Unit Four: Space Chapter Seven: Sun, Earth and Moon

Lesson One: The Earth and Sun System

Astronomy:

Astronomy is concerned with the study of the universe, and the

universe is
everything that exists, including the earth, planets, stars and all space.
A person
who studies the universe and tries to explain it is called astronomic,
and the
.astronomer needs to use astronomical binoculars to see celestial bodies
better

Astronomical binoculars: A device that collects light and magnifies images to make distant
objects appear closer and brighter.

* The work of most astronomical binoculars depends on collecting visible light to enlarge
images, and visible light is light that can be seen with the eye.

Types of astronomical binoculars:

1- Astronomical binoculars: in which lenses are used to collect the light coming from the
distant object and enlarge its image.

2- Reflective astronomical binoculars: Two or more mirrors are used to collect the light
coming from the distant object, where the light is reflected from the surfaces of the mirrors
before it reaches the eyeglass lenses.

* Some types of astronomical binoculars do not depend on visible light, but rather rely on
capturing the waves of the invisible spectrum issued by the object to be monitored, and the
invisible spectrum is any frequency in the electromagnetic spectrum that humans cannot
see its waves, such as radio, radar and infrared waves, as well as ultraviolet or X-rays.

How do we prove that the Earth rotates?

* The movement of the Earth is similar to the movement of a spindle body that rotates
around itself, as it revolves around an imaginary line called the Earth's axis, extending from
the North Pole to the South Pole passing through the center of the Earth.
* The earth rotates around its axis a full cycle called the daily earth cycle, which takes
about 24 hours, and in each cycle reaches all regions of the earth specific amounts of
sunlight, and night and day alternate for periods that vary according to the times
of the year.
Evidence of the Earth's rotation around its axis is a simple pendulum swing back and forth,
and scientists are currently using satellites to observe Earth's rotation from space.
Standard Time Zones:
The Earth rotates on its axis in an easterly direction at a rate of 360 degrees every 24 hours
or approximately 15 degrees per hour for this reason the Earth is divided into 24 zones
called standard time zones.

Standard time zone: An area about 15 degrees wide between the meridians on the ground,
and the time is equal in each area, there is a difference of one hour between each two
adjacent time zones.

International Date Line: Longitude 180, the date in the areas west of this line is one day
later than the areas east of it. ( Greenwich Line ).

Seasons :

The seasons alternate periodically during the year, and this can be seen through the high
and low average temperatures, and the flowering and wilting of plants.

* The reason for the occurrence of seasons is the inclination of the Earth's axis of rotation,
as the Earth's axis of rotation is tilted by about 23.5 degrees, which is always constant in
the direction of space and the northern end of the Earth's axis is directed in the direction of
the polar star ( North Star ). * The Earth takes about 365.24 days to orbit the Sun.

Earth's annual cycle: The full cycle of the Earth around the Sun.

Change in the angle of inclination of sunlight:

The angle of inclination of sunlight on the ground causes the seasons of the year, this angle
has the greatest value in the summer and the lowest value in winter, that is, the angle of
inclination of the sun's rays is greater at noon in summer than at noon in winter, and the
difference in the inclination of sunlight affects the shadows of objects on the ground in the
summer the sun is almost perpendicular to the surface of the earth at noon, so the
shadows of the objects are shorter, In winter, the sun is less inclined at noon than in
summer, so the shadows of the bodies are longer, but in autumn and spring, the sun is
between its positions in summer and winter, and the length of the shadows of the objects
changes at noon accordingly.

Space exploration:
Scientists send astronomical binoculars orbiting high around the Earth in order to see space
objects from Earth.
Scientists send satellites that can send accurate data back to Earth at high speed.
To get a clear and close view of objects in space, scientists launch space
probes that travel far in space carrying special instruments to study
different objects in the solar
.system, and they send images and data to Earth, where scientists
analyze them
* Satellites are sent to space by astronauts on board a spacecraft used more than once, and
then used by astronauts in their return to Earth, and an example of this is the historic flight
of Prince Sultan bin Salman, the first Arab astronaut on board the Discovery spacecraft in
1985, with three communication satellites on board.

Stay in space:
In their flights, astronauts need a supply of oxygen, water and food, as well as soil for
growing plants, and many experiments have been carried out on board these stations to
see if plants grow in space, and whether plants can produce oxygen, absorb carbon dioxide
and provide food.

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Lesson Two: The Earth, Sun and Moon System

What does the moon look like?

The moon has been a source of wonder and inspiration throughout history, and as
technologies advanced, people sought to learn more about it, and astronomical binoculars
provided scientists with a lot of information about the moon.

