General Biology - Course Notes
Fundamentals of Life
Characteristics of living organisms: Cellular organization, metabolism, homeostasis,
growth, reproduction, response to stimuli, evolution
Levels of biological organization: Atoms → molecules → organelles → cells →
tissues → organs → organ systems → organisms → populations → communities →
ecosystems → biosphere
Scientific method application in biology: Observation, hypothesis, prediction,
experimentation, analysis, peer review
Chemistry basics: Atomic structure, chemical bonding, water properties, pH scale
Cell Structure and Function
Cell theory: All living things composed of cells; cells are basic units of structure and
function; all cells come from pre-existing cells
Prokaryotic vs. eukaryotic cells: Structure, organization, examples
Eukaryotic cell organelles and functions:
o Nucleus: DNA storage, genetic control center
o Mitochondria: Cellular respiration, ATP production
o Chloroplasts: Photosynthesis (in plants/algae)
o Endoplasmic reticulum: Protein/lipid synthesis
o Golgi apparatus: Protein modification, packaging, secretion
o Lysosomes: Digestion, waste removal
o Cell membrane: Selective barrier, communication
Membrane structure: Phospholipid bilayer, membrane proteins, fluid mosaic model
Cell transport: Diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, active transport, endocytosis,
exocytosis
Energy and Metabolism
Laws of thermodynamics in biological systems
ATP structure and function as cellular energy currency
Enzymes: Structure, function, factors affecting activity
Cellular respiration stages:
o Glycolysis (cytoplasm): Glucose → pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH
o Krebs cycle (mitochondria): Acetyl-CoA → 2 ATP + 6 NADH + 2 FADH₂ +
CO₂
o Electron transport chain: NADH/FADH₂ → ~34 ATP + H₂O
Photosynthesis processes:
o Light-dependent reactions: H₂O + light → O₂ + ATP + NADPH
o Calvin cycle: CO₂ + ATP + NADPH → glucose
Fermentation: Lactic acid vs. alcoholic fermentation
Cell Division and Genetics
Cell cycle: Interphase (G₁, S, G₂), mitosis, cytokinesis
Mitosis phases: Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
Meiosis: Reductional division producing haploid gametes
o Meiosis I: Homologous chromosome separation
o Meiosis II: Sister chromatid separation
o Genetic recombination: Crossing over, independent assortment
Mendelian genetics:
o Dominant and recessive alleles
o Law of segregation
o Law of independent assortment
o Punnett squares, test crosses
Non-Mendelian inheritance: Incomplete dominance, codominance, multiple alleles,
polygenic traits
Chromosomal basis of inheritance: Sex linkage, genetic linkage, mapping
Molecular Genetics
DNA structure: Nucleotides, double helix, complementary base pairing
DNA replication: Semi-conservative model, enzymes involved
RNA types and functions: mRNA, tRNA, rRNA
Central dogma: DNA → RNA → protein
Transcription: DNA → mRNA
Translation: mRNA → protein, genetic code, ribosomes
Gene regulation: Operons in prokaryotes, transcription factors in eukaryotes
Mutations: Types (point, frameshift), causes, effects
DNA technology: PCR, gel electrophoresis, DNA sequencing, CRISPR
Evolution
Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection
Evidence for evolution: Fossil record, comparative anatomy, molecular biology,
biogeography
Population genetics: Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, gene pools
Mechanisms of evolution:
o Natural selection: Directional, stabilizing, disruptive
o Genetic drift: Bottleneck effect, founder effect
o Gene flow
o Mutation as source of genetic variation
Speciation: Allopatric, sympatric, reproductive isolation mechanisms
Phylogenetics: Constructing evolutionary trees, cladistics
Macroevolution: Adaptive radiation, convergent evolution, coevolution
Diversity of Life
Classification systems: Taxonomy, binomial nomenclature
Three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya
Major groups of organisms:
o Bacteria: Prokaryotes, diverse metabolic types
o Archaea: Extremophiles, unique membrane lipids
o Protists: Unicellular eukaryotes, ancestral to other kingdoms
o Fungi: Decomposers, absorptive heterotrophs
o Plants: Photosynthetic, cell walls with cellulose
o Animals: Multicellular heterotrophs, nervous systems
Key adaptations in major groups
Evolutionary relationships between taxonomic groups
Plant Biology
Plant tissues: Meristematic, dermal, ground, vascular
Plant organs: Roots, stems, leaves
Transport systems: Xylem (water/minerals), phloem (sugars)
Plant hormones and responses: Auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins
Plant reproduction:
o Alternation of generations
o Flower structure and function
o Pollination mechanisms
o Seed formation and dispersal
Plant responses to environment: Tropisms, photoperiodism
Animal Biology
Animal tissues: Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
Organ systems overview:
o Digestive: Ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination
o Circulatory: Blood, heart, vessels, lymphatic system
o Respiratory: Gas exchange structures and mechanisms
o Nervous: Neurons, transmission, central/peripheral systems
o Endocrine: Hormones, feedback mechanisms
o Immune: Innate vs. adaptive immunity
o Excretory: Waste removal, osmoregulation
o Reproductive: Gametogenesis, fertilization, development
Animal development: Fertilization, cleavage, gastrulation, organogenesis
Animal behavior: Innate vs. learned, communication, territoriality
Ecology
Ecological levels: Organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems, biosphere
Population ecology: Growth models, life history strategies, regulation
Community ecology: Interspecific interactions (competition, predation, parasitism,
mutualism)
Ecosystem ecology:
o Energy flow: Producers, consumers, decomposers
o Trophic levels, food webs, ecological pyramids
o Nutrient cycling: Carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus cycles
Biomes: Terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem types
Biodiversity: Measurement, importance, conservation
Ecological succession: Primary vs. secondary
Human impacts: Habitat destruction, pollution, climate change, conservation
strategies
Laboratory Skills
Microscopy: Compound, dissecting, electron microscopes
Lab safety procedures and equipment
Scientific measurement and metric system
Solution preparation and dilutions
Biological drawing and data recording
Experimental design and controls
Statistical analysis of biological data
Model organisms in biological research
