ECOLOGICAL

Ecological Mangrove Rehabilitation MANGROVE

A F ield Manual for Practitioners
REHABILITATION
Over the years, there have been many different attempts to restore man-
groves. Some of these efforts have been gargantuan, involving several thou-

Ecological Mangrove Rehabilitation

sand hectares of coastal lands. Other efforts have been small in comparison,
with perhaps less than a hectare of mangroves restored. Yet, in these efforts,
both large and small, the lessons learned in this important process are vital
in re-establishing otherwise rapidly vanishing mangrove forests. Without

A F ield Manual for Practitioners

taking those necessary steps now to restore mangroves, our planet’s coastal
regions will be seriously impacted by erosion, declining fisheries, vanishing
wildlife, and displaced indigenous coastal peoples.

There are many different techniques and methods utilized in planting man-
groves. Because some of these have resulted in identifiable successes or fail-
ures, we wish to present herein a detailed process of mangrove rehabilita-
tion which has proven successful in its application in various locations at
various scales. Ecological Mangrove Rehabilitation engages communities
to consider social, economic and ecological factors before undertaken man-
grove restoration, and relies on monitoring to inform corrective actions over
time. This EMR manual also presents summary descriptions of particular
case studies from around the world, which are representative of both suc-
cessful and failed attempts at mangrove restoration.

Publication of this manual was made possible by support from:

Restoring Coastal Livelihoods Program (www.rcl.or.id)

&
Roy R “Robin” Lewis III & bEN bROWN
USAID - CADRE Program
A Field manual
for practitioners
 ECOLOGICAL
MANGROVE
REHABILITATION

Roy R “Robin” Lewis III & bEN bROWN

A field manual FOR

practitioners
All Photos Roy Robin Lewis and Ben Brown unless otherwise credited
All Illustrations Solichin and P.A. Triyanto unless otherwise credited

Copyleft  2014
by Roy Robin Lewis and Ben Brown
This manual may be reproduced in part or in whole without written permission of the
authors but not for commercial use or profit.

First Edition

This manual is available on-line at:

www.mangroverestoration.com
www.rcl.or.id
Acknowledgements The publication of this book was made possible through the direct support of the Ca-
Many contributors helped make this manual possible. We would like to thank Man- nadian International Development Agency and OXFAM - GB through the Restoring
grove Action Project - Indonesia staff; Ratna Fadillah, Yusran Nurdin, Rio Ahmad, Coastal Livelihoods Program.
Iona Soulsby, Kuntum Melati, Woro Yuniati, Ipank and Irma, Regis, Mutia and ???? for
the intensive work on EMR during the RCL project. Iona, thank you for chapter 9 on Restoring Coastal Livelihoods is a 5 year project in South Sulawesi, Indonesia, in part-
monitoring, and moreso for leading the actual monitoring of recent EMR work which nership with local government and over 70 coastal communities. Mangrove Action
has led to our first peer-review paper. Project - Indonesia, as part of the RCL project, was tasked with 400 hectares of Ecologi-
cal Mangrove Rehabilitaiton, as well as advocacy at regional and national levels to re-
Dan Friess of National University of Singapore contributed Chapter 2 on Key Bio- form poor mangrove restoration practices. As part of this advocacy strategy, a National
physical Principles, and along with his students has been a big part of the promoting EMR Seminar was held in 2013, led by Roy Robin Lewis, co-author of this manual
EMR as both a science and a practices. and founder of the EMR method. This manual was completed in time for presentation
of an initial draft for comment, at a Regional RCL Seminar held at and in partnership
Members of Mangrove Action Project - Internationally, have been crucial to develop- with the Center for International Forestry in Bogor.
ing the precepts of EMR. We thank Alfredo Quarto, Jim and Ning Enright, Dominic
Wodehouse and Oswin Stanley for their efforts. We are proud to launch this manual, which provides detailed instruction for the pro-
fessional mangrove rehabiltiation practitioner. This first draft of the EMR Manual is
Friends from CIDA and OXFAM - who made this book possible. Thanks for your meant for comment and discussion, which will bring about a finalized first draft in
belief and support. March, 2014.

The USAID CADRE project support work on this manual during their 3 year project The authors intend to update this manual periodically, pending adequate time and
in Aceh on Mangroves, led by Lutheran World Relief in partnership with Blue Forests. resources. In order to make needed improvements, we need your input. Feel free to
We thank them for their support. send input to the authors or Mangrove Action Project - Indonesia at any time, for con-
sideration in future iterations of this manual.
Charles Darwin University Research Institute for Environment and Livelihoods are
working hard to help make EMR possible at larger landscapes in Indonesia. Thanks to Thank you for your consideration, time and support.
Andrew Campbell, Natasha Stacey, Lindsay Hutley and Clint Cameron and to future
Ben Brown
partnership around EMR.
Roy R. “Robin” Lewis
2014
James Davies was an inspiration and source of technical guidance as we strive to gain
proficiency working in mangroves. Thank you Jim.

