the course, i.e. the course has not been useful
Applying t-test(difference formula):
d n
t
S

Participants Before After (2nd – 1st Test) d2

(1st Test) (2nd Test) D
A 44 58 +9 81
B 40 38 -2 4
C 61 69 +8 64
D 552 57 +5 25
E 32 46 +14 196
F 44 39 -5 25
G 70 73 +3 9
H 41 48 +7 49
I 67 73 +6 36
J 72 74 +2 4
K 53 60 +7 49

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L 72 78 +6 36
∑d=60 ∑ d2 =578

d
 d  60  5
n 12

d
2
2
 n( d ) 578  12(5) 2 278
S    5.03
n 1 12  1 11
t  12 5  3.464
t   3.443
5.03 5.03

ν =n-1=12 – 1 = 11;
For ν =11, t0.05 = 2.201
The calculated value of t is greater than the table value. The hypothesis is rejected. Hence the
course has been useful.

Ex-2
A drug is given to 10 patients and the increments in their blood pressure were recorded to be 3,
6, -2, 4, -3, 4, 6, 0, 0, 2. Is it reasonable to believe that the drug has no effect on change of
blood pressure? (5% value of t for 9 d.f.=2.26)
Solution. Let us take the hypothesis that the drug has no effect on charge of blood pressure.
Applying the difference test:

t
d n d d2
S
3 9
6 36
-2 4
4 16
-3 9
4 16
6 36
0 0
0 0
2 4
∑d=0 ∑ d2 =130

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d
 d  20  2
n 10

d
2
2
 n( d ) 130  10(2) 2
S   3.162
n 1 10  1
2 12 2  3.162
t  2
3.162 3.162

ν =n-1=10 – 1 = 9; For ν =6, t0.05 = 2.26.

The calculated value of t is less than the table value. The hypothesis is accepted. Hence it is
reasonable to believe that the drug has no effect on change of blood pressure.

THE F-TEST OR THE VARIANCE RATIO TEST

The F-test is named in honour of the great statistician R.A. fisher. The object of the F-test is to
find out whether the two independent estimates of population variance differ significantly, or
whether the two samples may be regarded as drawn from the normal populations having the
same variance. For carrying out the test of significance, we calculate the ratio F.
F is defined as:

X   
2 2 2
S1  X1  X2  X2
F  , where S1
2
 1 and S2
2

S2
2
n1  1 n2  1

It should be noted that S12 is always the larger estimate of variance, i.e. S 12 > S22

Large estimate of variance

F=
Smaller estimate of variance

 1  n1  1 and  2  n2  1

ν1= degree of freedom for sample having large variance

ν2= degree of freedom for samzple having smaller variance.

Assumptions in F-test. The F test is based on the following assumptions:

1. Normality i.e., the values in each group are normally distributed

2.Homogeneity, i.e., the variance within each group should be equal for all groups(σ12=
σ22=….= σc2) This assumption is needed in order to combine or pool the variances within the
groups into a single ‘within groups’ source of variation.
3. Independence of error. It states that the error (variation of each value around its own group
mean) should be independent for each value.
Ex-1

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1.Two random samples were drawn from two normal populations and their values are:
A: 66 67 75 76 82 84 88 90 92

B: 64 66 74 78 82 85 87 92 93 95 97

Test whether the two populations have the same variance at the 5% level of significance
(F=3.36) at 5% level for ν1=10 and ν2=8.
Solutions: Let us take the hypothesis that the two populations have the same variance. Applying
F-test

2
S1
F 2
S2
A ( X1  X1 ) B (X2  X2)
2 2
x1 x2
X1 X2
x1 x2
66 -14 196 64 -19 361
67 -13 168 66 -17 289
75 -5 25 74 -9 81
76 -4 16 78 -5 25
82 +2 4 82 -1 1
84 +4 16 85 +2 4
88 +8 64 87 +4 16
90 +10 100 92 +9 81
92 +12 144 93 +10 100
95 +12 144
97 +14 196
Σ X1
Σ x1 Σ x1 =0 2
Σ X2 Σ x2 =0 Σ x2
2

=720
=734 =913 =1298

X1 
 X1  720  80; X   X 2  913  83
2
n1 9 n2 11

S
2

x 1
2


734
 91.75
n1  1 9 1
1

S2
2

x 2
2


129.8
 129.8
n2  1 11  1
2
S1 129.8
F 2
  1.415
S2 91.75

for ν1=10 and ν2=8. F0.05 =3.36

The calculated value of F is less than the table value. The hypothesis is accepted. Hence it may
be calculated that two populations have the same variance
.