* Lunar surface features:

- Craters: They are craters in the form of deep saucers resulting from the collision of space
bodies with the surface of the moon.
- Lunar seas: They are dark flat plateaus and large area, devoid of water and are the result
of the collision of large space bodies with the surface of the moon, which led to filling the
places of collision with the core, which cooled and solidified.
- Highlands: They are light-colored areas, close to the poles of the moon, and more
elevated than the seas, there are more craters than in the area of the moon seas, so
scientists believe that they are the oldest landmarks on the moon.
- Lunar mountains: They are found at the edges of large seas, formed as a result of the
same collisions that formed the seas.
- Valleys: They are sloping, the most famous of which is the Alpine Valley, the deep valleys
of the moon may contain small amounts of ice.
What causes the phases of the moon:
The moon revolves around the earth, the earth revolves around the sun, and when
observing the moon, it seems to change its shape.
Moon phase: The shape of the moon that we see in the night sky.

* In fact, the shape of the moon does not change, but what we see is the illuminated part
of the moon. The moon does not shine by itself, but reflects the rays of the sun falling on it,
and the half of the moon facing the sun is illuminated while the other half is dark.

* Lunar month: It is the period of time between the new moon and the next one - it takes
about 29 days, and the lunar month is used in the Hijri calendar.

What is the cause of eclipses and eclipses?

Lunar eclipse: A phenomenon that occurs when the sun, the earth and the moon are
located on the same line, and the earth blocks the sun's rays from reaching the moon.

Solar eclipse: When the Earth passes through the moon's shadow region, blocking the sun's
rays.

* In a total eclipse, the moon completely obscures the disk of the sun, and the disk of the
sun appears completely opaque, then the gases of the outer shell of the sun can be seen,
the total eclipse of the sun does not last much, and rarely occurs, and because the sun's
rays are strong, they should not be seen directly, whether in normal times or during a total
eclipse.

What causes tides?

Seawater advances at certain times and covers higher areas of land, receding from it at
other times.

Tides: The rise and fall of water along the shore, occurs due to the attraction between the
Earth and the Moon.

Gravity: The force of tension or pull that arises between all objects, and the greater the
mass of the body, the greater the force of attraction.

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:Chapter Eight
Astronomy Lesson
One: The Solar System
What is the solar system?

Planet: A large spherical object orbiting a star.

Moon: An object orbiting the planet.

Solar system: It consists of a star (the sun) and other planets, moons and other bodies that
all revolve around this star.

Planets and orbits:

Gravity is a force that connects all bodies in space, and it is gravity that keeps the planets in
their orbits around the sun.

* The second factor that keeps the planet in its orbit is inertia, meaning that the moving
body remains moving in a straight line and inertia causes the planet to move in a straight
line, while the sun's gravity pulls it in its direction, because the mass of the sun is much
greater than the mass of the planet.

Planetary movement:

The planets move between the stars in the sky and there are two ancient explanations for
this: one considered that the earth is the center of the universe and this means that the
sun, moon and stars revolve around the earth, the second explanation states that the
earth, the moon, the stars and other planets all revolve around the sun and this explains -
better - the movement of the planets.

Inner planets – and asteroids:

Atara - Venus - Earth - Mars are the closest planets to the sun and are called (inner planets)
and they are very similar and close in size and the composition of most of them rocky,
revolving in orbits close to each other, few of them have moons and they rotate slowly
around their axes, they have no rings, and the planet Earth is the largest of the inner
planets.

Asteroids:

Relatively small bodies, of a metallic rocky nature, move in orbits around the Sun.
Most of the asteroids are located in the asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and
Jupiter, and the largest object in this belt is Ceres. Among the space objects that scientists
have collected a great deal of information about are the asteroid Jaspra, the asteroid Ida
and
the asteroid Eros.

Exoplanets:

It is a group of planets after the asteroid belt, including Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune
, which are almost identical in their sizes and are called giant gas planets, and each of them
has a metal core and a dense atmosphere, which is larger than the inner planets, and
rotates in larger orbits far apart from each other, it has many rings and moons, rotating
quickly, the day - the time of the planet's rotation around its axis - is very short on these
planets.
There is an icy world beyond the exoplanets and its largest planet is Pluto, known as the
ninth planet, which the International Astronomical Union has classified as a dwarf planet.

Other bodies in our solar system:

Comet is a ball of ice and rocks orbiting the sun.

Some comets come from an exoterior region called the Kuiper Belt, which contains more
than 70,000 objects the size of the largest asteroid.