Many funding agencies and collaborators have have supported and implemented EMR
efforts along the way and are too numerous to list here, but we thank you.

Finally - we thank the rural coastal people of many nations who have undertaken EMR
together with us, women and men, and who inspire us to help restore and conserve
mangrove forests as one of the world’s many vital ecosystems.
 Table of Contents
Chapter 1- Introduction Chapter 6 - Assessing Resilience
1.1 Background 8 6.1 Adding Socio-economic Factors to 130
1.2 Purpose of the Manual 8 Complete the Picture
1.3 Design of the Manual 9 6.2 Introducing Resilience 132
1.4 Overview of the Manual 11 6.3 Socio-economic Indicators 134
1.5 What is EMR? 13 6.4 General Approach to Collecting Data 135
1.6 Terminology - Rehabilitation, Restoration, 14 for Assessing Resilience
and Other Terms of the Art 6.5 Table of Resilience Indicators 136
6.6 Scoresheet for Resilience Indicators 154
Chapter 2 - Key Biophysical Factors 6.7 Resources 158
2.1 Introduction 18
2.2 Three Key Biophysical Questions 21 Chapter 7 - Design and Planning
• Question 1: On Propagule Availability 21 7.1 Introduction 160
• Question 2: On Substrate Elevation 23 7.2 Participant Selection 161
• Question 3: On Waves & Currents 28 7.3 The Social Contract 163
2.3 Conclusions 31 7.4 Developing a Vision for an EMR Project 165
7.5 Researching Information and Resources 168
Chapter 3 - Program Design Needed for EMR
3.1 Introduction 34 7.6 Strategy and Resource Analysis 170
3.2 Designing an Assessment Program 35 7.7 Developing Work Plans 173
3.3 Preliminary Assessment 37
3.4 Comprehensive Assessments 38 Chapter 8 - Implementation
3.5 From Assessments to Action 40 8.1 Site Preparation 177
3.6 Model Programs 40 8.2 Community Involvement 178
3.7 Costs of Restoration 41 8.3 Hydrological Repair 179
8.4 Ecological Amendment 193
Chapter 4 - Preliminary Assessment 8.5 As-Built Documentation 200
4.1 Introduction 44 8.6 Maintenance and Mid Course Corrections 200
4.2 A Bird’s Eye View of the Mangrove Forest 46 8.7 Examples of Projects Combining 201
4.3 Mangrove Greenbelts 47 Ecological & Hydrological Practices
4.4 Changing Land Uses Over Time 49 8.7 Lessons Learned 215
4.5 Community Mapping of Mangrove Forest 51
4.6 Mangroves and People 53 Chapter 9 - Monitoring
4.7 Perimeter, Land Ownership & 56 9.1 Why Monitor? 218
Management Status Mapping 9.2 Quality Assurance 219
9.3 Creating a Monitoring Plan 219
Chapter 5 - Biophysical Assessments 9.4 Academic Monitoring (High QA) 219
5.1 Hydrological Assessments 69 • Hydrological Parameters 219
5.2 Ecological Assessments 90 • Ecological Parameters 225
5.3 Disturbance Analysis 111 • Analysis 228
5.4 Biological Surveys 114 9.5 Participatory Monitoring (Low QA) 232
Chapter 10 - International Case Studies
10.1 Introduction 240
10.2 West Lake Park, Florida, USA 241
10.3 Barnabe Island, São Paulo, Brazil 242
10.4 Muthupet &Pichavaram, Tamil Nadu, India 246
10.5 Tanakeke Island, South Sulawesi, Indonesia 251
1
INTRODUCTION

1. Background
2. Purpose of the Manual
3. Design of the Manual
4. Overview of this Manual
5. What is EMR?
6. Terminology - Rehabilitation, Restoration &
Other Terms of the Art
1 EMR Manual Chapter 1 - Introduction