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Ex-2. In a sample of 8 observations, the sum of squared deviations of items from the mean was
84.4. In another sample of 10 observations, the value was found to be 102.6 test whether the
difference is significant at 5% level. You are given that at 5% level, critical value of F for ν1=7
and ν2=9 degree of freedom is 3.29 and for ν1=8 and ν2=10 degree of freedom, its value is 3.07

Solutions: Let us take hypothesis that the difference in the variance of the two samples is not
significant. We are given

n1  8 , Σ ( X1  X 1 )2 =84.4
n2  10 , Σ ( X 2  X 2 )2 =102.6
2
S
F  12
S2

S1 
2  (X 2  X 2 )2

84.4
 12.06
n2  1 7

S2 
2  (X 2  X 2 )2

102.6
 11.4
n2  1 9
12.06
F  1.06
11.4

for ν1=7 and ν2=9. F0.05 =3.29

The calculated value of F is less than the table value. Hence we accept the hypothesis and
concluded that the difference in the variance of two samples is not significant at 5% level.

CHI- SQUARE TESTS

Let Z1, Z2,….Zn be n independently distributed standard normal variates. Then, the distribution
of

is called Chi-square distribution with n degree of freedom (d.f)

Here, χ2 has n independent variable components. Therefore, its degree of freedom is n. The
degree of freedom of χ2 is the number of independent variable components that it has. The degree
of freedom will be less if there are constraints on these variable components.

APPLICATIONS OF CHI-SQUARE DISTRIBUTION

The Chi-square distribution has many uses in the field of testing of hypotheses. Some of them
are –
1. To test whether a population has given variance
2. To test ‘goodness of fit’ of a theoretical distribution to a observed distribution.
3. To test independence of attributes in a contingency table

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CHI-SQUARE TEST OF GOODNESS OF FIT

Suppose there is an observed (empirical) frequency distribution with frequencies, O 1,O2,… On.
According to certain theoretical assumptions, let a theoretical frequency distribution be fitted to
the observed distribution. Let the theoretical frequencies be E 1,E2,…En. Suppose we intend to
test the null hypothesis-----
H0 : The theoretical frequency distribution is a good fit to the observed frequency
distribution. H1 : The theoretical frequency distribution is not a good fit to the observed
frequency distribution.
To test H2 against H1, Karl Pearson’s Chi-square test of goodness of fit is applied.
Here, the test statistic is ---

Oi  Ei 2
 
2

Ei
Under H0 this is a Chi-square variate with (n-c) d.f
Here, n is the number of terms in χ2 and c is the number of constraints.
This test is one-tailed.
If  cal
2
 k , H 0 is rejected. And if  cal
2
 k , H 0 is accepted.
For different degree of freedom and α=0.05 and α=0.01, the critical values are obtained
from the Chi-square table.

The Chi-square test of goodness of fit is applicable subjects to the following conditions.
1.The observation should be independent (random)
2.The total frequency N should be large.
3.The theoretical frequencies Ei should be 5 or more. If any E i is less than 5, it should be pooled
with the adjacent frequency.
4.If any parameter is estimated from the observed distribution, corresponding to every such
estimation one degree of freedom should be lessened.

Ex-1

To an observed frequency distribution, binomial distribution is fitted after estimating p from the
observed data. The observed and theoretical frequencies are given below.
Test whether binomial distribution is a good fit.

xi 0 12 3 4 5 67 Total
Oi 3 3 17 31 28 11 1 2 96
Ei 1 7 19 27 24 13 4 1 96

Test whether binomial distribution is a good fit.

Solution :

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H0 : Binomial distribution is a good fit.

H1: Binomial distribution is not a good fit

xi Oi Ei (Oi - Ei) 2 (Oi - Ei) 2/ Ei

0 3 1 4 0.5000
1 3 6 7 8
2
3 17 19 4 0.2105
4 31 27 16 0.5926
5 28 24 16 0.6667
6 11 13 4 0.3077
7 1 4
2 3 1 5 4 0.2000

Total 96 96 2.4775

The frequencies are pooled in such a way that none of the theoretical is less than 5. However
observed frequencies may be less than 5.
The test statistic is--------

Oi  Ei 2
 
2

Ei
Ultimately, the number of items in the  2 is n = 6. Since p is estimated, the degree of freedom
is (n-c) = (6-2) = 4.
The level of significance is α=5%
The critical value is k = 9.49
Since  cal
2
=2.4775<9.49, H0 is accepted..
Conclusion: Binomial distribution is a good fit.