Shooting star: A small rock or metal object that enters the Earth's atmosphere, burns
before hitting the surface of the Earth and appears as a bright line in the sky.

Meteor: If the meteor does not burn completely and part of it reaches the ground, it is
called a meteorite.

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 Lesson Two: Stars and Galaxies
Stars – Star Clusters:

Star: A huge ball of flammable gases interconnected by gravity, releasing light and heat
from itself.

The star system: (celestial sign) is a group of stars that takes a certain shape in the sky, as
we see it from our solar system.

Some star clusters have names that are mostly associated with their shape in the sky, and
stars also have names.

ex: the star of the Orion Man, which is one of the stars of the Orion group, the (Scorpio)
group, the polar star in the Big Dipper group.

* One of the benefits of knowing the stars: knowing the four seasons and their dates -
determining directions.

Distances between stars:

The stars in the star groups diverge from each other, the sun is the closest star to us, and
the next star is (Centaurs nearby) and is about 40,000,000,000 km (40 trillion km), the stars
are far from us and each other very large distances that are difficult to express using the
units of measurement that we use to measure distances on Earth such as meters and
kilometers, and to facilitate writing large distances between stars, scientists used the unit
of light years.

Light-year: represents the distance traveled by light in a year, and is equal to approximately
5.9 trillion km.
The nearby Centaurs star is 2.4 light-years from Earth, meaning that the light we see from
this star today was emitted 2.4 years ago.

Some characteristics of stars:

* Brightness: Some stars seem brighter than others, and their brightness decreases for us
as they move away from the earth, the star of poetry, for example, appears to us more
bright than the star of the Orion Man, although the star of the Orion Man is in fact brighter
than it, but it is much farther than the Shaari.

* Color: The color of the star indicates the temperature of its surface, the red and orange
colors indicate the less hot stars, the yellow color indicates the hottest stars, the bluish-
white color indicates the hottest stars, the star of the Orion Man with a bluish-white color is
much hotter than the star of Gemini's red hand.
* Size: The Sun is a medium-sized star, and there are larger stars, including stars above the
red giant and white dwarfs stars smaller than the Sun.

* Stars have life cycles, where the star is born, grows and then fades, and mass is the main
factor that determines the phase that the star goes through.

Characteristics of the sun:

The Sun is a medium-sized star, radiating its energy for 5 billion years, the mass of the Sun
represents 99.9% of the mass of the solar system and hydrogen constitutes about 92% of
its components.

* It is forbidden to look directly at the sun because its brightness causes damage to the
eyes, and at the time of the eclipse, colored glass must be used.

Galaxies:

Galaxy: A large group of stars linked together by gravity.

Astronomers estimate the number of stars in our galaxy at about 200 billion stars, and that
the universe has about 100 billion galaxies, and galaxies of differentshape, age and
structure.
Types of galaxies: irregular galaxy – spiral galaxy – elliptical galaxy.

Milky Way galaxy:

It is our mother galaxy, which is a spiral-shaped galaxy, in which stars - including the sun -
revolvearound the center of the galaxy, and the spiral arms come out of this center and
wrap around it, and these arms contain large amounts of gas and dust other than stars.

What is the Big Bang?

The universe is constantly expanding, and the universe is all matter, energy and everything,
from the smallest part of the atom to stars and galaxies. Galaxies were close to each other
at the beginning of the universe, and the universe was small and dense and its temperature
was high, and it began to expand suddenly and this expansion was called the Big Bang,
where the materials of the universe spread in all directions and decreased their density and
temperature, and huge amounts of gases and dust called nebula were formed from them,
and during their spread some of these materials gathered in the form of stars and galaxies,
Evidence suggests that the Big Bang occurred 13.7 billion years ago.

Solar System Formation:

The age of the Earth is about 4.6 billion years, and it was formed through different stages,
starting in the same nebula that formed the sun, where dust and ice particles were moving
irregularly in the nebula, and colliding to form larger and larger particles, and in the end
these colliding particles formed large conglomerates that attract each other by the effect of
gravity, these large conglomerates are what are known as protoplanets, Including the
initial Earth, which was molten and attracted more small bodies and in the end the Earth
had enough mass and gravity to form a primitive atmosphere consisting of hydrogen and
helium gases, then the Earth lost these gases as a result of its heat and the collision of
space bodies with it, and what remained in the atmosphere was nitrogen, water vapor,
sulfur gases and carbon, while oxygen appeared in the atmosphere later as a result of
photosynthesis processes carried out by self-feeding living creatures, including Plants.

