Exploring the Syntax and Semantics of South

Asian Languages 1st Edition Reena Ashem download

https://ebookmeta.com/product/exploring-the-syntax-and-semantics-
of-south-asian-languages-1st-edition-reena-ashem/

Download more ebook from https://ebookmeta.com

We believe these products will be a great fit for you. Click
the link to download now, or visit ebookmeta.com
to discover even more!

Java 1 Basic syntax and semantics Software Development

Poul Klausen

https://ebookmeta.com/product/java-1-basic-syntax-and-semantics-
software-development-poul-klausen/

Foundations of Probabilistic Logic Programming.

Languages, Semantics, Inference and Learning 2nd
Edition Fabrizio Riguzzi

https://ebookmeta.com/product/foundations-of-probabilistic-logic-
programming-languages-semantics-inference-and-learning-2nd-
edition-fabrizio-riguzzi/

Nominal Syntax at the Interfaces A Comparative Analysis

of Languages With Articles 1st Edition Giuliana Giusti

https://ebookmeta.com/product/nominal-syntax-at-the-interfaces-a-
comparative-analysis-of-languages-with-articles-1st-edition-
giuliana-giusti/

CrissCrossed A Dark High School Bully Romance 1st

Edition Sasha Rc

https://ebookmeta.com/product/crisscrossed-a-dark-high-school-
bully-romance-1st-edition-sasha-rc/
Cannabis Pharmacy The Practical Guide to Medical
Marijuana Michael Backes Andrew Weil

https://ebookmeta.com/product/cannabis-pharmacy-the-practical-
guide-to-medical-marijuana-michael-backes-andrew-weil/

Autonomous Underwater Vehicles Jing Yan Xian Yang

Haiyan Zhao Xiaoyuan Luo Xinping Guan

https://ebookmeta.com/product/autonomous-underwater-vehicles-
jing-yan-xian-yang-haiyan-zhao-xiaoyuan-luo-xinping-guan/

Enterprise Design Operations and Computing 26th

International Conference EDOC 2022 Bozen Bolzano Italy
October 3 7 2022 Proceedings João Paulo A. Almeida

https://ebookmeta.com/product/enterprise-design-operations-and-
computing-26th-international-conference-edoc-2022-bozen-bolzano-
italy-october-3-7-2022-proceedings-joao-paulo-a-almeida/

Hidden Champions in Dynamically Changing Societies

Critical Success Factors for Market Leadership 1st
Edition Alenka Bra■ek Lali■

https://ebookmeta.com/product/hidden-champions-in-dynamically-
changing-societies-critical-success-factors-for-market-
leadership-1st-edition-alenka-bracek-lalic/

College Algebra, 11e Ron Larson

https://ebookmeta.com/product/college-algebra-11e-ron-larson/
Software Development Activity Cycles: Collaborative
Development, Continuous Testing and User Acceptance 1st
Edition Robert F. Rose

https://ebookmeta.com/product/software-development-activity-
cycles-collaborative-development-continuous-testing-and-user-
acceptance-1st-edition-robert-f-rose/
Exploring the
Syntax and
Semantics of South
Asian Languages
Exploring the
Syntax and
Semantics of South
Asian Languages
Edited by

Reena Ashem, Gurmeet Kaur

and Usha Udaar
Exploring the Syntax and Semantics of South Asian Languages

Edited by Reena Ashem, Gurmeet Kaur and Usha Udaar

This book first published 2017

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Copyright © 2017 by Reena Ashem, Gurmeet Kaur, Usha Udaar

and contributors

All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
the prior permission of the copyright owner.

ISBN (10): 1-4438-7320-9

ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-7320-8


TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgement ..................................................................................... vii

Chapter One ................................................................................................. 1

Exploring the Syntactic Structures of South Asian Languages—
An Introduction
Reena Ashem, Gurmeet Kaur and Usha Udaar

Chapter Two .............................................................................................. 11

Property Concepts and the Degree Expression in Kannada
Sindhu Herur Subramanya

Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 37

Semantically Elaborate Categories and Grammaticalization in Malayalam
Reshma Jacob and Shreya Mehta

Chapter Four .............................................................................................. 55

Aspects in Meeteilon
Padmabati Achom

Chapter Five .............................................................................................. 73

Semantics of Reduplicative Nominal Quantification in Bangla
Nandini Bhattacharya

Chapter Six ................................................................................................ 93

The Allomorphs of Genitive and Dative and the Postulation
of Grammatical Gender in Malayalam
Gouthaman K.J.

Chapter Seven.......................................................................................... 113

Understanding Ergative Case Licensing in Haryanavi
Usha Udaar


vi Table of Contents

Chapter Eight ........................................................................................... 129

Dative and Ergative Subject Constructions in Punjabi:
Understanding Person Agreement
Gurmeet Kaur

Index ........................................................................................................ 153




ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We wish to thank Cambridge Scholars Publishing for their interest in our

project and considering it for publication. Thanks also to Victoria
Carruthers for guiding us through the entire publication process.

Needless to say, this volume would not have materialised without the help
and perseverance of all our contributors, who have met our demands
untiringly over the last few months. We are also very grateful to our
reviewers - Pritha Chandra, K.V. Subbarao, Rajesh Kumar, Mythili
Menon, Priyanka Biswas- for their insightful comments on the papers.

This volume is a by-product of the Ninth Students’ Conference of

Linguistics in India held at the Indian Institute of Technology Delhi. We
express our heartfelt gratitude to the entire Linguistics Unit of the
Department of Humanities and Social Sciences for their effort in
organizing the conference. Without their support, neither the conference
nor the volume could have come into being.


 CHAPTER ONE

EXPLORING THE SYNTACTIC STRUCTURES

OF SOUTH ASIAN LANGUAGES—
AN INTRODUCTION

REENA ASHEM, GURMEET KAUR

AND USHA UDAAR1

1. Introduction
This volume is a compilation of selected papers presented at the Ninth
Students' Conference of Linguistics in India (SCONLI-9), which took
place at the Indian Institute of Technology Delhi from 14th to 15th March,
2015. The ninth edition of the conference brought together young
researchers from various sub-disciplines of linguistics from all parts of the
country. The conference was divided into seven sessions over a period of
two days, where research scholars from among the students chaired each
session. Papers on various topics including case, agreement, adjectives,
finiteness, topic modelling and machine translation were presented by the
participants. These issues were illustrated via various South Asian
languages such as Malayalam, Tamil, Kannada, Hindi, Magahi, Punjabi,
Haryanavi, Braj, Bundeli, Bangla, Assamese, Meiteilon, Sylheti, Badaga,
Khoibu and Maring.2 The present volume contains seven papers selected
from those presented at the conference.


1
The author names’ have been listed according to the alphabetical order of the last
names.
2
There is a divide between linguists with regard to the spelling of the Tibeto-
Burman language spoken by the Meiteis in Manipur. While some linguists use
Meiteilon, others prefer Meeteilon. We adopt the former spelling in this paper,
except for where the contributors have used the alternative.
2 Chapter One

South Asian languages (henceforth SALs) have attracted a lot of attention

in the linguistic literature. Some of it derives from the shared similarities
between these languages despite them belonging to different language
families. To elaborate, languages in South Asia belong to four different
language families—Indo Aryan, Dravidian, Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-
Burman—but share several linguistic traits among themselves (Abbi,
2012), thereby constituting a “linguistic area” (in the sense of Emeneau
1956, 1980 and Masica 1976). Some of these shared linguistic traits are
retroflex sounds, SOV word order, absence of prepositions, morphological
reduplication, and complex predicates among others. For a detailed
exposition of these traits across various SALs, see Abbi (1991/1992, 2001,
2012). However, it must be noted that the interest in SALs has not been
restricted to their typological (un)relatedness, but has extended well
beyond into the generative framework. Noted studies on different SALs by
scholars such as K.P. Mohanan (1982), Gurtu (1985), Mahajan (1990),
Srivastav (1991), T. Mohanan (1994), Jayaseelan (1999, 2001), Kidwai
(2000) among others have had an impact on the development of linguistic
theory. With investigation of issues on topics ranging across the board—
status of primitive categories (nouns, verbs and adjectives), wh-questions,
scrambling, clause structure, case and agreement—these studies have used
empirical evidence from SALs to ask crucial questions that have helped
shape theory. In this volume we focus on three of these topics: (a) status of
primitive categories, (b) clausal and nominal structure and (c) case and
agreement. Specifically, this volume presents a compilation of papers each
of which attempts to investigate one of these three topics. Each paper puts
forth novel data from SALs, and provides descriptive-theoretical analysis
of the linguistic phenomenon covered. The current volume thereby paves
the way to refining our empirical as well as theoretical understanding of
the system of language.