Ex-2

The following table gives the observed and theoretical distributions concerning a survey.
To find theoretical frequencies if mean has been estimated, test whether it is a good fit.

Class Observed Theoretical

0-2 13 16
2-4 27 25
4-6 58 42
6-8 34 38
8-10 16 23
10-12 12 16

Solutions:
H0: Theoretical distributions is a good fit to the observed distributions

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H1: Theoretical distribution is a not a good fit to the observed distributions

C.I Oi Ei (Oi  Ei ) 2
 E
i
0-2 13 16 0.5625
2-4 27 25 0.16
4-6 58 42 6.0952
6-8 34 38 0.4211
8-10 16 23 2.1304
10-12 12 16 1.000
10.3692

 cal
2
=10.3692
 tab
2
=11.070 at 5% l.o.s for 5 d 5
Since  cal
2
<  tab
2
, we accept H0 at 5% l.o.s. i.e. Theoretical distributions is a good fit to the
observed distributions

CHI-SQUARE TEST FOR INDEPENDENCE OF ATTRIBUTES

N random observations are drawn from the population. These observations are classified with
respect to the two attributes and they are written down in the form of a 2*2 contingency table as
follows

A/B B1 B2 Total
A1 a b a+b
B
A2 c d c+d
Total a+c b+d N=a+b+c+d

H0 : Attributes A and B are independent.

H1: Attributes A and B are not independent.
The Chi-square test statistic is ------

N (ab  bc) 2
  2

(a  b)(c  d )(a  c)(b  d )

Under H0 this is a Chi-square variate with 1 d.f

This test is one-tailed.
If  cal
2
 k , H 0 is rejected. And if  cal
2
 k , H 0 is accepted.
For α=0.05 the critical value is k = 3.84
For α=0.01 the critical value is k = 6.63

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The Chi-square test for independence of attributes is applicable subject to the following
conditions.
2. The observations should be independent (random)
3. The total frequency N should be large
4. Each of the frequencies a, b ,c, and d should be 5 or more.

Ex-1

46 rabbits are divided into two groups – one group consisting of 23 rabbits is called experimental
group, and the other group consisting of 23 rabbits is called control group. The experimental
group is inocculated against a disease and the control group is not inocculated. Afterwards, all
the rabbits of both the groups are exposed to the disease. In the control group, 13 contracted the
disease. In the experimental group 10 contracted the disease. In the experimental group 8
contracted the disease. Test whether ‘inocculation’ and ‘contract of disease’ are independent.

Solutions:

The Chi-square test

H0 : Inocculation and contract of disease are independent

H1: Inocculation and contract of disease are not independent
The test statistic is –
N (ab  bc) 2
 
2

(a  b)(c  d )(a  c)(b  d )

The given data is tabulated as follows.

Control Experimental Total

Group
Contracted 13 8 21
Not Contracted 10 15 25
Total 23 23 46

46(13  15  8  10)2
Here  
2
 2.19
21 25  23  23
cal

The degree of freedom is 1.

The level of significance is α=5%
The critical value is k = 3.84
Since  cal
2
=2.19<3.84, H0 is accepted.
Conclusion: Inocculation and contract of disease are independent.
Test for equality of proportions:
| p1  p2 |
| Z |
1 1
PQ  
 n1 n2 

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Here
8
p1   0.3478
23
13
p2   0.5652
23
and P  8  12  0.4565
23  23
| 0.3478  0.5652
| Z |cal   1.48
 1 1 
0.4565  0.5435  
 23 23 

Since this value is less than k = 1.96. H0 is accepted.