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Unit Five: Article Chapter Nine: Classification of Material

Lesson One: Physical Properties of Matter
Material:

* Material: Everything has mass and volume, diamonds, water and air are all materials.

* Mass: The amount of substance in the body, and the mass of any body does not change.

The balance is used to measure the mass of an object by comparing it with standard
masses, the mass is measured in grams or kilograms (1 kg = 1000 g).

* Weight: Measuring the amount of gravity pulling the body.

The pulsating balance is used to measure the weights of objects, and the weight is
measured in units called newtons (1 newton = the force of attraction of the Earth for a
mass of approximately 0.1 kg).

* Size: The space occupied by the body.

The volume of liquid is measured in milliliters (1000 ml = 1 liter), the volume of a solid body
is measured in units called cubic centimeters (cm3) and 1 cm3 is equal to the volume of a
cube of length 1 cm, width of 1 cm and height of 1 cm, (1 cm3 = 1 mm).

Size calculation:

To calculate the volume of a regular body such as a solid rectangular parallelepiped: its
length
(l) multiplies its width (z) by its height (p): that is, for ×z×p, irregularly shaped objects
whose dimensions cannot be easily measured using a ruler, and to find their volume they
are immersed in water placed in a graduated cylinder, and measure the change in water
height, as the amount of height of the displaced water in milliliters indicates the volume of
the body in cubic centimeters.

Material Cases:

Matter has three common states: solid - liquid - gas .

* Solid bodies: have a specific shape, occupy a specific space, the movement of material
particles is very limited, they vibrate in place change the shape of the solid and its size only
when heated or destroyed. * Liquids: occupy the space in
which they are placed, they do not have a specific shape, the molecules in liquids are far
apart from each other movemore freely than in solids but less than in gases.
* Gases: do not have a specific shape, occupy any space in which they are placed, their
molecules are in continuous motion, spread in every direction, the substance in the
gaseous state is the least coherent and dense between the three states of matter.

Density – Buoyancy:

Density: Measuring the amount of mass in a given volume.

Density is measured in grams per cubic centimeter (g / cm3) – to find the density of a solid
body divide the mass of the body in grams by its volume in cubic centimeters: density =
mass
÷ volume.

* Two bodies of the same size can have different densities, such as two boxes of the same
size but one filled with feathers and the other filled with iron, the iron box will have a
greater density because it contains a larger mass in a space similar to the one filled with
feathers.

* The body floats if it is less dense than the liquid or gas in which it is placed, and drowns if
it is denser than them.

Buoyancy Force:
Buoyancy: The ability of an object to resist immersion in a fluid, and the fluid is a liquid or
gas, and the buoyancy force arises because the body during immersion takes the fluid out
of its way to replace it, and at the same time the fluid pushes the body upwards.

* Buoyancy depends on the density, as well as on the shape of the body.

* Liquids have a property that helps to float called surface tension, this property arises
because the parts of the liquid are attracted to each other, and form what looks like a
membrane above the surface of the liquid, limiting the immersion of objects in the liquid.

Physical properties:

Characteristics that can be observed without changing the nature of the material, and these
properties help it to distinguish materials from each other. * Physical properties: density -
color - hardness - magnetism - boiling point - texture.

Conductors and insulators:

Conductivity is a physical characteristic that describes the ability of a material to conduct

heat and electricity, and the transfer of heat and electricity in conductors differs from that
in insulators.

* Conductors include metals, including: aluminum - copper - gold - silver, these allow the
transfer of electricity and heat easily, copper is a good conductor and is often used in
electrical circuits and connections.

* Insulators include: glass - rubber - plastic, resist the transfer of heat and electricity
through it.

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 Lesson Two: Water and Mixtures
Mixtures:

Mixture: Two or more substances that mix together, and are not a new substance.

* The properties of the materials in the mixture do not change when its materials are
mixed together, for example: the salad that contains tomatoes, cucumbers and carrots
When you mix the pieces of these vegetables, the tomato pieces remain preserved in
shape and taste, and the mixture can usually be separated into its ingredients.

Mixtures and compounds:

* When mixing iron filings and sulfur, each of them retains its properties, iron filings are
magnetic material and sulfur is a yellow powder, so iron filings can be separated from
sulfur powder using magnets.

* However, iron and sulfur can combine chemically to form an iron sulfide compound, and
this compound has physical properties that differ from both iron and sulfur, it is not
attracted towards magnets, and its color is not the color of yellowish sulfur powder, it is a
metal with bright colors very similar to the color of gold.

