GaugeHow’s Notes on

(GD&T) Geometric
Dimensioning
&Tolerancing
GD&T Symbols with Notes
Symbol Name Category Description Notes

Controls the deviation of a line (or Often applied to shafts or rails;

Straightness Form axis) from a perfect straight line. helps control warpage.

Ensures a surface lies within two Critical for mating surfaces;

Flatness Form parallel planes, limiting its typically verified with gauge
deviation from perfect flatness. blocks or optical methods.

Controls how close any cross-

Used for shafts or holes to ensure
Circularity (Roundness) Form sectional profile is to a perfect
uniform rotation and balance.
circle.

Combines control of both Provides a comprehensive control

circularity and straightness to over 3D form; useful for ensuring
Cylindricity Form ensure an entire cylindrical proper function of cylindrical
surface remains within tolerance. parts.

Controls the two‐dimensional Applied to complex curves like

Profile of a Line Profile contour of a feature’s cross airfoil cross sections or cam
section against an ideal shape. profiles.

Controls the three‐dimensional

Common in mold, die, and free-
Profile of a Surface Profile contour of a surface to ensure it
form surface applications.
conforms to its intended shape.

Ensures that a feature (or its axis) Useful for aligning surfaces and
Parallelism Orientation remains equidistant from a datum ensuring consistent spacing
plane or line. between features.

Controls the 90° relationship Critical for parts that must mate
Perpendicularity Orientation between a feature and its datum, correctly; often verified using
ensuring proper orientation. square blocks or CMMs.

Specifies a feature’s angular

Used when features need to be
Angularity Orientation deviation relative to a datum at a
controlled at non-90° angles.
specified angle.

Often required for balancing

Ensures that the central axes of
rotating parts; measurement can
Concentricity Location two or more features are aligned
be complex and may require a
(i.e. share a common center).
CMM.

Important for ensuring balanced

Controls that two halves of a
designs; less common in modern
Symmetry Location feature are equally distributed
standards but still used in many
about a center plane.
legacy applications.

Defines a tolerance zone within Widely applied to features such

which the true (ideal) position of a as holes and slots; may include
Position Location feature’s axis or center must lie MMC/LMC modifiers to provide
relative to datums. bonus tolerance.

Controls the variation of a

feature’s surface in a single cross‐ Limits the “wobble” in rotating
Circular Runout Runout section as the part rotates about parts; measured in a single plane.
a datum axis.

Controls the cumulative variation Provides comprehensive control

of the entire surface of a feature over all surface deviations during
Total Runout Runout during a full 360° rotation about a rotation; more encompassing
datum axis. than circular runout.
Tolerance Fit Allowance
Feature Tolerance Fit Allowance

The intentional
The permissible The relationship difference between
Definition variation in a between mating the maximum
dimension of a part parts in an assembly material limits of
mating parts

Ensures Provides a specific

manufacturability Determines how two clearance or
Purpose
while maintaining parts will assemble interference
function between parts

A numerical
Categories like
Upper and lower difference between
clearance,
Expressed As dimensional limits the maximum and
interference, and
(e.g., ±0.02 mm) minimum sizes of
transition
mating parts

Unilateral, Bilateral, Clearance Fit, Positive (clearance)

Types and Geometric Interference Fit, or Negative
Tolerances Transition Fit (interference)

A hole of 50.02 mm
Hole and shaft
and a shaft of 50.00
Shaft diameter: 50 ± designed for a
Example mm give an
0.02 mm specific assembly
allowance of 0.02
type
mm (clearance)

Applied to individual Applied to Ensures desired

Application parts during assembled performance of
manufacturing components assembled parts
 Chamfer Fillet Rounding
Feature Chamfer Fillet Rounding

A straight, angled edge cut A curved transition between A smoothly curved edge
Definition
between two surfaces two surfaces around an entire corner

Shape Flat and angled Smooth and curved Fully rounded at the edge

Removes sharp edges for Reduces stress concentration Improves aesthetics and
Purpose
safety and easy assembly and improves strength comfort

Used in structural Used in consumer products,

Used in mechanical parts,
Common Uses components, castings, and ergonomic designs, and soft
fasteners, and machining
stress-prone areas edges

Typically formed using

Machined with a chamfer Created using fillet tools in
Manufacturing Method molding, sanding, or
tool or milling cutter CAD or machining
rounding tools