Conclusion: Inocculation and contract of disease are independent.
Ex-2
A Milk producers union wishes to test whether the preference pattern of consumers for its
products is dependent on income levels. A random sample of 500 individuals gives the following
data

Product preferred
Income
Product A Product B Product C Total
Low 170 30 80 280
Medium 50 25 60 135
High 20 10 55 85

Can you conclude that the preference patterns are independent of income levels?
Solutions:

H0: Preference pattern of consumers & income level are independent

H1: Preference pattern of consumers & income level are not independent
Product preferred
Income Product Product Product Total
A B C
Low 170 30 80 280
(134) (36) (110)
Medium 50 25 60 135
(65) (18) (52)
High 20 10 55 85
(41) (11) (33)
Total 240 65 195 500
2
 o  Ei 
    i
2
  51.78
 Ei 
 tab
2
 9.488 for 4 df at 5% l.o.s.
Since  cal
2
  tab
2
, reject H0 at 5% l.o.s i.e. preference pattern of consumers & income level are
independent.

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ex-3
Among 79 students, 58 were hard working. Among these hard working students, 52 passed in the
examination. Whereas, among the non-hard working students, only 5 passed. Apply chi-square
test at 1% level of significance to test whether ‘hard work’ and ‘pass’ are independent.
Solutions:
H0: Hardworking & result are independent
H1: Hardworking & result are not Independent

pass 52 05 57
(42) (15)
Fail 06 16 22
(16) (06)
58 21 79
2
 o  Ei 
    i
2
  31.96
 E i 
 tab  6.635 for 41df at 1% l.o.s.
2

Since  cal
2
  tab
2
, we reject H0 at 5% l.o.s i.e. Hard working & results are not independent
TEST FOR VARIANCE

Suppose the variance of a normal population is not known. We want to test whether the
population has given variance. The null hypothesis is H 0 :  2   02 (Population variance is  02
S)

The alternative hypothesis is H 0 :  2   02 .

To conduct the test, n random observation x1, x2,….xn are drawn from the population. Then,
under H0.

2
 x x ( x  x) 2 (n  1) s 2
   
2
 
  is a Chi-square variate with (n-1) degree of freedom.
 0   02  02
{Here, the degree of freedom is one less (than n) because there is a constraint  x  n x. }
( x  x) 2
Here, s 
2
is the sample varience*
n 1
If for the sample, the calculated value  cal
2
lies between k1 and k2, the null hypothesis is

accepted. On the other hand, if  cal

2
 k1 or if  cal
2
 k2 the null hypothesis is rejected.
For the different level of significance (α=0.05 and α=0.01) the critical value is k1 and k2 are
obtained from the table Chi- Square critical values.
Here, k1 and k2 are different for different degree of freedom. Also, the test is two-tailed(two-
sided)
Ex-1 : The standard deviation of heights of plants is know to be 2 cms. Eight randomly selected
plants have heights 172, 156, 154, 163, 170,169,172 and 164 cms. Test whether the sample
standard deviation differs significantly from population standard deviation
Solution:

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Here, n-8 and σ0 = 2 cms.

H0 : The sample standard deviation does not differ significantly from population standard
deviation
H1 : The sample standard deviation differ significantly from population standard deviation

The test statistic is ---

(n  1) s 2
2  2
0

X (x- x )=(x-165) (x- x )2

172 7 49
156 -9 81
154 -11 121
163 -2 4
170 5 25
169 4 16
172 7 49
164 -1 1
1320 0 346

x
 x  1320  165
n 8
 ( x  x)
2
346
s2    49.43
n 1 8 1
(n  1) s 2   ( x  x)  346
2

(n  1) s 2 346
 2
   86.5
 02
cal
22

The degree of freedom is (n-1) = (8-1) = 7

The level of significance is α=5%
The critical value are k1 = 1.69 and k2 = 16.01
Since  cal
2
=86.5>16.01, H0 is rejected.
Conclusion: The sample standard deviation differ significantly from population deviation.
Ex-2 A Milk filling machine fills sachets with milk. The contention is that standard deviation of
quantity of milk filled is 3ml. To test this, 24 sachets are randomly selected and their contents
noted. If the standard deviation of these observations is 3.9ml. What is your conclusion?
Solution:
Here, n=24,σ0=3ml. And s = 3.9ml
H0: Standard deviation is 3ml.
H: Standard deviation differs from 3ml

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(n  1) s 2
The test statistic is –  cal
2

 02
(n  1) s 2 23  (3.9)2
Here,  cal
2
   38.87
 02 32

The degree of freedom is (n-1) = (24-1) = 23

The level of significance is α=5%
The critical value are k1 = 11.69 and k2 = 38.08
Since  cal
2
=38.87.>38.08, H0 is rejected.
Conclusion: The standard deviation differ from 3ml.