1.1 Background MAP Indonesia may not fully know the wealth of mangrove rehabilitation approaches
It is estimated that between 1980 and 2000, 180,000 ha of mangroves were degraded or currently available worldwide. Accordingly, MAP seeks to continually improve upon
destroyed each year. (FAO, 2007) While the rate of loss decelerated to around 100,000 its mangrove rehabilitation approach, discovering and sharing skills, knowledge and
ha/yr in the 21st century (ibid), both mangrove conservation as well as rehabilitation experiences world-wide.
are clearly imperative.
1.3 Design of the Manual
Unfortunately, most mangrove rehabilitation efforts world-wide, fail to re-establish The focus of this manual is to bring a practitioner through the major steps of a man-
mangrove forests. The majority of these efforts are over-simplified planting projects, grove rehabilitation project. These steps are based on the marriage of Kolb’s Learning
largely attempts to force mangroves to grow in intertidal mud-flats, usually below Mean Cycle (Fig 1.1) with a common project cycle (Fig 3.1 in chapter 3). The combination
Sea Level – where mangroves simply do not grow. of these two cycles result in an iterative project cycle – with a focus on learning and
adaptation. The application of this, enables the practitioner to move from mangrove
This takes place for a pair of reasons; rehabilitation, to long-term management. The form of long-term management that
1. Land tenure and ownership issues make it difficult to put mangroves back where MAP recommends is adaptive (changing based on previous learning) and collaborative
they belong, that typically being areas that were converted due to unclear policy (taking place in a multi-disciplinary way with numerous stakeholders). This is known
and inadequate prior management. as Adaptive Collaborative Management.
2. Poor understanding of the ecological requirements of mangroves, and the processes
which lead to their establishment and early growth.

This manual intends to provide insight to both the socio-political problem of land
tenure as well as issues of properly understanding the ecological underpinnings of suc-
cessful mangrove rehabilitation from point 2. This manual takes the reader through a
process of assessment, design, implementation and reflection around social, economic
and ecological factors which contribute to the failure or success of a mangrove reha-
bilitation effort. By understanding both pitfalls and recommended practices around
mangrove rehabilitation, it is our hope that the rather simple, but enigmatic practice
of restoring mangrove forests is approached more scientifically and rationally and that
practitioners become more reflective about their actions.
Figure 1.1
D.A. Kolb’s Learning Cycle (Kolb, 1984)
1.2 Purpose of the Manual
This manual is designed as a much enhanced update of a previous EMR Manual –
which illustrated the 5 basic steps of Ecological Mangrove Rehabilitation, as set out by
Roy “Robin” Lewis III of Florida (Lewis et al. 2006). The purpose of this manual is to The manual has been designed to provide descriptions of approaches and also activities
provide practitioners with activities, tools and options to be used in assessing, design- that help readers understand key concepts and build important skills. It is designed
ing, implementing and monitoring a mangrove rehabilitation project. to be a practical manual that allows a user to engage a group in undertaking activities,
with supporting references, materials and handouts. The emphasis is upon collecting
The Mangrove Action Project is a network, with nodes and members from across the qualitative and quantitative data during an assessment phase that allows the reader to
tropical and sub-tropical globe where mangroves and people live together. This manual better understand mangrove rehabilitation challenges, in order to develop an appropri-
was produced by the MAP-Indonesia office, and as such, many examples and case studies ate design and work plan for successful mangrove rehabilitation.
were derived from Indonesia. Examples and case studies were also provided from Florida,
where R.R. Lewis has been practicing for four decades, but you will also find EMR case
studies from some of MAP’s network members across the globe in Chapter 10.

8 9
1 EMR Manual Chapter 1 - Introduction

Figure 1.2 Action-research and The manual has been designed to examine biophysical parameters, as well as social and
Problem Solving. economic parameters which comprise a system which includes both mangroves and
Activities in this manual build people. By measuring key environmental, social and economic parameters, the reader
from field investigations which can better understand how to enhance key parameters (which are currently disturbing
help understand the habitat re- natural mangrove regeneration) building towards a more resilient mangrove system.
quirements of mangroves (such
as mapping the positions of the 1.4 Overview of This Manual
lowest naturally occurring seed- Each chapter is the product of a method of mangrove rehabilitation, and more gener-
lings in the tidal frame with use ally, community based mangrove resource management, that MAP uses in its programs
of GPS - top right), to community internationally. These methods have been developed both by MAP network members
action taking such as improv- (which include coastal community members, educators, citizens, scientists, and gov-
ing drainage of a disused shrimp ernment leaders), and also by the wealth of sustainable community development and
natural resource management methods which have been developed over the past half
pond (middle) or human assisted
century.
propagule dispersal (below).
The manual is organized as follows:

Chapter 1, This Introductory chapter has three main parts. The first describing the
Purpose of the Manual, and an outline of its chapters. This chapter next introduces the
principles of Ecological Mangrove Rehabilitation, and closes with a discussion of the
difference between Rehabilitation and Restoration, as well as introducing several more
terms of the art.

Chapter 2, presents Key Ecological Principles Underpinning EMR. These principles

elucidate how mangroves distribute their propagules and colonize appropriate man-
grove substrates. The lesson applies equally to the development of natural forests as well
as the re-colonization of degraded areas.