May create stress No significant impact on

Distributes stress evenly,
Effect on Stress concentration if not stress but improves wear
reducing the risk of cracks
designed properly resistance

More difficult, requires

Easier to machine, requires Usually requires molding or
Ease of Machining precise machining or CAD
simple cutting tools post-processing
modeling

Can cause turbulence or

Helps smooth fluid flow Improves aerodynamics and
Impact on Fluid Flow resistance in fluid
around corners fluid dynamics in designs
applications

Removes less material, Usually formed by adding

Removes more material than
Material Removal making it more suitable for material or smoothing the
a fillet
load-bearing parts edge

Used when sharp edges need Used in high-stress areas to Used for ergonomic comfort
Design Considerations
to be removed quickly prevent fatigue failure and aesthetic appeal

Welded joints, internal mold Smartphone edges, furniture

Bolt heads, keyways, edge
Example Applications transitions, aircraft corners, wear-resistant
breaks in machined parts
components surfaces
 Image: https://kdmfab.com/what-is-fit/

Hole Basis System Shaft Basis System

Feature Hole Basis System Shaft Basis System

The hole size is kept constant, The shaft size is kept constant,
Definition and the shaft size is varied to get and the hole size is varied to get
the required fit the required fit

Most commonly used system in Used when shaft size is fixed or

Standard Usage
design and manufacturing cannot be changed

Ease of Easier, as standard tools Less convenient, as custom hole

Manufacturing (reamers, drills) define hole sizes sizes may be required

Hole dimensions are Shaft is pre-manufactured or

Preferred When
standardized or pre-machined standard (e.g., motor shafts)

Done by changing shaft Done by changing hole

Fit Adjustments
tolerances tolerances

Bearings, bushings, gears with Shafts in motors, electric drives,

Examples of Use
standard holes special assemblies

Common Fit Types H7/h6, H8/f7 (H = hole tolerance h7/H6, h8/G7 (h = shaft tolerance
Used basis) basis)

May require custom or variable

Tooling Requirement Uses standard hole tooling
hole tooling
Geometric Dimensional Form
Tolerances Tolerances Tolerances

Feature Geometric Tolerances Dimensional Tolerances Form Tolerances

Controls the shape, Specifies acceptable Controls the perfect form

Definition orientation, and position variation in size (length, of a feature without
of features width, height, diameter) reference to other features

Ensures parts fit together Ensures parts are Ensures the shape of a
Purpose with precise alignment and manufactured within part remains within
functionality acceptable size limits specified limits

Uses GD&T symbols like ⏀ Uses GD&T form control

(circularity), ⏊ Expressed as ± tolerances symbols (straightness,
Symbol Representation
(perpendicularity), ⌖ in dimensions flatness, circularity,
(position) cylindricity)

The form of a single

Position, orientation, and
What It Controls Size limits of features surface, independent of
shape of features
other features

Position tolerance to Ensuring a cylinder

A shaft diameter specified
Examples ensure hole alignment in remains perfectly round
as 50 ± 0.02 mm
an assembly and straight

Used in precision
Used in assembly and Used in basic
Application machining and high-
fitment of components manufacturing dimensions
accuracy parts

Helps control the

Reduces manufacturing Ensures perfect surface
variability of
errors and ensures and shape accuracy,
Importance manufactured parts to
functionality of parts in reducing errors in final
maintain
assemblies assemblies
interchangeability

General machining, High-precision machining,

Automotive, aerospace,
Commonly Used In manufacturing, and CNC molds, and aerospace
and precision engineering
operations components
First Angle vs.
Third Angle
Projection

Feature First Angle Projection Third Angle Projection

The object is placed between The projection plane is placed

Placement of Views the observer and the between the observer and the
projection plane object

The top view is below the front The top view is above the front
view, the right view is on the view, the right view is on the
Orientation of Views
left, and the left view is on the right, and the left view is on
right the left

Common in Europe, Asia, and Widely used in the USA,

Usage
ISO standards Canada, and ANSI standards

Views are projected opposite Views are projected in the

Projection Method to the direction of the same direction as seen by the
observer observer

Easier for visualization and

Can be less intuitive for some
Visualization widely taught in engineering
due to view placements
design

Used in mechanical drawings Used in engineering and

Example Applications and manufacturing industries technical drawings following
following ISO standards ANSI standards

Standard Followed ISO 5456-2 ANSI Y14.3

Default projection in most

More common in European
Preferred in CAD Software CAD software like AutoCAD,
CAD standards
SolidWorks (USA settings)