In the next section, we discuss the importance of said topics in the

generative literature, followed by demonstrating how studies on SALs
have furthered our understanding of these issues. The final section will
focus on the contribution of each paper of the present volume to the same
linguistic issues.

2. Relevance of the Topics in the Purview

of the Theory and Studies on SALs
It is generally assumed that lexical categories like nouns and verbs are
universal and found in all languages of the world (see Hale and Keyser,
 Exploring the Syntactic Structures of South Asian Languages 3

2003). However, some SALs present a problem for such a claim. Consider
the case of Mundari, a Munda language. Peterson (2007) proposes that the
language does not have separate noun-verb classes, in that a single word
can function as a noun, a verb or an adjective according to the context. A
similar proposal has been made for adjectives in Dravidian. Amritavalli
(2008) in her study of Kannada, and Jayaseelan (2007) in his work on
Malayalam respectively have argued that adjectives are not a primitive
lexical category for the two languages under consideration. Specifically,
both authors claim that adjectives in these Dravidian languages are derived
by incorporation of case markers or postpositions into verbs or nouns.
Menon (2014) also argues that there is an absence of the category of
adjectives in Malayalam. However, she differs from existing claims by
proposing not only that adjectives are not present as a lexical category in
the language, but also that they are not derived in the syntax by operations
on case markers. The language expresses adjectival meaning via
relativization and nominalization.

SALs have also broadened discussions on clausal syntax, especially the

issue of tense-aspect-mood (TAM) projections. Since the seminal work of
Pollock (1989) and its incorporation into the early minimalist
developments (cf. Chomsky 1989), the structure of the clause above the
VP has become an important topic in syntactic research. In this respect,
SALs have been of key interest due to the presence of tenseless languages
like Meiteilon, Malayalam, and Kannada. For example, exploring the
clausal syntax of Kannada, Amritavalli (2007) suggests that there is no
category of T(ense) in the language, such that a clause in Kannada is not a
TP, but a MoodP. On the other hand, Kidwai (2010) in her work on
another tenseless language, Meiteilon, argues for the presence of a T-like
head in the clause structure insofar that this head inherits uninterpretable
features from a higher C-like dominating head. Interest in clausal syntax is
furthered by the phenomenon of clausal nominalization in SALs.
Nominalization is generally understood as the process of “turning
something into a noun” (Comrie and Thompson 1985). It is of two types:
derived, where a verb acts like a noun phrase; and clausal, where the full
clause acts like a noun phrase. Most of the existing literature on
nominalization has focused on derivational nominalization, wherein verbs
are nominalized to derive nouns and adjectives. However, SALs like
Newar and Mongsen Aao have been shown to have clausal
nominalization, structurally represented as [clause]NP (DeLancey 1999,
2002 and Genneti et al. 2008). This has raised interesting issues pertaining
to how we differentiate clausal from nominal units.
4 Chapter One

On the level of syntactic operations like agreement and case

valuation/checking, SALs have been extensively interrogated. In the
domain of agreement, two studies that merit our attention are Bhatt (2005)
and Chandra (2007). In Chomsky’s system of Agree (2000, 2001), case
and agreement are understood to go hand in hand, such that case is a side-
effect of phi feature agreement. A DP which has been case valued (as a
free-rider on phi agreement) is no longer eligible to enter into further
agreement relations. Long-distance agreement (LDA) constructions in
Hindi-Urdu have provided a fertile ground for understanding Agree.
Specifically, employing LDA structures in Hindi-Urdu, Bhatt (2005)
argues for dissociation between case and agreement. He proposes AGREE,
as per which phi feature agreement is possible with a DP which has
already been case valued. Also investigating long-distance agreement
cases in Hindi-Urdu along with other languages like Tsez, Chandra (2007)
questions the status of Agree as a core grammatical operation and instead
proposes that all agreement must always take place between sisters, with
no agreement taking place in a c-command configuration.

Given the rich case morphology attested in SALs, the phenomenon of case
has also not gone unnoticed. The literature on case in SALs has raises
relevant issues pertaining to the PP status of case-markers and structural
configurations that license them. Let us illustrate with a couple of
examples. The works of Spencer (2005) and Kidwai (2011) on case
markers in Hindi-Urdu have shown that the morphological forms -ne and -
ko, understood as ergative and accusative case respectively, are not
realizations of case but only postpositions that do not project. Further, the
discussion of the Hindi-Urdu ergativity has been of key interest to
understand if ergative case is an inherent or a structural case. In this
respect, employing perfective constructions with complex predicates in the
language, Mahajan (2012) has argued that ergative is an inherent case
valued on the subject by the v head which hosts the light verb. Not just
ergative, but also dative case has been explored by Davison (2003) and
Bhatt (2003) for Hindi-Urdu and by Jayaseelan (2004) for Malayalam.
Analyzing the dative case as lexically marked, these works have raised
questions pertaining to the status of the dative DP in dative subject
constructions(sentences in which the logical subject of a clause takes the
dative case, rather than the nominative case).

To recapitulate, these studies indicate how relevant the investigation of

South Asian languages has been to shaping our understanding of various
linguistic phenomena including clause structure, status of primitive
categories and syntactic operations. Not only have these works refined our
 Exploring the Syntactic Structures of South Asian Languages 5

conception of the system of language, but they have also made accessible
the special empirical properties of SALs to the general linguistic audience.
That being said, the current volume is an attempt to further the discussion
on SALs in the generative paradigm. Concretely, the papers in the current
volume probe into the three domains under consideration—status of
primitive categories, clause structure and syntactic operations—in a range
of SALs and attempt descriptive-theoretical analyses in light of the
existing literature. The first set of papers by Herur, and by Jacob & Mehta
probes the nature and status of lexical items and categories in Kannada and
Malayalam respectively. Papers by Achom and Bhattacharya deal with
issues like nominalization and clause structure in Meiteilon and Bangla.
The final set of papers by Gouthaman, Udaar and Kaur focus on the
syntactic and morphological underpinnings of case and agreement in their
respective works on Malayalam, Haryanavi and Punjabi. We highlight the
key claims of each of these papers in the next section.

3. Contribution of the Present Volume

3.1 Status of Lexical Items/Categories
In purview of the current literature on adjectives in Kannada, Sindhu
Herur discusses adjectives and comparative constructions in her paper
‘Property Concepts and the Degree Expression in Kannada’. Exploring the
underlying nature of property concepts in Kannada, Herur shows that they
can be expressed either by nouns or by adjectives in the attributive
position. In the predicative position, in contrast, property concepts are
expressed by adjectives that are syntactically derived from nouns marked
with a dative case. The separate existence of nouns and adjectives is
further substantiated by the distribution of heccu, the Q element in
comparative constructions in the language. While the element is optional
with adjectival comparatives, it is required obligatorily with nominal
comparatives.

Carrying forward the discussion on lexical categories, Jacob and Mehta

add upon Heine and Kuteva’s (2009) work on grammatical categories and
extend their analysis to Malayalam in their paper ‘Semantically Elaborate
Categories and Grammaticalization in Malayalam’. The paper uses
semantic analysis of verbal predicates and demonstrates that similar
categories can be drawn in Malayalam through the process of
grammaticalization.
6 Chapter One

3.2 General Aspects of Clausal and Nominal Structure

Focusing on the structure of the clause above the VP in Meiteilon, the
paper ‘Aspects in Meeteilon’ by Padmabati Achom gives an elaborate
description of aspectual constructions in the Tibeto-Burman language.
Achom argues for the presence of two distinct aspectual heads in
Meiteilon- an inner and an outer aspectual head, by providing ample
empirical evidence. She claims that the outer aspect head lies above the
functional vP and is realised morphologically. On the other hand, the inner
aspectual ahead lies inside the lexical VP; it usually remains unrealised.
However, certain deictic suffixes in the language help provide the
semantics of this aspect head.