UNIT-V
QUESTION BANK

1. Write Properties of t-distribution

2. Explain about Chi-Square
3. Write a short note on Distinguish between t,F, Chi square test
4. If x =47.5,   42.1, s  8.4, n  24 find t. What is shape of t
5. What is the range of F distribution?
6. The no. of automobile accidents per week in a certain area as follows:
12,8,20,2,14,10,15,6,9,4 . are these frequencies in agreement with the belief that
accidents were same in the during last 10 weeks.
7. A die is thrown 264 times with the following results .show that the die is unbiased

No appeared 1 2 3 4 5 6
on die
Frequency 40 32 28 58 54 52

8. Two independent samples of 7 items respectively had the following values

Sample 11 11 13 11 12 9 12 14
Sample 9 11 10 13 9 8 10 -
9. The mean weakly sales of soap bars in departmental stores were 146.3 bars per store.
After an advertising campaign the mean weekly sales in 22 stores for a typical week
increased to 153.7 and showed a SD of 17.2. Was the advertising campaign
successful?
10. A sample of 26 bulbs gives a mean life of 990 hours with SD of 20 hours. The
manufacturer claims that the mean life of bulbs is 1000 hours. Is the sample not upto
the standard.
11. The average breaking strength of steel rod is specified to be 18.5 thousand pounds. To
test this a sample of 14 rods was tested. The mean and SD obtained were 17.85 and
1.955 respectively. Is the result of the experiment significant?
12. Find the confidence limits of the mean of the population for a random sample of size

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16 from a normal population with mean 53 and SD √10 with t value at 5% for 15
Degrees of freedom is 2.13.
13. A random sample of 10 boys had the following IQ’s
70,120,110,101,88,83,95,98,107,100. Do these data support the assumption of a
population mean IQ of 100? Find the reasonable range in which most of the mean IQ
values of samples of 10 boys lie?
14. The heights of 10 males of a given locality are found to be
70,67,62,68,61,68,70,64,64,66 inches. Is it reasonable to believe that the average
height is greater than 64 inches Test at 5%.

15. Certain pesticide is packed into bags by a machine. A random sample of 10 bags is
drawn and their contents are found to be as follows:
50,49,52,44,45,48,46,45,49,45. Test if the average packing to be taken 50 grams

16. Samples of two types of electric light bulbs were tested for length of life and
following data were obtained.
Type I Type II
Sample size n1 = 8 n2 = 7
Sample means x1 = 1234 hrs x2 = 1036 hrs
Sample S.D. s1 = 36 hrs s2 = 40 hrs
Is the difference in the means sufficient to warrant that type I is
superior to type II regarding length of life.

17.Below are given the gain in weights (in N) of pigs fed on two diets A and B.

Diet A 25 32 30 34 24 14 32 24 30 31 35 25
Diet B 44 34 22 10 47 31 40 32 35 18 21 35 29 22
Test if the two diets differ significantly as regards their effect on increase in weight
18. The nicotine content in milligrams of two samples of tobacco were found to be as
follows:

Sample 24 27 26 21 25
A
Sample 27 30 28 31 22 36
B
Can it be said that two samples come from normal populations having the same
mean.
19. The means of two random samples of sizes 9 and 7 are given as 196.42 and 198.82.
The sum of the squares of the deviations from mean are 26.94 and 18.73 respectively. Can the
sample be considered to have been drawn from the same normal population
20. In one sample of 8 observations the sum of the squares of deviations of the sample values
from the sample mean was 84.4 and in the other sample of 10 observation it was 102. 6. Test
whether this difference is significant at 5 % level.
21.Two random samples gave the following results.

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Sample Size Sample Sum of squares of

mean deviations
from the mean
1 10 15 90
2 12 14 108

Test whether the samples come from the same normal population.

