IPS 131 – Tutorial 5: HUMAN AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT

1) Piaget’s stages of cognitive development

4 Piaget’s
stages of
cognitive
development

Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Formal

Birth - 2 years of 2 – 6 years of age operational operational
age 7 – 12 years of age 12 years - Adult

An infant's A child learns to Children gain a People develop

knowledge of the use language. better the ability to think
world is limited to Children do not understanding of about abstract
his or her sensory yet understand mental operations. concepts. Skills
perceptions and concrete logic, Children begin to such as logical
motor activities. cannot mentally think logically thought, deductive
Behaviours are manipulate about concrete reasoning and
limited to simple information/ take events, but have systematic planning
motor responses the point of view difficulty also emerge during
caused by sensory of other people. understanding this stage.
stimuli. abstract concepts.
 2) Schaie’s stages of cognitive development
Stages Developmental Age Description
Acquisitive stage Under 18 years An individual’s primary cognitive task is to acquire knowledge and intellectual skills. This
stage occurs from infancy through adolescence. Childhood and adolescence acquisition of
basic knowledge and skills.
Achieving stage 20 – 30 years Young adulthood during which an individual’s primary cognitive task is to achieve
personal goals (e.g., starting a family, establishing a career)
how? applying the intellectual skills learned during the acquisitive stage. Early
adulthood adapt and apply cognitive skills to achieve long-term goals.
Responsible stage 30 – 40 years Middle adulthood during which the individual manages increasingly complex situations
arising from family, community, and career responsibilities.
Executive stage 40 – 50 years Middle adulthood -responsibility to the society.
Adults may achieve a high level of intellectual functioning characterized by a broadened
focus on societal rather than on exclusively personal concerns and by an ability to set
priorities as well as to assimilate conflicting information.
During this time, adults often start thinking more about helping society, not just
themselves or their families.
Re-integrative 50 – 60 years They apply their intellectual skills to re-examine their life experiences, priorities,
stage personal interests, and focus on things that have personal meaning—like hobbies,
relationships, or causes they care about. In this stage memory storage, retrieval, and
the speed of other cognitive functions may decline, but general cognitive ability
continues to develop during this stage.
Reorganisation 60 – 65 years During this stage, people begin to adjust to retirement or major life changes. Because of
stage changes in their health and energy levels, they become more careful about how they
spend their time and effort.
They focus on activities that feel personally meaningful, and they may start thinking
more deeply about the purpose of their life. This is a time of reflecting and reorganising
their life around what matters most to them now.
Legacy Creation Beyond 65 About slowing down, thinking and executing cognitive tasks.
 LIFE AND CAREER STAGES
3) Freud's Psychosexual Stages of Development
Psychosexua Developmental Important Outcome Basic Conflict
l Stages Age Events
The Oral Birth to 1 Year Mouth The infant's primary source of interaction occurs through The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning
Stage the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially process. The child must become less dependent upon
important. The infant derives pleasure from oral caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, the
stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and individual would have issues with dependency or
sucking. The child develops a sense of trust and comfort. aggression, drinking, eating, smoking, or nail-biting.