In a slightly different vein, Nandini Bhattacharya probes into the nominal

domain in Bangla by investigating the semantics of nominal quantification
in the language. Specifically, the paper titled ‘Semantics of Reduplicative
Nominal Quantification in Bangla’, addresses the issue of quantification
with a focus on the role of nominal reduplication in encoding implicit
quantification in Bangla. Reduplication is an important linguistic feature
of South Asian languages, and has received attention in the works of
Emeneau (1956) and Abbi (1991) among others. Bhattacharya recounts the
earlier findings on the phenomenon at the level of phonology and
morphology, and takes the discussion a step further to detail the semantics
of implicit quantification, especially in Bangla. The paper investigates key
linguistic differences between the reduplicated nominals and other NP
expressions in the language. Finally, Bhattacharya offers a formal account
of the distributive plurality that is expressed implicitly by such
reduplicated nominals.

3.3 Case/Agreement
Issues of case and agreement in SALs are investigated in three works in
the volume. Genitive and dative case is explored in the paper titled ‘The
Allomorphs of Genitive and Dative and the Postulation of Grammatical
Gender in Malayalam’, where Gouthaman KJ explores the motivation
behind distinct realizations of the two case markers in Malayalam. He
presents the syntactic contexts that determine the choice of distinct forms
of the case markers. Employing the case-stacking approach, the author
posits that the distinct morphological forms of genitive and dative case in
the language follow from different sets of nominal features that the Case
head agrees with.
 Exploring the Syntactic Structures of South Asian Languages 7

Moving from dative-genitive to ergative case, Usha Udaar elaborates upon

the case licensing mechanisms in the paper titled ‘Understanding Ergative
Case Licensing in Haryanavi’. Focusing on the syntactic nature of ergative
case, the paper demonstrates that unlike nominative and accusative cases,
the ergative case is neither licensed via phi-feature agreement between a
functional head and a nominal nor related to theta assignment by a
functional head. Instead, the ergative case in Haryanavi is a dependent
case, licensed in the defective perfective aspect domain. The paper,
therefore, elaborates upon the debate related to various case modalities
existing within the generative literature.

In the last paper titled ‘Dative and Ergative Subject Constructions in

Punjabi: Understanding Person Agreement’, Gurmeet Kaur argues that
person agreement is determined by the structural configuration between
the agreeing functional head and the agreement triggering nominal
(following Baker, 2008). To arrive at this claim, Kaur explores dative and
ergative subject constructions in Punjabi. While the theme of the dative
structure triggers full phi agreement on the T head in dative subject
constructions, the theme of the ergative structure triggers agreement in
number and gender alone. Investigating these structures in detail, Kaur
claims that in dative constructions, the theme moves beyond the
intervening dative subject and agrees with T in sisterhood, while
agreement between the theme DP and v-T in the ergative construction
takes place long distance for lack of an A-position for the movement of the
theme. These varying structural arrangements correlate with +/- person
agreement.