Automotive, aerospace, and Manufacturing, product

Commonly Used In heavy engineering industries design, and general
in Europe & Asia engineering in North America
First Angle vs.
Third Angle
Projection
Feature First Angle Projection Third Angle Projection

The object is placed between The projection plane is placed

Placement of Views the observer and the between the observer and the
projection plane object

The top view is below the front The top view is above the front
view, the right view is on the view, the right view is on the
Orientation of Views
left, and the left view is on the right, and the left view is on
right the left

Common in Europe, Asia, and Widely used in the USA,

Usage
ISO standards Canada, and ANSI standards

Views are projected opposite Views are projected in the

Projection Method to the direction of the same direction as seen by the
observer observer

Easier for visualization and

Can be less intuitive for some
Visualization widely taught in engineering
due to view placements
design

Used in mechanical drawings Used in engineering and

Example Applications and manufacturing industries technical drawings following
following ISO standards ANSI standards

Standard Followed ISO 5456-2 ANSI Y14.3

Default projection in most

More common in European
Preferred in CAD Software CAD software like AutoCAD,
CAD standards
SolidWorks (USA settings)

Automotive, aerospace, and Manufacturing, product

Commonly Used In heavy engineering industries design, and general
in Europe & Asia engineering in North America
Clearance Fit Interference Fit Transition Fit

Feature Clearance Fit Interference Fit Transition Fit

A type of fit where the

A fit that can result in
A type of fit where there parts are pressed
either clearance or
is always a gap between together, creating an
Definition interference, depending
mating parts, allowing interference that
on the actual
free movement. requires force or heat
dimensions of the parts.
for assembly.

The shaft may be either

The shaft is always The shaft is always slightly smaller or
Mating Condition
smaller than the hole. larger than the hole. slightly larger than the
hole.

May require light force,

Requires press-fitting,
Easy to assemble and lubrication, or slight
Assembly Method shrink-fitting, or force-
disassemble by hand. temperature variation
fitting.
for assembly.

Used where free Used where moderate

Used where strong
movement between tightness is needed but
fastening is required,
Application parts is required, such some flexibility is
such as gears, bushings,
as bearings and sliding required, such as
and machine couplings.
mechanisms. alignment pins.

Dowel pins, alignment

Shaft & bearing, bolts in Gears on shafts, press-
pins, and certain gears
Examples holes, and sliding fitted bushings, and
requiring controlled
mechanisms. keyless hubs.
movement.

Tolerances allow for

Tight tolerances ensure
Loose tolerances allow both clearance and
Tolerance Range no movement between
easy movement. interference depending
parts.
on variations.

Loose clearance fit, Force fit, shrink fit, tight Push fit, tight transition
Types (As Per ISO 286-1)
sliding fit, running fit fit fit, medium fit
 Form Orientation Location Runout
Tolerances Tolerances Tolerances Tolerances

Orientation Location
Feature Form Tolerances Runout Tolerances
Tolerances Tolerances

Controls the Controls the

Ensures a feature’s
Ensures a feature’s angular variation of a
position is within
Definition shape remains within relationship of feature during
specified limits
specified limits. features to a rotation, ensuring
relative to a datum.
datum. balanced motion.

Shape or form of an Perpendicularity, Position, Surface or axis

individual feature parallelism, and concentricity, and deviation when a
What It Controls
(independent of a angularity relative symmetry relative to part rotates around
datum). to a datum. other features. a datum.

Requires Datum? ❌ No ✅ Yes ✅ Yes ✅ Yes

Single feature without Angular Positional accuracy Rotating parts or

Tolerance
reference to other relationship of a of a feature to a features around a
Applied To
features. feature to another. reference. reference axis.

Perpendicularity, Position,
Common GD&T Straightness, Flatness, Circular Runout,
Parallelism, Concentricity,
Symbols Circularity, Cylindricity. Total Runout.
Angularity. Symmetry.

Angular Circular or full

Shape deviations (2D Positional offsets in
Measured In misalignment surface deviations
or 3D). X, Y, and Z.
relative to a datum. during rotation.