Heterogeneous mixtures:

It is a mixture that contains substances that can be distinguished from each other.
Such as: salad - nuts - sulfur mixture and iron filings mixed salt and white sand
- gases - fresh milk

Save the block:

The law of conservation of mass: The mass is not destroyed or developed in the process of
preparing mixtures. For example:
when 100 g of salt is added to 100 g of sand, the total mass of them is 200 g, the mass of
any part added to the mixture is added to the total mass.

Types of mixtures:

1- Suspension: A mixture consisting of parts that separate from each other over time if the
mixture is left static. Such as: sauces.
2- Emulsion: a mixture consisting of two liquids that do not dissolve and do not mix
together.
Such as: toothpastes.

3- Colloid: a homogeneous mixture in which the minutes of a substance are dispersed

through another substance, causing the prevention of the passage of light through it.
Such as: fog - smoke - skim milk.

Are solutions homogeneous mixtures?

Solution: A mixture of one substance that dissolves in another substance.

Like: When mixing salt with water, the salt seems to have disappeared, but in fact it is still
there and its taste can be tasted in water and the taste of the mixture looks similar in all
parts of the cup.

* The solution consists of two parts: Solute: It is the substance that dissolves. The solvent is
the substance in which the solute is dissolved. In a solution of salt and water, water
is the solvent, and salt is the solute .

Alloy: A mixture consisting of one or more metals mixed with other solids. Alloys are
prepared as solutions. Such as: steel (made of iron and carbon) used in
construction – stainless steel – stainless steel (resulting from mixing a large amount of
chromium with iron, carbon and other metals) – bronze (consisting of copper and tin) –
brass (consisting of copper and zinc).

Solubility in solutions:

Soluble: The maximum amount of a certain substance can dissolve in another substance.
When dissolving a large amount of sugar in water, I notice that sugar at a certain limit does
not dissolve in water, and its crystals are deposited at the bottom of the cup, and in this
case sugar can be stirred to dissolve an additional amount, but if sugar continues to be
added, it will not dissolve even with continued stirring, and the solution is described in this
case as a saturated solution.

Solutions and safety:

Some solutions are toxic, and mixing some solutions may produce new compounds, some
of which can be dangerous, so household cleaning agents should not mix together, and
warnings on chemical packages should always be read.

Separation of solutions:

* Magnetism: Magnets separate iron filings from non-magnetic materials.

* Sieving: The sieve separates materials of different sizes.

* Buoyancy: Pieces of wood float on the surface of the water, and rocks are deposited at
the bottom, pieces of wood can be scraped and dried.

* Filtration: A filter can be used to separate sand from water.

* Evaporation: The water evaporates from the salt water solution and the salt remains.

Distillation:

A process in which the components of a mixture are separated by evaporation and

condensation.

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Chapter Ten: Chemical Changes and Properties

Lesson One: Chemical Changes
Chemical changes:

Substances are made up of atoms bonded together, and when atoms are bonded with
other atoms, a chemical bond is formed.

Chemical bond: A force that makes atoms bond together, and the formation or dismantling
of these bonds changes the chemical properties of a substance. Example: Coal is made up
of bonded carbon atoms, and when coal burns, oxygen molecules in the air bond with
carbon atoms forming new molecules of carbon dioxide, which differs in its properties from
both carbon and oxygen.

Chemical change: A change that results in new substances, which have chemical properties
different from those of the original materials. * Some signs can be observed
that may indicate the occurrence of chemical change (color change - escalation of gases -
release of heat or light).

Description of chemical changes:

Chemical changes are part of our daily lives, they enable our bodies to function,
transportation is powered by the energy to move them, foliage changes, egg frying, dough
bread, food digestion, all chemical changes.

* A chemical reaction consists of two parts, substances that existed before the chemical
change occurred are reactants, and substances that result from the chemical change are
called the resulting substances.

* The chemical reaction is described symbolically using the chemical equation , where the
chemical equation uses letters and numbers to indicate the quantities of reactants and the
resulting substances expressed by the chemical reaction, and the arrow separates in the
chemical equation between the reactants on the side of the arrowtail and the resulting
substances on the side of the arrowhead.

Chemical reactions:

There are three types of chemical reactions:

1- Union reaction: occurs when elements or compounds are linked together to form new,
more complex compounds. Such as: the reaction that is used in industry to
produce chemicals in general.

2- Chemical decomposition: complex compounds disintegrate into simpler substances.

Such as: the decomposition that occurs daily in our bodies.