In conclusion, we would like to reiterate that the chapters in this volume

highlight many interesting and hitherto unnoticed features of SALs.
Addressing issues ranging from the status of primitive categories to the
working of operations like case valuation and agreement, these papers are
a step forward in helping us understand the system of language better.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
this day the Valencians (commonly called the lemonade-men) came
into our bivouac, the sure harbingers of the approach of the enemy.
These men wear a spiral cap, of felt or leather, and have jet black
ringlets hanging down each side of their dark olive faces; and their
fierce black eyes give them a noble expression of countenance. A
white linen jacket is thrown over the shoulder, and a red sash
encircles their loins; they also wear a white linen kilt, like our
Highland soldiers, reaching to the cap of the knee; the white half
stockings are gartered under the knee, which is bare; and hempen
sandals are tied round the feet. They carry a long tin can, strapped
on their backs, cased in the bark of the cork-tree, which keeps cool
the lemonade with which they are filled. These men generally
marched with the French columns, and acted as spies to both
parties. Just before nightfall, the company was ordered a quarter of
a league to the front on picquet; the country was open, and, as the
cavalry passed, I heard a staff-officer giving orders, which led me to
suspect that the enemy were at hand.
At break of day on the 18th, a few shots were exchanged to our
right; the firing increased, and the cheering might be distinctly heard
at intervals, as the sun rose above the horizon.
Our dragoons became visible while retiring before the enemy's
horse and light artillery, which at intervals were blazing away. The
scene was sublime and beautiful. An officer said to me, "There will
be a row this day; however, we had better get our breakfast, as God
knows when we shall have any thing to eat, unless we take
advantage of the present moment." The tea service being laid out,
and a stubble fire kindled, to warm the bottom of the kettle, we
suddenly espied some squadrons of French heavy dragoons in a
valley to our right, pushing for the main road at full trot. An absurd
and ludicrous scene now took place. The crockery was thrown into
the hampers; also the kettle, half filled with hot water; another
officer, who had come to déjeûne with us, from the rear, all the while
vociferating, "God bless me! you will not desert my mule and
hampers; they are worth four hundred dollars." In fact, to get off
seemed impossible; the company, however, formed column of
sections, and fixed bayonets, fully determined to cover the old mule,
who went off with a rare clatter, and we after him, in double-quick
time. The enemy were now within two hundred yards of us,
brandishing their swords, and calling out, when they suddenly drew
up on seeing some of our cavalry hovering on their right flank. A
rivulet, with steep banks, ran parallel with the road; but we soon
found a ford, where we drew up, intending to dispute the passage.
The right brigade of our division had moved forward, and had
deployed to the succour of our dragoons first engaged, about half a
mile to our right. Soon after this, two squadrons of our light
dragoons formed on a rising ground, two hundred yards from us,
with two pieces of horse artillery on their right, when about an equal
number of French heavy cavalry, handsomely dressed, with large fur
caps, made rapidly towards them, our guns throwing round shot at
them during their advance. When they had arrived within one
hundred yards of our squadrons, they drew up to get wind, our
dragoons remaining stationary34.
A French officer, the chef d'escadron, advanced and invited our
people to charge, to beguile a few moments, while his squadrons
obtained a little breathing time. He then held his sword on high,
crying aloud, "Vive l'Empereur! en avant, Français!" and rushed on
single-handed, followed by his men, and overthrowing our light
dragoons. The guns had fortunately limbered up, and the horse-
artillery fought round them with great spirit, the enemy trying to cut
the traces, while the poor drivers held down their heads, sticking
their spurs into the horses' sides with all their might, and passed the
ford under cover of our picquet. The Earl of Wellington was in the
thick of it, and only escaped with difficulty. He also crossed the ford,
with his straight sword drawn, at full speed, and smiling. I did not
see his lordship when the charge first took place, but he had a most
narrow escape; and, when he passed us, he had not any of his staff
near him, and was quite alone, with a ravine in his rear.
A few stragglers of each party still continued engaged, and this
part of the affray took place within twenty yards of us. One of our
dragoons came to the water with a frightful wound; his jaw was
entirely separated from the upper part of his face, and hung on his
breast; the poor fellow made an effort to drink in that wretched
condition.
The round shot now flew in various directions; one spun through
a cottage behind us, and the shepherd ran out in great terror. The
light division now commenced its retreat from the vicinity of
Castréjon. The French had crossed the river Douro with
reinforcements, and had made an amazing march to take us in flank.
We had only retrograded a short way, when we obtained a view of
the bulk of the French army, pushing forward on a ridge of hills to
our left. The first false attack had been made at daylight on our right
and in front, merely to draw all our force to that point, while the
Duke of Ragusa executed this movement. The fourth division were
retiring in mass, within range of the enemy's fire, being critically
situated in the valley, while the French cannon rolled on the crest of
the hills above, and poured in their shot with effect on their right
flank.
Our division was obliquely to the rear, in column of quarter
distance, with fixed bayonets, ready to form square,35 surrounded by
large bodies of our cavalry. To avoid an action seemed impossible.
The enemy's infantry were almost on the run, and we were
marching away from them as hard as we could. While the round
shot from a flank fire flew over us, a French division came running to
engage and detain us until others came up, and obliged us to
abandon the road, and trample down a tract of wheat. The heavy
German cavalry drew close round us. The country was open, and a
vast sheet of corn enveloped us for many miles. The men became
much distressed, owing to the rapidity of the movements and heat
of the day. We were again enabled to regain the road (owing to our
numerical superiority of cavalry), which made a curve down a gentle
descent; and the men descried, at a short distance, a dirty
meandering stream, called the Guarena, near Castrillo. A buzz ran
through the ranks that water was at hand, and the soldiers were
impelled forward, with their eyes staring and mouths open; and
when within fifty yards of the stream, a general rush was made. I
never saw the troops during my service so thirsty. The discipline of
the division was such, that I have seen them pass clear water,
unbroken, in the hottest weather, suffering under fatigue known only
to those under the weight of a knapsack and accoutrements.
All this took place under a cannonade, which had continued, at
intervals, for more than ten miles. This was following up with a
vengeance. We had no sooner crossed the river than some
squadrons of the enemy's cavalry galloped up a hill immediately
overlooking us. The division now moved more leisurely; and every
one was aware that had our cavalry given way, the division must
have halted to repulse charges, which would have given time for the
French infantry to come up; and had that been the case, the
struggle must have been very sanguinary. Our reserves now being at
hand, we soon halted on a round hill, and showed front. The fourth
division did the same; when a brigade of the enemy, covered with
dust, came in contact with an equal number of the fourth division;
who, firing a volley, charged with the bayonet, and overthrew the
French in good style, taking many prisoners.
The French army had done their best to overtake us, but
became glad of a halt as well as ourselves, and the firing ceased. We
remained stationary during the day, when I fell asleep; and after
some time, I suddenly awoke, with my lips glued together, and my
person almost roasted by the scorching rays of the sun; and actually
crawled some distance before I knew where I was. Dry biscuit was
served out; but we could not get any water until eleven at night,
when I obtained a draught of dirty water out of my batman's
canteen; however, it cooled my inside; and I believe that many
hundreds dreamed that night of limpid streams.
On the 19th the troops stood to their arms an hour before
daybreak; but the enemy continued stationary, and well they might,
as they had made the previous night and day an enormous march to
cut us off in detail, according to the Duke of Ragusa's favourite
expression; however, at four o'clock in the afternoon the Earl of
Wellington rode up to Lieutenant Wilkinson of the 43d, who was on
picquet, and said, "What are the enemy doing?" Wilkinson replied,
"The French are in motion." The dust was flying upwards from
behind the ridge of hills in our front. The General-in-chief said, "Yes
—to the right now;" and ordered the first brigade of our division to
make a corresponding movement, by crossing a valley, to prolong
our right. We ascended a high hill, and formed on our original front,
when the French army issued from behind the hills, presenting a
martial appearance, and a grand display of moving squadrons, with
brazen helmets, and a great body of infantry flanked by their
cannon.
The river Guarena was nearly dried up, and was the only
obstacle between the contending armies, as the face of the country
still continued bare and hilly, without even a tree to be seen. The
Duke of Ragusa entered the valley to reconnoitre, surrounded by a
numerous staff, when two guns of our horse-artillery opened, and a
ball struck on the ground, and knocked up the dust in the very
centre of the group, without killing any one: they took the hint, and
shifted their ground.
Eight of the enemy's guns instantly began a heavy firing on our
brigade: the first shot struck an officer of the horse-artillery on the
side of his helmet, and displaced him from his horse; after a short
time the brigade went to the right about, to get out of range. At that
moment the Spaniards36 attached to us simultaneously started from
the left of each regiment, and I do not recollect ever seeing them
afterwards: it was most ludicrous to witness the flight of these
patriots, in disorder, while our troops retired sloping their arms with
the utmost sang-froid. We soon halted, and faced about; the
enemy's guns ceased to play, and a large force of our light dragoons
mounted the hill in our rear, with sloped swords. Night coming on,
we formed columns in case of accidents. An officer and myself then
stole down the hill on horseback, in search of water for ourselves
and animals: having passed our advanced posts some distance, and
hearing strange voices, we looked at each other, and whispered that
to go further would be indiscreet, wherefore, rejoining the column,
we wrapped ourselves in our cloaks, and fell into a profound
slumber, out of which we were awakened by a great bustle and the
trampling of horses. Word passed to stand to our arms, and the
Portuguese Caçadores fired some shots, but I was so overcome by
drowsiness, that I continued in a squatting position, rubbing my
eyes, too lazy to move. The confusion was caused by two or three
mules breaking their ropes, and becoming lively; not unusual
amongst such animals.
On the 20th our division concentrated soon after daylight, and
descended into the plain of Velesa, where we observed our whole
army formed in a dense phalanx, ready to deploy in order of battle.
The French army were not in sight; however, it was evident they
intended to avail themselves of the high ground; a brigade of our
cavalry had pushed half way up the ridge, to entice them to show
front, and to develope their movements, as it appeared during the
night they had moved on a quarter circle, round our extreme right
flank, and were now pushing on, and trying to cut off our
communications. The Duke of Ragusa would not accept battle as
long as he could gain ground without it, unless we attacked at a
disadvantage, as he seemed to be a perfect master of the localities
of the country.
Our army, under all these circumstances, broke up, and began to
retreat, the different divisions arranged in such a manner, that,
should it become necessary, by wheeling to the left, they could show
front, and be ready to engage, the more particularly as both armies
were again moving parallel to each other; and in this order they
continued some leagues, and bivouacked. It became necessary for
the troops to cook with fires of stubble, as there was not any wood
in the neighbourhood. A brigade of Portuguese cavalry happened to
be left at some distance in the rear, and, as it slowly retired in line,
presented such an imposing front to their own rear, that, by
mistake, an artillery officer ordered them to be saluted by a couple
of shot, which unfortunately did some execution.
On the 21st, two hours before daylight, we began our march,
branching off towards Salamanca, and took up our ground in the
valley, below St. Christoval, the enemy having moved on Alba de