22.The time taken by workers in performing a job by method I and method II is given below.
Method I 20 16 26 27 23 22
Method 27 33 42 35 32 34 38
II
Do the data show that the variances of time distribution from population from which
these samples are drawn do not differ significantly?
23.The nicotine content in milligrams of two samples of tobacco were found to be as follows:

Sample 24 27 26 21 25
A
Sample 27 30 28 31 22 36
B

Can it be said that two samples come from normal populations having the same variances.
24.A die is thrown 264 times with the following results. Show that the die is biased
No appeared on the 1 2 3 4 5 6
Die
Frequency 40 32 28 58 54 60

25.200 digits were chosen at random from a set of tables. The frequencies of the digits were
Digits 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Frequency 18 19 23 21 16 25 22 20 21 15
Use the  test to assess the correctness of the hypothesis that the digits were
2

distributed in the equal number in the tables from which these were chosen.

26.Two groups of 100 people each were taken for testing the use of a vaccine 15 persons
contracted the disease out of the inoculated persons while 25 contracted the disease in the
other group. Test the efficiency of the vaccine using chi square test.

27.In a certain sample of 2000 families 1400 families are consumers of tea. Out of 1800 Hindu
families, 1236 families consume tea. Use Chi square test and state whether there is any
significant difference between consumption of tea among Hindu and Non – Hindu
families.

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28.Given the following contingency table for hair colour and eye colour. Find the value of Chi-
Square and is there any good association between the two

Hair colour Fair Brown Black

Eye colour
Grey 20 10 20
Brown 25 15 20
Black 15 5 20

29.Ten cartoons are taken at random from an automatic filling machine. The mean net weight
of 10 cartoons is 11.802 and SD is 0.15. Does the sample mean differ significantly from
the weight of 12?

30.A random sample of size 20 from a normal population gives a sample mean of 42 and
sample SD 6. Test if the population mean is 44?

31.A machine which produces mica insulating washers for using electric devices is said to turn
out washers having a thickness of 10 mm. A sample of 10 washers has an average of 9.52
mm with SD of 0.6 mm. calculate student’s t test.
32.The mean lifetime of 25 fans produced by a company is computed to be 1570 hours with SD
120 hrs. The company claims that the average life of fans produced by them is 1600 hours.
Is the claim acceptable.

33.From a population of students 10 are selected. Their weekly packet money observed as
20,22,21,15,25,19,18,20,21,22. Test if the sample supports that on an average student get
Rs.25 as packet money.
34.Ten individuals are chosen from random and their heights are found to be in inches
63,63,64,65,66,69,69,70,70,71. Discuss the solution that the mean height of the universe is
65?
35.An IQ test was given to 5 persons before and after they were trained. Results are given
below.
IQ before 110 120 123 132 125
training
IQ after training 120 118 125 136 121
Test if there is any change in the IQ after the training program.

36.Memory capacity of 10 girls were tested before and after training. State if the training was
effective or not
Before 12 14 11 8 7 10 3 0 5 6
After 15 16 10 7 5 12 10 2 3 8

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37.Two random samples gave the following results. Test whether the samples come from the
same normal population.
Sample Size Sample Sum of squares of
Mean deviations from the mean
1 10 15 90
2 12 14 108
.
38.The fatality rate of typhoid patients is believed to be 17.26%. In a certain year 640 patients
suffering from typhoid were treated in a metropolitan hospital and only 63 patients died.
Can you consider the hospital efficient?
Ans:z=4.96, H0 rejected.

39.A salesman in a departmental store claims that at most 60 percent of the shoppers entering
the store leave without making a purchase. A random sample of 50 shoppers showed that
35 of them left without making a purchase. Are these sample results consistent with the
claim of the salesman?
Ans:z=1.443, H0 accepted

40.In a large city A, 20% of a random sample of 900 school boys had a slight physical defect.
In another large city B, 18.5% of a random sample of 1600 school boys had the same
defect. Is the difference between the proportions significant? Ans:z=0.92, H0 accepted.

41.Before and increase in excise duty on tea, 800 people out of a sample of 1000 were
consumers of tea. After the increase in duty 800 out of a sample of 1200 persons. Find
whether there is a significant decrease in the consumption of tea after the increase in duty.
Ans: z=6.82, H0 is rejected.