The Anal 1 to 3 years Bowel and The primary focus is on controlling bladder and bowel The major conflict at this stage is toilet training.
Stage Bladder movements. Developing this control leads to a sense of Inappropriate parental responses can result in
Control accomplishment and independence. Success at this stage is negative outcomes. If parents take an approach that
dependent upon the way in which parents approach toilet is too lenient, an anal-expulsive personality could
training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using develop in which the individual has a messy,
the toilet at the appropriate time encourage positive wasteful, or destructive personality. If parents are
outcomes and help children feel capable and productive. too strict or begin toilet training too early, an anal-
Positive experiences during this stage served as the basis for retentive personality develops in which the individual
people to become competent, productive, and creative is stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive.
adults.
The Phallic 3 to 6 Years Genitals The phallic stage of development is primarily focused on Fixations at this point could lead to adult
Stage identifying with the same-sex parent. At this age, children personalities that are overly vain, exhibitionistic, and
also begin to discover the differences between males and sexually aggressive. If the Oedipus and Electra
females. complexes are not resolved, these complexes may
Boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s linger and continue to affect behavior into adulthood.
affections. The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of
wanting to befriend the mother and the desire to replace
the father. However, the child also fears that he will be
punished by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud
termed castration anxiety.
The term Electra complex has been used to describe a
similar set of feelings experienced by young girls. Girls
instead experience penis envy.
The Latent 6 to Puberty Sexual Children develop social skills, values and relationships Children may become “stuck” at this stage, may
Period Feelings with peers and adults outside of the family. The become sexually unfulfilled and immature adults.
Are development of the ego and superego contribute to this
Inactive period of calm. The stage begins around the time that
children enter into school and become more concerned
with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests.
The latent period is a time of exploration in which the
sexual energy is repressed or dormant. This stage is
important in the development of social and
communication skills and self-confidence.
As with the other psychosexual stages, fixation at this
stage can result in immaturity and an inability to form
fulfilling relationships as an adult.
The Genital Puberty to Maturing The individual develops a strong sexual interest in the
Stage Death Sexual opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last
Interests throughout the rest of a person's life.
In earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs,
however, interest in the welfare of others grows during
this stage. The goal of this stage is to establish a
balance between the various life areas.
If the other stages have been completed successfully,
the individual should now be well-balanced, warm, and
caring.
Unlike the many of the earlier stages of development,
the ego and superego are fully formed and functioning
at this point. Younger children are ruled by the id, which
demands immediate satisfaction of the most basic needs
and wants. Teens in the genital stage of development
are able to balance their most basic urges against the
need to conform to the demands of reality and social
norms.
 4)
Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development
Psychosocial Developmental Basic Conflict Important Events Outcome
Stages Age
Stage 1 Infancy (birth Trust vs. Mistrust Feeding Most fundamental stage in life. During this stage, the infant is uncertain about
to 18 months) the world in which they live, and looks towards their primary caregiver for
stability and consistency of care.
If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, they will
develop a sense of trust, which will carry with them to other relationships, and
they will be able to feel secure even when threatened.
If these needs are not consistently met, mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety may
develop.
Stage 2 Early Autonomy vs. Toilet Training Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and
Childhood (2 to Shame and a sense of independence. Potty training plays an important role in helping
3 years) Doubt children develop this sense of autonomy. Children who struggle and who are
ashamed for their accidents may be left without a sense of personal control.
Success during this stage of psychosocial development leads to feelings of
autonomy. Failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.
Stage 3 Preschool (3 to Initiative vs. Guilt Exploration Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment.
5 years) Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert
too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt.
Stage 4 School Age (6 Industry vs. School Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Through
to 11 years) Inferiority social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their
accomplishments and abilities. Children who are encouraged and commended
by parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in their
skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or
peers will doubt their abilities to be successful. Success leads to a sense of
competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.
Stage 5 Adolescence (12 Identity vs. Social Relationships The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often-turbulent teenage
to 18 years) Confusion years. Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Those
who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal
exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and
feelings of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their
beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused about themselves and the
future. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads
to role confusion and a weak sense of self.
Stage 6 Young Adulthood Intimacy vs. Relationships This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring
(19 to 40 years) Isolation personal relationships. Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships
with other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in
loneliness and isolation.
Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self do tend to have
less committed relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional
isolation, loneliness, and depression. Successful resolution of this stage results in
the virtue known as love.
Stage 7 Middle Adulthood Generativity vs. Work and During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and
(40 to 65 years) Stagnation Parenthood family. Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by
having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success
leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow
involvement in the world.
Being proud of your accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults,
and developing a sense of unity with your life partner are important
accomplishments of this stage.
Stage 8 Maturity (65 to Ego Integrity vs. Reflection on life Erikson's theory differed from many others because it addressed development
death) Despair throughout the entire lifespan, including old age. Older adults need to look back
on life and feel a sense of fulfilment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of
wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair. At this stage,
people reflect back on the events of their lives and take stock. Those who look
back on a life they feel was well-lived will feel satisfied and ready to face the end
of their lives with a sense of peace. Those who look back and only feel regret will
instead feel fearful that their lives will end without accomplishing the things they
feel they should have.
Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been
wasted and will experience many regrets. Those who feel proud of their
accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this phase
means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These
individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death.
 5) SUPER & HAVIGHURST’S LIFE AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT STAGES
Bergh, Z. C. (2021). Introduction to work psychology. Cape Town: Oxford University Press.