3- Substitution reaction: occurs when elements or molecules exchange their places, where
one element or molecule replaces another forming a new compound.
Such as : the reaction of hydrochloric acid with sodium hydroxide to form water
and sodium chloride (table salt)

Speed of chemical reactions:

The speed of a chemical reaction depends on several factors (temperature - concentration -

pressure - temperature increase) that cause an increase in the speed of movement of
molecules.

Energy-absorbing and expelling reactions:

Energy-exothermic reaction: Chemical reactions that release energy, and these reactions
continue to release energy from the moment they start until they stop.
 Example: The heat and light of the electric torch
that is used in welding – the combustion of the candle produces thermal and light energy.

Energy-absorbing reaction: reactions that need a power source, requiring the availability of
a continuous power source to continue the reaction, and if this source stops supplying
energy, the reaction stops immediately. Example: Calcium
carbonate decomposition – photosynthesis (does not occur without being powered by a
light source).

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 Lesson Two: Chemical Properties
Different properties of the elements:

The elements have their chemical properties.

Chemical property: The method of interaction of a substance with other substances, the
elements have been arranged in the periodic table depending on some of these properties.

** Metals are located on the left side of the periodic table and their properties: (shiny -
easily bendable - conducts heat and electricity).
Metals are classified into three categories:

* Alkali metals: located on the far left side of the periodic table below the hydrogen field,
which is not a metal. Of which: sodium - lithium - potassium //
characteristics: soft to the touch - very active - there is no solitary in nature.

* Alkaline earthy metals: located to the right of the alkaline elements.

Of which: calcium - magnesium // Properties: light and soft - less active than alkali
metals.

* Transition metals: located in the center of the periodic table.

Including: copper - iron - gold - nickel - zinc // Properties: harsh - have a luster (luster) -
interact slowly with other materials, used to make money, jewelry, machinery and many
other materials.

Metalloids and nonmetals:

** Metalloids and nonmetalloids are located on the right side of the periodic table.

* Metalloids , including: boron - silicon - arsenic // Properties: semiconductor of electricity.

* Nonmetals, including: oxygen - carbon - nitrogen // Properties: Most of them are found
at room temperature in the form of gases or fragile solids that are easy to break - do not
conduct heat and electricity.

* Noble gases: located in the last column to the right side of the periodic table, do not
interact with other elements in natural conditions, including: argon - neon - xenon -
helium.

* Halogens: located in the column to the left of noble gases, including: fluorine - chlorine.

Acids - bases:

Acids: incendiary substances when touched, with a pungent taste, react with metals to
form hydrogen gas, turning the paper sold blue sun to red.
Rules: bitter taste, soapy texture, turns the paper sold red sun to blue.
Reagents: special substances that change color when acid or base is present, including the
sun and cabbage juice, the sun's paper acquires a red color when it interacts with the acid
solution and a blue color when it interacts with the base solution.

* It is possible to know whether the acid or base is strong or weak using the pH meter,
where it measures the strength of both the acid and the base starting from zero to 14, and
each degree has a distinctive color, materials that have a pH less than 7 acids, and those
that have a pH more than 7 are bases.

Uses of acids and bases:

* Strong acids are used to produce plastics and tissues, and the most commonly used acids
are sulfuric acid – citric acid hydrochloric acid.

* Strong bases are used in batteries, ammonia is used in cleaning and short colors,
streamway cleaners contain very strong bases that can also decompose hair.

Properties of some salts:

Hydrochloric acid is a hazardous substance, and sodium hydroxide is also a dangerous basic
substance, but when mixed together, table salt (sodium chloride) is produced.
Salt: A compound resulting from the reaction of an acid and a base,
called the reaction that takes place when mixing an acid with a neutralizing base , and it
results in salt and water.

* Most salts are characterized by their high melting point and hardness, some of them are
easily soluble, and salt solutions are conductive to electric current.

- Magnesium (Epsom salt) is used in bathing because it calms the muscles.

- Barium sulfate is used in enterography using X-rays.
- Silver bromide is used in the production of photographic films. .
- Salt is used to melt ice on roads and preserve foods.

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 Unit Six: Forces and Energy Chapter Eleven: The Use of
Forces Lesson One: Movement
What is the movement?

Location : It is the place where the body is located.

* It represents the movement of the body and can determine the location of the body using
a reference point, or a set of reference points called the coordinate network, and this
network describes the position of the body using points on the axis or axes, and when the
body changes its position, an arrow can be drawn starting from the first location from
which the body moved, and ends at the new location that it reached.

Movement: Change in the location of the body over time, the movement is described by
determining its magnitude and direction, and the amount is measured from the starting
point to the end point by distance measurement tools, including the ruler or metric tape
and the unit of measurement is the meter, and the direction is determined by words,
including: north, south, front, behind, up and down.