Tormes and its vicinity. Toward evening, we fell in, and crossed the
Tormes by a ford, under the hill of Cabrerizos, and marched in the
direction of Salamanca, the river being on our right hand. Night
approached, and a German hussar passed us at full speed, and said,
"She's co-ming," meaning the French dragoons, who had pushed
forward to the village of Calbarasa de Abaxo.
The atmosphere became now overspread with an unusual
darkness; the thunder began to roll, the lightning was vivid, and the
rain fell in torrents. During the storm a whole troop of horses
galloped past at full speed, without their riders, having broke loose
from fright, caused by the loud claps of thunder. Continuing our
march, we soon bivouacked about two miles from Salamanca, our
left wing resting on the Tormes, and in vain attempted to screen
ourselves from the pelting of the storm. However, the morning of the
22d broke beautiful and serene; and at six o'clock we heard to our
right, and about two miles to the front, a brisk fire of small arms,
which continued for an hour, and then died away. The enemy had
attacked the seventh division, in a wood near the heights of Nuestra
Señora de la Pena, to ascertain whether the Earl of Wellington
intended to give up Salamanca. A young officer was washing his
shirt in the Tormes when the order came to fall in at eleven o'clock,
and was under the necessity of putting it on wringing wet.
The light division advanced, and took up the ground which the
seventh division had occupied in the morning; the wood extended a
short way to our front. The division was formed in open column,
concealed from a small body of the enemy, who were stationed in
small force half a mile to our front, with two pieces of cannon, on
some rocks, round the old quinta of Nuestra Señora de la Pena.
From our situation we formed a corps of reserve, communicating
with the third division placed on the top of the conical hill of
Cabrerizos, on our extreme left, and rather in advance of us, on the
right bank of the Tormes.
 We had no sooner piled arms, than I began to look about me. A
Table Mountain, or rather one of Los dos Arapiles, was a short way
to the right, and a mile to the front, with a very large mass of troops
formed behind it, in contiguous columns, with one red regiment
presenting their front towards the enemy in line at the top of it.
Large bodies of cavalry, the first, fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh
divisions of infantry, with a proportion of artillery, composed the
right and centre of the army in the plain, towards Las Torres; also a
corps of Spanish Patriots. Placed thus, who could have thought that
the General-in-Chief intended that day to retreat? I never did. Nor
could I see the reason for it: it seemed advisable to beat the French
before El Rey Joseph coming from Madrid, and General Chauvel,
who, with a reinforcement of cavalry and horse-artillery, had crossed
the Duoro, near Pollos, should make their appearance with additional
forces.
The arrangement of our troops was inimitable; years could not
have improved it. Our right had been fairly turned since the 20th;
the army were presenting a new front, so that the first or last,
whichever it may be termed, of military movements was to be
effected, that is for the contending armies to change places. The
French could not attack our left that day; if they had, the right of
their army must have been either surrounded or cut to pieces. The
third division would have hung on their flank, the light division would
have engaged them in front, the masses behind the Table Mountain
could have debouched on either side, while our cavalry, artillery, and
the rest of the army, could have moved forward, and attacked the
left of the French in the plain, which must have advanced to support
such a movement. The Table Mountain is the mark of the French
marshal's discomfiture. Military men say the French ought to have
taken possession of it: but was their army up and strong enough to
maintain it? The advance of the enemy at six o'clock in the morning
was not that of their whole force: I should say, that it was merely a
reconnaissance; half a dozen squadrons of cavalry and a division of
infantry must not be taken for a whole army. Nor had the French
soldiers wings; for in justice to them, more could not have been
done by legs. The Duke of Ragusa might have had his army in hand,
and could have placed a corps of observation where his centre
stood; then towards evening manœuvred with his main body at a
greater distance from our right flank, and threatened to cut us off
from Rodrigo, (and thereby change positions with us) until nightfall;
at the same time keeping his communications open with Alba de
Tormes, in the event of his not deeming it advisable to follow up
such a movement the next day. At all events, the French general
would have gained time, which was precious to him, as
reinforcements were on the road to join him. The fact was, the
French marshal was completely out-generalled: the Table Mountain
puzzled him; and the third division descending from Cabrerizos at
twelve o'clock, and raising clouds of dust as they passed along the
rear of our army37, caused the Duke of Ragusa to imagine that we
were drawing off, which I am confident led him to take hasty
measures, forgetting that he had been manœuvring only on blank
ground the four previous days. The Earl of Wellington saw his over
haste and his error; knowing that to support such an extension of
the left, the enemy ought to have advanced in force on the village of
the Arapiles, or that they must expose their left to a flank attack,
which they did. On the other hand, had they advanced towards the
Arapiles in the plain in force, our right and centre would have
become engaged, and the troops concealed behind the Table
Mountain could have debouched, and hovered on their right flank.
This was the first general action fought on the Peninsula, where
the Earl of Wellington attacked; which led the French marshal still
farther from his reckoning. The General-in-Chief, of course, did not
wish to fritter away his army in useless skirmishes, and therefore
only waited for a fit moment to bring it fairly in contact with the
enemy, to finish well when once commenced; and as the Duke of
Ragusa brought himself to action within the precincts of Salamanca,
the advantage was ours, the wounded soldiers having speedy
assistance, while those of the enemy who managed to drag
themselves far from the field, endured the most distressing
privations. The French were formed on the heights behind the village
of the Arapiles, with an extensive forest in their rear.
The field of battle generally was composed of light sand, with a
few straggling blades of parched grass. A very light breeze blew
towards the French, which gave them the benefit of the clouds of
dust and the volumes of smoke arising from the immense masses in
motion, notwithstanding the heavy rain on the preceding night. Near
one p. m. the third division were passing in rear of ours. I was
strolling about, here and there coming across a dead or wounded
soldier of those who had fallen in the morning, when a Portuguese
caught my attention. He was resting on his elbows with his legs
extended, suffering indescribable pain from a wound in his stomach;
his face pale, his lips discoloured, and stifled groans issuing from his
nearly lifeless body, while an almost tropical sun was shining on his
uncovered head.
Soon after the third division had reached its destination, a
column of French descended a hill en masse on our extreme right,
towards the village of Miranda. Three eighteen-pounders opened on
them, which took full effect, and spoiled their regularity. The enemy
hesitated, while the discharges of our heavy ordnance were
overthrowing all opposition. They went to the right-about to get out
of range. Our columns, formed behind the Table Mountain, now
debouched in double time, showing the French Marshal that the
long-expected crisis was at hand. A sharp fire of musketry opened
on some companies of the seventh fusileers, supported by the light
companies of the foot guards, as they broke through the village of
the Arapiles at half-past two. The third division had already brought
up their right shoulders, and were pushing on very successfully,
when the enemy's horse furiously charged the grenadiers and right
of the 5th regiment, while advancing in line, which they repulsed
and continued their movement. The fire gradually increasing, at half-
past four the armies were well in contact. The musketry rolled
without intermission, only interrupted by the still louder artillery. The
fourth division, breathless, amidst showers of grape, musketry, and
round-shot, had succeeded in planting their standards on the crest
of the enemy's position; but at that moment a French division, in
close column, and at a run, with fixed bayonets, forced them down
the hill, whilst others advanced on their left flank, which was
exposed, and carried the centre of the battle again into the valley;
but our heavy cavalry, in the right centre, were bearing down all
opposition, driving the left of the enemy before them, and putting
them into the greatest confusion. Major-General Le Marchant was
killed heading this charge. Marshal Beresford38, Generals Leith, Cole,
and Alten, were wounded. On the part of the French that fell, were
the Duke of Ragusa, Generals Fercy, Thomieres, Desgraviers,
Bonnet, Clausel, and Menne, besides their losing numerous
prisoners, standards, and cannon. At six the battle was at the height
—no cessation of musketry, and the cannon of both armies
thundering away as if there were to be no end of it. The columns of
smoke and dust were rolling up in dense volumes, so that the
atmosphere became dark above the bloody scene; yet there was not
a cloud to be descried, except those which arose from the battle. A
Spanish peasant was looking on with his arms folded; I heard him
exclaim, "Que grandisimo mundo!39"
The inhabitants of Salamanca were crowding the places of public
worship, to offer up prayers for the success of our arms. Apropos, it
was Sunday.
At half-past six, a brigade of Portuguese guns opened on the
enemy, in front of our division. At seven, the Prince of Orange, one
of the General-in-Chief's aides-de-camp rode up, and ordered our
division to move on the left to attack. We moved towards the Table
Mountain, right brigade in front, in open column; having passed it,
we then closed to column of quarter distance. The enemy's
skirmishers soon advanced, and opened a brisk fire. The shades of
evening now approached, and the flashes of cannon and small arms
in the centre and on the heights were still vivid, while the enemy
were making their last struggle for victory. An English officer of
General Pack's brigade passed us, covered with dust and
perspiration; he complained of the rough usage of the French. They
allowed the Portuguese to approach nearly to the summit of the
point of attack, then charged them, and used the bayonet without
remorse, taking that part of the field under their especial protection.
The enemy's light infantry increased, and retired very
deliberately; the ascent was gentle. The first brigade deployed,
supported by the second; the first division was marching in reserve.
Our skirmishers were obliged to give ground to the obstinacy of
the enemy; and nearly ceased firing. The line marched over them,
dead and alive.
Appearances indicated a severe fight, for we were near the
enemy's reserves. The Earl of Wellington was within fifty yards of the
front, when the adverse lines commenced firing. The General-in-
Chief ordered us to halt within two hundred yards of the enemy.
They gave us two volleys with cheers, while our cavalry galloped
forward to threaten their right flank. At this time I heard that a
musket-ball had perforated the Earl's cloak, folded in front of his
saddle. As we were about to charge, the enemy disappeared, not
being in sufficient force to withstand the attack. This advance was
beautifully executed.
Night coming on, the firing died away. Thus ended a battle
which bore on the destinies of Europe, by showing the decline of
French power in Spain, and leaving the British army for the first time
free to pursue their enemy at pleasure. It lasted six hours.—Our line
continued its movement. A French cavalry picquet fired on us at ten;
the ruse de guerre would not do40. We continued to advance until
midnight; and bivouacked round a village.
The Duke of Ragusa was carried off the field by a company of
French grenadiers. He had manœuvred well, from the 19th till the
battle, and had moved round our flank on a half circle.
As morning dawned on the 23rd, the light division advanced,
supported by the first division, and crossing the ford, near Huerta,
formed en masse in a valley, while the heavy German dragoons
ascended the hill, moving on the left of the enemy. After some time
we debouched. The Germans made a brilliant charge, and broke the
French rear guard, formed on the side of a hill near La Serna. They
suffered much. The whole of the enemy had not formed square. I
observed five hundred stand of muskets on their left, lying on the
ground in line, as if they had been piled and knocked down, and the
owners had shifted as well as they could; the muskets were not
grounded to the front, but lying sideways. The enemy only formed
two squares. I saw a man and horse dead, the rider still in his
saddle. They must have received their mortal wounds at the same
instant.
On mounting the hill, the enemy's army were in full view, in one
great mass. Our horse artillery threw some shot into them. The
troops soon halted, and the enemy were seen no more.