Mating parts, Rotating

Bolt hole patterns,
Example Flat plates, shafts, and assembly components like
hole locations, and
Applications bearing surfaces. alignments, and spindles, gears, and
concentric shafts.
mechanical joints. brake discs.
 Bilateral Unilateral Limit
Tolerance Tolerance Dimensions
Example with Limit
Feature Bilateral Tolerance Unilateral Tolerance
Dimensions

A tolerance where A tolerance where

variation occurs in both variation occurs only in
Example values with
Definition directions (above and one direction (either
upper and lower limits.
below the nominal above or below the
dimension). nominal dimension).

Represented as 0 / +X or Bilateral: 49.98 mm –

Represented as ±X (e.g.,
Expression -X / 0 (e.g., 50 +0.02/-0.00 50.02 mm Unilateral:
50 ±0.02 mm).
mm). 50.00 mm – 50.02 mm

Provides strict control The bilateral method

Allows flexibility in both
over variation in one allows equal deviation,
Control Over directions, making
direction, ensuring tight while unilateral ensures
Deviation manufacturing and
fitting in engineering parts never exceed a
inspection easier.
applications. critical limit.

Easier to manufacture More difficult to Bilateral tolerances

Ease of as the tolerance is manufacture as it reduce machining
Manufacturing distributed requires precision in complexity and
symmetrically. one direction. rejection rates.

Used in
Used in general interchangeable parts, Bilateral: General CNC
Common machining, hole and press-fits, and machining, shafts, holes
Applications shaft systems, and loose functional elements Unilateral: Bearing fits,
fits. requiring precise press fits
control.

Provides manufacturing Bilateral tolerance

Ensures exact fits in
Advantages flexibility and reduces allows for cost-effective
critical components.
rejection rates. manufacturing.
 Primary Secondary Tertiary
Datum Datum Datum

Feature Primary Datum Secondary Datum Tertiary Datum

The first reference The second reference The third reference

surface or feature used feature used to restrict feature that fully
Definition
to establish the part’s additional degrees of constrains the part in
orientation. freedom. space.

Provides the most

Further constrains the Final reference that
stability and restricts
part by restricting two restricts the remaining
Function in GD&T three degrees of
additional degrees of one degree of freedom,
freedom (rotation and
freedom. fully defining the part.
movement in one plane).

Three (translation along Two (translation along One (final translation

Degrees of Freedom
and rotation about the and rotation about a along the remaining
Controlled
primary plane). perpendicular plane). perpendicular plane).

A secondary surface
Typically the largest,
that works with the The least critical
most stable, and
Selection Criteria primary datum to reference that helps
functionally important
ensure proper finalize part positioning.
surface or feature.
alignment.

Symbol in Feature First letter in the datum

B C
Control Frame reference (e.g., A in

A vertical face or hole A side or small

Flat base of a part that
Example in a Part used to orient the part reference surface that
sits on a surface.
correctly. ensures full alignment.

Most crucial for Assists in additional Final positioning aid,

Importance stability, defines the alignment, ensuring ensuring full constraint
part’s major orientation. functionality. in all directions.
Straightness Flatness Circularity Cylindricity

Feature Straightness Flatness Circularity Cylindricity

Ensures a surface Ensures a surface Ensures a feature Ensures a cylinder

or axis is perfectly is perfectly level is perfectly round is both circular
Definition
straight along its without waviness or at any cross- and straight along
length. unevenness. section. its entire length.

Form control for

Form control for
Form control for Form control for individual cross-
Type of Control entire cylindrical
lines or edges. entire surfaces. sections of a round
surfaces and axes.
feature.

Applied to cross- Applied to entire

Reference Applied to lines or Applied to entire sections of holes, cylindrical features
Feature edges on a part. planar surfaces. shafts, or round like shafts and
features. holes.

Controls both
Controls only linear Controls surface Controls
Degree of roundness and
deviations along a waviness across an roundness only at
Control straightness along
straight edge. entire plane. individual sections.
the full length.

Two directions Two-dimensional Three-dimensional

One direction
Measured In across a surface (X cross-section cylindrical form
along a length.
and Y). measurement. measurement.

Prevents vibrations,
Ensures smooth Ensures smooth
Prevents gaps or misalignment, and
Impact on linear motion and rotation and even
misalignment in uneven wear in
Functionality accurate alignment wear in rotating
mating surfaces. shafts and
in machine parts. parts.
cylinders.

Used in hydraulic
Used in rails, Used in mating Used in bearings,
Common cylinders, shafts,
shafts, and surfaces, precision pistons, and
Applications and precision
machine beds. bases, and plates. circular grooves.
rotating parts.