Frame of Reference:

A set of objects that enable me to measure movement or determine the location for it, the
classroom and objects that have a good example of a frame of reference, and most things
are suitable as a frame of reference, such as the football field, the school yard, the solar
system.

What is the speed?

Speed: The amount of change in the position of the body during time, to calculate the
speed the distance traveled is divided by the time taken. The unit of speed measurement is
the unit of distance per unit of time such as: meters per second (m/s) or (km/h).
Speed and direction:

Velocity: Measures the speed of an object and the direction of its movement.

What is acceleration?

Acceleration: The change in the speed or direction of an object per unit of time.

Change of direction:

The body may accelerate while moving at a constant speed, for example: when a car moves
at a constant speed and then changes the direction of its movement when the road
becomes curved without changing its speed, changing the direction of movement of the
body without changing its speed changes its velocity, i.e. gaining acceleration.

==============================

Lesson Two: Forces and Movement

Powers:

Force: Any process of pushing or pulling affected by one body in another body, the unit of
force is (Newton) and when the need to represent the force by drawing we draw an arrow
to express the amount of force and its direction.

* Many forces arise when there is contact between objects, including the force exerted by
the winch to tow a damaged car and there are other forces that affect without contact
between objects, including the compass needle.

* Among the different types of forces: push forces - lifting forces - drag forces - buoyancy
force - resistance forces.

* The force is used in different ways, it can be used to crush objects, pull, knock or bend
them to move objects (moving a static body - increasing its speed - changing the direction
of its movement - slowing it down - stopping its movement).

Gravity – Friction:

Gravity: The force that attracts all objects to each other.

* Gravity depends on both the mass of the two attractive bodies and the distance between
them, the greater the mass, the greater the force of attraction, while increasing the
distance reduces the force of attraction between the objects.

* The force of attraction between small objects is weak, while large objects - moons,
planets and stars - their enormous mass makes their gravity have a perceptible effect.

Friction:

A force that hinders the movement of objects, arising between two surfaces in contact
during the movement of one relative to the other.

* The friction force depends on the surfaces of the two bodies in contact, and the force by
which each of the two bodies presses on the other, moving an object on a smooth surface
is easier than moving it on a rough surface, and the friction force increases with the weight
of the moving body, and the pressure on the surfaces of the objects increases.

Air Resistance:

When an object moves in the air, the air collides with the body and slows down its
movement, and the higher the speed of the body, the greater the air resistance, such as:
the drag force in the plane, which results from air resistance.
Liquids also produce an inhibition force for moving objects, such as: water can resist the
movement of a boat and slow it down.

Newton's first law of motion:

Balanced forces: when forces act on a body without changing its movement.
* These forces act in opposite directions, alwaysaffect static objects, and can affect a
moving body. Unbalanced forces: This force leads to a change in the movement of the
body.
For example: If the driver wants to increase the speed of the car, he increases
the engine thrust to become greater than the frictional force, and then the forces acting on
the body become unbalanced.

Newton's first law: A stationary body remains stationary, and a moving body remains
moving at the same speed and direction unless an unbalanced force acts on it that changes
its kinetic state.

Newton's second law of motion:

The acceleration of an object during its movement increases with the increase in the force
that acts on it, that is, the cause of acceleration is the presence of an unbalanced force
acting on the body.
Newton's second law: If an unbalanced force acts on an object, it gains acceleration in its
direction, and increases with increasing unbalanced force.

Newton's third law of motion :

When one body (actually) acts on another body strongly, the other body (reaction) acts on
the first with a force of the same magnitude.

* The effect of this law can be observed when sitting on the chair, as the weight affects the
chair downwards, so the chair affects a reaction in the body, so the person feels his weight.

Newton's third law: Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.

==============================

Chapter Twelve: Electromagnetism

 Lesson One: Electricity
What is static electricity?

Electricity: It is the movement of electrons.

* The atom consists of protons and electrons, and protons have a positive charge and
electrons have a negative charge, and particles of identical charges repel, and sometimes
when two bodies massage together, electrons move from one body to the other, and this
causes static electricity: it is the accumulation of charged particles on the surfaces of
objects.

* The force of attraction between electrons and protons is large, and if two particles are
close without touching, static electricity causes electrons to move from one of the two
bodies through the air in the direction of nearby protons on the surface of the other body,
and this results in an electric spark, and the two bodies become electrically neutral, and if
two bodies of different charge bring one to the other, they stick together, and this is called
static electrical adhesion.