33 Now Lord Combermere.

34 The company was formed up, and fronting
the right flank of our dragoons. We, therefore,
had an admirable view of the space between the
combatants. The soldiers of the company had
made ready, holding their firelocks horizontally,
or rather at the charging position, but to have
fired would have been rather unchivalric, and
would probably have destroyed the valiant
French officer, who, though our enemy, was an
honour to his country.
35 Six companies of the second battalion of
rifles joined us on the retreat, just arrived from
England.
36 During this campaign only a few Spaniards
were attached to each British regiment in our
division.
 37 The third division did not pass through
Salamanca, when they descended from the hill of
Cabrerizos. They forded the Tormes, and passed
within a mile in rear of us.
38 Now Lord Beresford.
39 He was the only peasant I ever saw in
battle, except one who offered his services at
Vittoria, to conduct our division over an
unprotected bridge, when the second shot fired
took off the poor fellow's head.
40 It has been affirmed, that the firing of the
French picquet of dragoons in the forest caused
us to go too much to the left. On the contrary,
we were moving directly towards the ford of
Huerta, on the Tormes, as it was supposed that
the Spaniards left in the old castle of Alba de
Tormes would prevent the enemy crossing the
bridge at that place. These Spaniards, however,
unknown to the General-in-Chief, had
surrendered the day before.
 CHAPTER X.

Well-performed retreat of the French after the battle of

Salamanca—Progress of the English troops—
Description of the Spanish plains and towns—
Custom of the Siesta—Movements of Joseph
Bonaparte—Bivouac at Olmedo, and ball given there
by Lord Wellington—Advance of the British army,
and entry into Valladolid—A swimming adventure—
Illness of the author, and his removal to the town of
Cuellar—Timorous conduct of the Portuguese
dragoons—The English army enters Madrid—
Incidents attending the author's further removal as
an invalid to Salamanca—General position of affairs
on the Continent—Operations of Sir R. Hill—Re-
capture of Valladolid—Unsuccessful siege of Burgos
—Various movements of the forces.