42.A sample of 100 students is taken from a large population. The mean height of the students
in this sample is 160cm. Can it be reasonably regarded that, in the population, the mean
height is 165cm, and the SD is 10cm?
Ans:z=5, H0 rejected.
43.A simple sample of heights of 6400 English men has a mean of 170cm and SD of 6.4cm,
while a sample of heights of 1600 Americans has a mean of 172cm and a SD of 6.3cm. Do
the data indicate that Americans, on the average taller than Englishmen?
Ans: z=11.32, H0 rejected
44.The average marks scored by 32 boys is 72 with SD of 8, while that for 36 girls is 70 with
SD of 6. Test at 1% level whether boys perform better than girls. Ans:z-1.15, H0 accepted.
45.A random sample of 600 men chosen from a certain city contained 400 smokers. In another
sample of 900 men chosen from another city, there were 450 smokers. Do the data indicate
that (i)the cities are significantly different with respect to smoking habit among men? and
(ii)the first city contains more smokers than the second?
Ans:z=6.49,(i)yes (ii)yes

46.In a college, 60 junior students are found to have a mean height of 171.5cm and 50 senior
students are found to have a mean height of 173.8 cm. Can we conclude, based on these
data, that the juniors are shorter than the seniors at 1% level assuming that the SD of
students of that college is 6.2cm?

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47.Tests made on the breaking strength of 10 pieces of a metal gave the following results:
578,572,570,568,572,570, 570,572,596 and 584kg. Test if the mean breaking strength of
the wire can be assumed as 577 kg?
Ans:yes,t=0.65
48.A mechinist is expected to make engine parts with axle diameter of 1.75cm. A random
sample of 10 parts shows a mean diameter of 1.85cm, with SD of 0.1cm. On the basis of
this sample, would you say that the work of the machinist is inferior?
Ans: yes, t=3

49.A certain injection administered to each of the 12 patients resulted in the following increases
of blood pressure: 5, 2, 8, -1, 3, 0, 6, -2, 1, 5, 0, 4. Can it be concluded that the injection
will be in general, accompanied by an increase in BP? Ans: yes, t=2.89

50.The mean life time of a sample of 25 bulbs is found as 1550h, with SD of 120h. The
company manufacturing the bulbs claims that the average life of their bulbs is 1600h. Is the
claim acceptable?
Ans: yes, t=2.04

51.Two independent samples of sizes 8 and 7 contained the following values: Sample 1: 19, 17,
15, 21, 16, 18, 16, 14 and Sample 2: 15, 14, 15, 19, 15, 18, 16. Is the difference between
the sample means significant?
Ans:No,t=0.93
52.The average production of 16 workers in a factory was 107 with SD of 9, while 12 workers
in another comparable factory had an average production of 111 with SD of 10. Can we
say that the production rate of workers in the latter factory is more than that in the former
factory?
Ans: No, t=1.067

53.The following table gives the number of fatal road accidents that occurred during the 7 days
of the week. Find whether the accidents are uniformly distributed over the week.
Ans:2=4.17, accidents occur uniformly
Day Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat
Number 8 14 16 12 11 14 9

54.1000 families were selected at random in a city to test the belief that high income families
usually send their children to public schools and the low income families often said their
children to government schools. From the following results test whether income and type
of schooling are independent.

Ans:2=22.5, reject H0
Income School
Public Govt.
Low 370 430
High 130 70

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55.Three samples are taken comprising 120 doctors, 150 advocates and 130 university teachers.
Each person chosen is asked to select one of the three categories that best represents his
feeling toward a certain national policy. The three categories are in favour of the policy(F),
against the policy(A), and indifferent toward the policy(I). The results of the interviews are
given below. On the basis of this data can it be concluded that the views Doctors,
Advocates, and University teachers are homogeneous in so far as National policy under
discussion is concerned.
Ans:2=27.237, reject H0

Occupation Reaction
F A I
Doctors 80 30 10
Advocates 70 40 40
University 50 50 30
teachers
56.A marketing agency gives you the following information about age groups of the sample
informants and their liking for a particular model of scooter which a company plans to
introduce. On the basis of the data can it be concluded that the model appeal id
independent of the age group of the informants?
Ans:2=42.788, reject H0

Age group of informants

Below 20 – 39 40 –
20 59
Liked 125 420 60
Disliked 75 220 100

57.A certain drug is claimed to be effective in curing cold. In an experiment on 500 persons
with cold, half of them were given the drug and half of them were given the sugar pills.
The patient’s reaction to the treatment are recorded and given below. On the basis of this
data, can it be concluded that the drug and sugar pills differ significantly in curing cold?
Ans:2=3.52, do not differ significantly

Helpe Harme No
d d effec
t
Drug 150 30 70
Sugar 130 40 80
Pills

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