Grounding: Preventing the accumulation of excess charges on conductive objects by

connecting them to a large conductive object, which is the Earth. Thus, an object
connected to the Earth passes its excess charges to the Earth.

How does electricity work?

We use electrical appliances in all areas of our daily lives, we explain the work of electrical
appliances due to the flow of electricity in them.

Electric current: The flow of electricity in a conductor.

Electrical circuit: the passage of electric current in a closed path of conductors.

* The electrical circuit includes (voltage source: batteries - electrical switch - connecting
wires (metal) - light bulb).

Electrical resistance: Part of an electrical circuit that resists the passage of electrons, and
electrical resistance is measured in units called ohms.

* Electric current is measured in units called (amperes), and electrical energy is measured
in units (joules), and volts are used to express the measurement of the movement of
electrons.

Types of electrical circuits?

1- Electrical circuit connected in series: The electric current applies in all resistors
connected in the circuit one after the other, and whenever new resistances are added, the
energy that
reaches each resistance decreases and the total resistance increases in the circuit. Such as:
decorative ropes.

2- Electrical circuit connected in parallel: there is more than one path connected to
electricity, the total resistance of the circuit is small and the current passing through it is
greater, and electricity flowsin the circuit in all paths at the same time and the less
resistance in the path, the greater the electric current. Such
as: electrical circuits in the house.

How to use electricity in a safe way:

* To protect homes - from large electric currents installed fuses or circuit breakers, and the
fuse wire is cut off if a large electric current passes through it, and the circuit breakers are
electrical switches that separate the power supply if it is large, and separate electrical
circuit breakers are used in homes for different circuits.

* Connect computers to regulators to prevent sudden changes in electric current.

* In bathrooms and kitchens – the electricity socket is provided with a tool that disconnects
the power supply from the socket in the event of an electrical short circuit or the flow of
electricity in the water.

==============================
 Lesson Two: Magnetism
What is magnetism?

Scouts and sailors rely on the compass to determine their directions, as the compass needle
points to the north direction, and the needle in the compass is a magnet.

Magnet: An object that has the ability to pull another object with magnetic properties, and
magnets affect certain metals, including iron and nickel.

Magnets have two poles: one north pole and one south – similar poles of magnets repel,
while different poles attract.

* The Earth is a magnet – it has a north pole and a southern pole – the magnet needle
refers to the Earth's magnetic north pole.

The composition of magnetism:

When we spray pieces of metal (such as iron filings) on a magnet, they form lines, and
these lines represent the directions of magnetic forces around the magnet and express the
magnetic field , and the closer these lines are to each other, the stronger the magnetic
forces in that place, and the magnetic forces of the earth are similar to the magnetic forces
of the magnetic rod.

Electromagnetics:

Electromagnet: An electrical circuit that forms a magnetic field.

* Moving electrons generate magnetic fields, and when the flow of electric current stops,
this magnetic field disappears.

* The simplest electromagnets are a straight wire in which an electric current passes
around which a magnetic field is generated, and when the metal wire is wrapped in the
form of a ring, the strength of the magnetic field increases, and a number of rings can be a
coil, and
the magnetism formed from each ring meets together to make the coil a strong
electromagnet, and the shape of the magnetic field of the coil resembles the shape of the
magnetic rod field.

* Some electrical devices depend on electromagnets in their work, including: doorbell -

sound speakers - electric motor used in (electric fans - cars).

How can magnets generate electricity?

Electric generator: An instrument that produces an electric current through the rotation of
a metal coil between two poles of a magnet.

* The lighting of the bicycle lamp depends on the presence of an electric generator that
uses the kinetic energy in the wheel to generate electricity.

* In large generators used in power plants, there are many coils circulating adjacent to
many magnets to generate large current – these generators are connected to tools called
transformers, and the transformers reduce the large current to a weak current for use in
the home.

Magnetic Lift:

* When two similar poles of two magnets are placed opposite the other, repulsive forces
occur between them, this repulsive force can be used to lift objects.

Magnetic lift: It means lifting an object using magnetic forces without touching it.

* Some scientists and engineers have designed types of trains based on magnetic lifting of
movement on a magnetic track, where magnets are installed below the train, and in the
path on which it is going, and by making the opposite poles in both the train and the track
similar and on one level, the electromagnets begin to lift the train a few millimeters above
the track, and the train moves forward by converting the magnetic poles back and forth.

==============================

Implement, prepare and write

Teacher / Sumaya Suleiman Al-Budaiya

School: 168 / B - Jeddah City