A great portion of the French army had marched more than

twelve leagues41 in thirty-six hours, (advancing and retreating from
the field of battle,) and had also been engaged in hard-fighting six
hours out of that time; therefore, until the night of the 23d, they had
hardly made a halt for any considerable time during two days and a
night, and I think I may venture to assert, that the rapidity of their
movements, before and after the action, and their ultimate escape
under Gen. Clausel from the very jaws of destruction, are equally
astonishing.
Early on the morning of the 24th of July, we passed Pena-
Aranda, from whence the inhabitants sallied out, loaded with bread,
wine, and liquors, and rent the air with their acclamations in praise
of the glorious victory that we had won over the French; and even
the little boys straddled out their legs and bent forward their heads
in derision of the enemy's soldiers, to represent to us to what a state
of distress and exhaustion they were reduced. As we passed
onwards, numerous objects of commiseration, lying by the side of
the road, reminded us of the miseries of war in all its horrors: many
of the French soldiers lay dead, exposed to the scorching rays of the
sun, which had so blistered their faces, and swelled their bodies,
that they scarcely represented human forms, and looked more like
some huge and horrible monsters, of gigantic dimensions, than any
thing else. It is impossible to convey an adequate idea of such
spectacles, or of the sensations they must have endured during their
last agonies. These, now inanimate, objects had marched over sandy
plains, without a tree to shelter them, while suffering from fatigue,
sore feet, and want of water; then crowding into the battle, covered
with dust, and under a scorching sun, they had received severe
wounds, and were finally dragged, or carried on rudely-constructed
bearers, from the scene of action, during excruciating torture, and
ultimately left to perish by the side of the roads, or on stubble land,
with their parched tongues cleaving to the roof of their mouths, and
(to complete their miseries) before breathing their last sigh, to
behold, with glazed and half-closed eyes, the uplifted hand of a
Spanish assassin, armed with a knife, to put an end to their
existence. These dreadful fates awaited the defeated French soldiers
in Spain; it was impossible to gaze on the mutilated bodies of these
our enemies without feelings of deep commiseration for our fellow-
creatures, who, a day or two previously, had been alive like
ourselves, and perhaps the admiration of their comrades.
The vast campos in Leon, the two Castiles, and other parts of
Spain, are apparently interminable sandy plains, covered with corn
or small stumpy vines. In summer, many of the principal rivers
become very shallow, and numerous tributary streams are dried up,
leaving their winding beds, or indentures, filled with pebbles. In
many parts there is not a tree, a hedge, or a shrub to mark private
or public boundaries, nor a drop of water to be procured. The
shapeless roads, or beaten tracts, are ancle-deep in sand, and in
some places fifty yards wide; at other spots branching off into three
or four paths, which again join at a given point. During the excessive
heat of the day a solemn silence frequently pervades these immense
plains; and the high steeples of churches, or the venerable turrets of
monasteries of las villas, or pueblos, alone present a land-mark, and
direct the weary footsteps of the traveller.
The towns are constructed of ancient massive buildings of stone
or dingy brick, (the lower windows barred with iron,) intermixed with
innumerable churches, convents, and religious edifices of the most
ancient construction.
During the middle of the day all shops are closed by a pair of
unwieldy doors, and the inhabitants enjoy their middle sleep or
siesta. At this hour the streets may be traversed without meeting a
single person, and the great monastic edifices stand in solemn
grandeur as monuments of that superstition exercised by the monks
at the time of their foundation in the darker ages. As soon as the
scorching heat has somewhat subsided, the doors are thrown open,
and towards evening the streets are thronged by merry dancers and
songstresses; the tinkling of the guitar is heard from the casements,
balconies, and verandas; the servant maids go chatting and laughing
to the fountains; the muleteers lead their animals to water; the
peasant girls bring in cans of goat's milk, and the shopkeepers sit at
their portals without coats, having their shirt sleeves tucked up, and
smoking cigars.
On the 25th we made a halt to enable the stragglers and stores
of the army to come up. On the same day El Rey Joseph had arrived
at Blasko Sancho, near Arevalo, with a reinforcement, principally
composed of Spaniards, for the purpose of joining the Duke of
Ragusa; but on gaining intelligence of the defeat his troops had
sustained at Salamanca, he countermarched in the evening towards
his capital, leaving a picquet of cavalry behind at Blasko Sancho,
who were all taken prisoners, while carousing in a wine-house, by a
corporal's party of the 14th light horse. About this time General Sir
R. Hill had moved with the second division on Zafra, in Estremadura,
to observe a French force in that quarter.
On the 28th our division bivouacked round the ancient town of
Olmedo, where the Earl of Wellington gave a ball, with a general
invite to all those officers who liked to attend. The Alcalde selected
the different ladies as usual, whose merry hearts and supple forms
were always ready for the dance.
The following morning, an hour before daylight, we advanced,
and it was a droll sight to see the officers sleeping as they rode
along after the fatigues of the previous night, still dressed in their
ball attire, such as crimson, light blue, or white trowsers, richly
embroidered with gold or silver, velvet and silk waistcoats of all
colours, decorated in a similar manner: dandies ready alike for the
dance and the fight; most of them had received a wound, and
others more, nor can I call to mind one of the officers present at this
time, including the senior officer, who had reached twenty-five years
of age. Owing to the heat of the weather, it was the fashion of the
times to wear the jacket open, which was the only particle of dress
left to denote to what nation we belonged; as to any other
uniformity for the officers, it was quite out of the question: the
fantastical dresses of those days would have confounded the most
ancient or modern disciplinarians.—The enemy still continued their
flight across the Douro through Valladolid, which city the Marquis of
Wellington entered on the 30th, at the head of a large body of
horse. The country on the banks of the Douro is remarkably sandy,
and highly cultivated with vines; we forded to the left bank of the
river on that day within two leagues of Valladolid. While our baggage
was crossing, a batman and pony got out of their depth, and were
carried down the stream a considerable distance; and so determined
was the soldier to hold on, that he disdained, at the risk of his life,
to quit his charge, and continued swimming until a rope was thrown
to him, by the assistance of which he conveyed the little animal and
his master's portmanteaus safe on shore.
 We had no sooner heard of the large town in the vicinity, than
we began to prepare for the visit; however, it struck me that it would
be very refreshing to enjoy a swim first, and also wishing my horse
to participate in the luxury, I stripped myself and mounted its back,
and together we plunged into the stream; but, as ill luck would have
it, for a moment, the provoking animal hardly made any exertion, so
down he went, and thinking there was no time to be lost, I sprang
from his back; but owing to his plunging I received a slanting kick on
my chest, such as most probably would have proved fatal, had the
full weight of the blow struck me direct. The animal, however, soon
recovered itself, and swimming with the current, it was with
considerable difficulty I succeeded in getting it on shore.
Valladolid is a fine old city, (with a spacious square,) the
inhabitants of which were glad to see us, but evinced none of those
rapturous and warm expressions of delight displayed by those of
Salamanca.
The next morning we crossed the river, and branched off in the
direction of Madrid. Having halted a day or two, we again became in
motion, and struck on an excellent road, leading to the capital. Many
exclaimed, "Is this the road to Madrid? are we really going to the
capital of Spain, the centre of romance"? My mind was filled with all
sorts of illusions, and various anticipations of pleasure; my rest was
disturbed, and my dreams were of Madrid; every day's march was
counted, every object brought something new, and I made up my
mind to dance every night when I should arrive. Continuing our
route, we had reached within two days' march of the city of Segovia,
in the kingdom of old Castile, and occupied a pine wood. On seeing
an officer pass, who was likely to give me every information relative
to the movements of the army, I issued from my small Portuguese
tent, and entered into conversation with him, which lasted a
considerable time. Being without my cap, I felt the top of my head
extremely hot from the rays of the sun, and was about to withdraw
several times for a covering, which unluckily I failed to do. When the
dinner-hour arrived, composed of rice and boiled beef, (without any
bread or biscuit,) my appetite failed, and I laid me down, in hopes
that a few hours' sleep would restore me. At daylight, the following
morning, we were again en route, and had just cleared the sandy
wood, enveloped in dust, when a sudden giddiness seized me, and I
fell from my horse. On recovering my senses, I found myself
supported by an officer. There was no water to be procured, and, on
overtaking the division, I was advised to ride gently on to avoid the
dust.
For the first time in Spain, I observed a Spanish grandee
travelling in a carriage drawn by eight mules, escorted by fourteen
servants, clothed in long yellow coats, with cocked hats, and all
regularly armed, like horse soldiers. The costume of the peasantry
now became somewhat different; one of that class was walking by
my side, with a sort of spiral cloth cap, and clad in dark brown, who
asked me if I did not admire a little girl passing on the road, whom
he called a Wappa Chica; she wore also a stiff spiral cap of cloth,
perched on the top of her head, with round balls of different colours
up each side of it: her hair was plaited on each side of her head,
ending in a huge pig-tail, about eight inches long, and precisely
similar to those worn by British sailors; the jacket was brown, laced
up the front; a yellow petticoat, reaching just below the knee, blue
stockings, red clocks, shoes, and silver buckles. Having travelled
some leagues, I came to a village, where I observed one of the
commissaries of our division standing at the door of a cottage, who
remarked that I looked very ill, and asked me where I was going. I
told him "about half a league farther on, when I intended to lie
down under a tree until the troops came up, as I concluded they
would not proceed much farther that day." He politely begged that I
would partake of breakfast with him, as it was already prepared,
which offer I thankfully accepted. My fever continued rapidly to
increase, so that I could scarcely sit upright, and I soon began to
talk very incoherently, which induced him to put me to bed; the
division shortly afterwards filed through the village, and bivouacked
half a league in advance. In the evening, the two other officers of
the company with whom I messed, paid me a visit, and said, "Why,
what is the matter?" when I replied, "That the commissary had used
me very cruelly, and had been smothering me in blankets, to prevent
my going on to Madrid." The assistant-surgeon having felt my pulse,
asked whether I would permit him to throw some water on my
head? which I readily assented to, entreating him to do any thing to
make well. Then, being lifted out of bed, and divested of my linen
garment, I was placed in a chair, while the doctor, standing on a
table, emptied two pitchers of spring water on my crown; which
produced a most painful sensation.
The following morning my companions assured me that I could
not be permitted to proceed; but that, as there was a station to be
established at the town of Cuellar, it would be necessary that I
should go thither, when they felt no doubt that I should speedily
recover, so as to be enabled soon to rejoin them. A car was
accordingly procured, drawn by two fine mules, with a blanket
extended over the top as an awning.
At the expiration of two days' journey, I reached the entrance of
Cuellar, when a soldier came forward, and intimated that no sick
could enter the town until the commandant's permission was
obtained; and we were actually detained nearly two hours roasting
in the mid-day sun, before a free passage was granted us. Much
exhausted, and half suffocated, I at length obtained a most excellent
billet in a gentleman's house, where I received the greatest attention
from an assistant-surgeon belonging to one of the regiments
quartered there; being unable to quit my bed.
At this time the army had possessed itself of the passes of
Segovia and the Guadarama, and had moved forward on the 11th of
August towards Madrid, having, in the course of their march, forced
the enemy's advanced guard of cavalry to retire; but in the
afternoon these again advanced from Malajahonda towards Rosas,
to reconnoitre the Portuguese dragoons, who were drawn up on a
rising ground above the latter village, and made a show of charging,
but when they had arrived sufficiently near to observe the hardened-
looking visages of the sturdy French heavy horse, who displayed
their long shining weapons, with brass hilts, like the Highland
broadsword, with the exception of being one-third longer—at such a
sight these our allies simultaneously wheeled about, and scampered
off as fast as their Portuguese horses could trot and gallop, followed
by their unmerciful pursuers, stabbing and hacking them down, and
riding past three pieces of horse artillery that had been overturned.
The heavy dragoons of the King's German Legion took to horse as
speedily as possible, amidst the confusion, and, after a good deal of
savage sabring, the enemy retired, leaving at night the captured
guns behind them. El Rey Joseph had retired with his followers
behind the Tagus, and the following day our army entered Madrid,
where the French had injudiciously left a garrison in the Buen Retiro,
who surrendered themselves prisoners of war, just as part of the
third division, and some other detachments, were about to escalade
the works. A vast quantity of stores, powder, and ball, fell into our
hands, besides one hundred and ninety pieces of cannon, principally
dismounted.
About the 20th of August, a detachment of our regiment, from
England, passed through Cuellar, but, as they had experienced a
long march during the hot months, an enormous number of them
died, and the sick continued to increase from the army in such a
ratio, that most of us were ordered to proceed to Salamanca.
Accordingly, on the sixth day after my arrival, I was placed in a car,
drawn by bullocks, to begin another tedious journey. The sixth
division was on parade, having been left at that station as a corps of
observation, and to protect the sick and the stores of the army.
That night I travelled a short way, and was billeted on a very
clean house, where the patron was most anxious to have all the
particulars of the late battle recounted to him; however, finding that
I was not a sufficient master of the Spanish language to satisfy his
curiosity, he was determined to make up for it by entering into the
history of his own country. It was in vain that I exerted all my
patience, and requested he would have the goodness to leave the
room, pleading my indisposition in excuse for my apparent rudeness.
Having maintained silence for a few minutes, he offered me every
thing in his house, inquired if I was better, and recommenced his
volubility to such a degree, that I almost became distracted, and was
under the painful necessity of calling in my servant, who, in half fun
and half earnest, turned him out of the room by the shoulders.
The next day I reached Arevalo, where the market was filled
with fresh vegetables, a sight only to be appreciated by those who
have travelled over a dry country, devoid of vegetation. A smiling
muchacha, who sat by the side of a well-made young Spaniard,
jumped up, and handed me a large bunch of grapes, with a dignified
air of affability and frankness, so peculiar to the lower orders of that
country. I obtained a billet on a very handsome house, situated in a
luxuriant garden; and, on being supported out of the car, I was so
weak that I fell down, and continued in fainting fits for some time,
my servant all the while sousing me with water in imitation of the
Doctor. The fascinating Señorita of the house, about seventeen
years of age, very kindly administered every attention; and at night,
with a small lamp, remained in a recess, in readiness to offer me
liquids, for which I continually inquired. My recollection did not
entirely forsake me, but my head was in a bad state, so that I
fancied I saw groups of monkeys grinning at the foot of my bed;
and, as I was unable to endure the slender rays of the lamp, I
begged of the young lady to retire. At such a request her
countenance pourtrayed every mark of disappointment: whether she
considered me as one of the deliverers of her country, or whether so
young a girl, residing in so sequestered a spot, fancied me under her
especial protection, I know not; but I do know that her amiable
solicitude and her lovely eyes made such an impression, that she
continued the mistress of my thoughts, and heroine of my fancy, for
a long period afterwards.
Taking my farewell on the following morning, and apologizing to
the little Señorita for my want of gallantry, I proceeded on my
journey, and at the end of four hours reached the middle of an
extensive plain, when one of the bullocks became dead lame, and
the enraged driver declared vehemently that he would go no farther;
my servant, therefore, dismounted from my palfrey, and placed me
on its back. We made for the distant steeple, which skirted the
horizon, as the point of our destination. At the expiration of a
toilsome ride, we reached the Pueblo, and there sojourned until the
next morning. In two more days we reached Alba de Tormes; I was
quartered at an apothecary's shop, where I lay on the mattress for
twelve hours in a sort of stupor; on recovering, in some degree, my
servant fancied that I was dying, and proposed sending for the
Spaniard, which I would by no means consent to, from the
apprehension that he would bleed me to death.
The next day, while quietly passing through a wood, at a lonely
spot, my horse made a sudden start, and, on looking to the right, I
observed a dead man, perfectly naked, placed against a large piece
of rock. He had been killed at the battle of Salamanca. His hair was
long and grey; his beard had grown to a considerable length; and
his arms and legs had been placed in an extended position; in fact,
he was in an exact fencing attitude, in an extraordinary state of
preservation, and presenting, of course, a dreadful spectacle.
I noticed during the period that I was in Spain, that those
soldiers killed in action, who were exposed to the rays of the sun,
immediately became a mass of corruption, but of those, on the
contrary, who fell under trees or in shady places, exposed to heavy
dew or rain, the skin became as hard as leather, and they would
remain in that state for a very considerable period, unless they were
devoured by wild animals or birds of prey. I have often seen vultures
feeding on dead horses (that had been killed in battle) so fat, that
they could scarcely take wing, or raise themselves from the ground.
On reaching Salamanca, I obtained a billet, on presenting which,
I was treated with the greatest insolence by the man of the house,
who declared that I might enter, but that he had no accommodation
for my servant; under these circumstances, I was under the
necessity of sitting down in the street, until the soldier went to seek
elsewhere for better success. After some farther delay, he procured
me another on a public notary, where I was civilly received; but in
the middle of the day my patron, smelling of tobacco and garlic,
came in to take a siesta, in one of the two beds in a large recess. I
asked him if he intended to sleep there; he replied "Si, Señor." To
such an arrangement I objected; but he would not give up the point;
a struggle then ensued between us, which lasted some minutes,
although eventually I made him surrender. He was merely a
diminutive old man; but I had become weak from the effects of my
fever; and the scene was so amusing, that his own son, with a
smiling countenance, was quietly looking on.
A hospital mate being put in requisition, the first dose
administered to me was an emetic, and whenever I complained, the
same dose was repeated; therefore, whenever he visited me, I
invariably declared that I was better.
Our army had now occupied the heart of Spain, and the enemy,
with rapid strides, were endeavouring to concentrate in the distant
provinces round our centre, blowing up magazines, and eating up all
before them, like a swarm of locusts. Napoleon was at this period
traversing the wilds of Russia with his grand army, and his
magnificent and highly-appointed Imperial guard. The banners of
Austria, Prussia, Italy, and the Germanic States, were marching
under his control. The north and south of Europe were in a blaze,
and had become the extreme points of contest, which were
ultimately to decide this mighty struggle for supremacy. The victory
of Salamanca had shaken the combinations of the enemy in all parts
of Spain, and put the whole of them in motion. On the 25th of
August they destroyed their works before Cadiz, leaving behind them
stores, heavy artillery, and mortars, many of the latter having been
cast at Seville, by the order of the Duke of Dalmatia, for the purpose
of throwing shells into the town of Cadiz.42 Some Spaniards and
British immediately advanced from the lines, and took forcible
possession of Seville.
On the 29th of August, Sir R. Hill, with the second division,
entered Illerena, and pushed on to Ayllones, on the borders of
Estremadura; but, finding the French were retrograding on Cordova
and Granada, for the purpose of communicating with Joseph, who,
in like manner, was forming a junction with the Duke of Albufera,
intending to make Valencia the centre and the base of his future
operations against Madrid; Sir R. Hill, thereupon, by a flank
movement, marched towards the city of Medellin, on the left bank of
the Guadiana, so as to be in readiness to act wherever his presence
might be required, or to open his line with the third, fourth, and light
divisions, cantoned in the vicinity of Madrid.
The General-in-Chief no sooner saw a probability of his right
flank being cleared of the enemy, than he set off from Madrid, and
concentrated the first, fifth, sixth, and seventh divisions round
Arevalo, (early in September,) with a force of cavalry and artillery,
passed the Douro, and retook Valladolid, which had been re-
occupied by the enemy for a short time. On the 19th he crossed the
river Arlanzon, and laid siege to the old castle of Burgos, bristled
with cannon and the bayonets of its hardy defenders. Various
attempts by escalade, mining, explosions, and breaching were tried
for a month without success, owing to the want of a sufficiency of
battering artillery, and to the obstinate defence made by the enemy,
who firmly lined the walls, and threw their balls and bullets with
deadly aim against the assailants. The enemy's vanguard was at
Briviesca, and his main body behind the river Ebro, during the
greater part of the siege.
In the mean time the second division had moved, in the middle
of September, across the river Guadiana, through Truxillo Jaraceijo,
towards Almaraz, and then crossed the Tagus by a pontoon bridge,
and continuing its movement on the right of that river, passed
Talavera de la Reyna, and arrived on the 30th at Toledo, occupying
both banks of the river Tagus. General Sir Rowland Hill pushed
forward his advance to Yepes and its vicinity, taking the command of
the right wing of the army, composed of the second, third, fourth,
and light divisions, besides cavalry and artillery stationed in the
vicinity of Madrid.

41 About forty-eight miles.