Chapter 3 is a brief chapter on Program Design. It takes the reader through a quick
depiction of the flow from pre-assessment and assessment activities, to mangrove reha-
bilitation design and planning, through implementation and into a cycle of monitoring
and mid-course corrections.

Chapter 4 is the first of three assessment chapters. Preliminary Assessments are rapid
surveys, designed to quickly understand if a certain area has mangrove rehabilitation
potential, both from a bio-physical point of view (ecological viability), as well as a
socio-political point of view (land tenure and stakeholder support).

Chapter 5 provides a myriad of Biophysical Assessment Activities. This chapter is

largely written in curriculum format, to assist the reader to leading trainings and
in-field activities. Some of the activities in this chapter will be required to create

10 11
1 EMR Manual Chapter 1 - Introduction

an EMR plan, while others are recommended to achieve a greater understanding of Chapter 10 is the final chapter of this manual, and contains EMR case studies from
the physical process at the site, and as a baseline in order to monitor success. The around the world. MAP requests that any and all EMR practitioners send in their
four sections of this chapter include; 1) ecological assessments, 2) hydrological as- own cases studies, for potential inclusion in the next version of this manual. The
sessments, 3) an analysis of disturbances (preventing natural re-colonization of the case study on Tanakeke Island, Sulawesi, uses the template that all future case stud-
mangrove area) and 4) biological assessments. This final section on biological assess- ies should follow.
ment includes a trio of activities, the most important of which – a benthic index of
biological integrity – has not been well developed yet. 1.5 W hat is EMR?
Ecological mangrove restoration (EMR) is defined as: “an approach to coastal wet-
Chapter 6, entitled Assessing Resilience, introduces a number of social and eco- land rehabilitation or restoration that seeks to facilitate natural regeneration in order
nomic factors that, added to the above biophysical assessment help paint a holistic to produce self sustaining wetland ecosystems.”
picture of the level of resilience of the mangrove-human social-ecological system to
be rehabilitated. A long list of potential indicators of resilience is presented, along EMR is a general approach (not a mandated method or sequence of steps), that is
with a simple scoresheet. Each EMR project is encouraged to chose and define its designed to provide a logical sequence of tasks that are likely to succeed in restoring
own set of resilience indicators, both to inform EMR design and for monitoring or creating mangrove habitat with a diverse plant cover similar to that of a natural
purposes. reference mangrove forest, with functional tidal creeks connected to upland freshwa-
ter flows if available, and supporting a diverse faunal community. All of the above is
Chapter 7, Participatory EMR Planning, is a brief chapter delineating 6 steps that a designed to persist over time without significant further human intervention. Plant-
facilitator can follow to lead a group through the process of EMR design and plan- ing of mangroves may be needed in certain circumstances, but in most cases we have
ning. studied, volunteer mangroves (not planted) will provide the diverse forest cover over
time. The contemporary practice of EMR includes local stakeholder engagement
Chapter 8 is all about Implementation. The chapter begins with information on and negotiation in order to achieve agreement about shared objectives and restora-
site preparation, before delving into information and examples of hydrological and tion methodologies.
ecological repair. A brief treatment of running and as-built survey, maintenance and
mid-course corrections follows. The chapter closes with a number of real examples The initial five steps of EMR was first published as an abstract of a presentation by
of the combination of hydrological and ecological repair techniques. The reader will Lewis and Marshall (1998) at the 1998 World Aquaculture Society meeting in Las
have another opportunity to learn from real examples, in greater detail, in Chapter Vegas, Nevada, USA. Further revisions were made by Lewis (2005) and Brown and
10 on case studies. Lewis (2006). With the publication of an updated approach by Lewis (2009) the
number of steps was increased to six with the addition of a “site selection” process.
Chapter 9 is a short treatment of EMR monitoring. MAP has already developed With this current updated version we have increased the number of steps to eight,
a complete technical manual on assessments, surveys and monitoring which can be but it is important to remember that these are only “suggested steps” and each EMR
accessed at the download section of www.mangroverestoration.org. Instead of an project is unique, with individual problems and opportunities.
exhaustive replication of monitoring methods (which are very similar to the material
presented in the assessment chapters), this chapter discusses key point of monitor- For example, in many cases there is little or no real site selection process, but instead
ing. It begins with a discussion entitled Why Monitor? This is followed by a discus- a local community may have a specific site already selected and need guidance in
sion of the differences between technical monitoring and participatory monitoring. how to manage the EMR process. In this case, our current step 4 (select a site) is
Examples of both are provided from one of MAP Indonesia’s recent projects in moot. All the authors understand this but also firmly believe that some guidance
South Sulawesi. The chapter closes with a return to the learning cycle, and the it- on a logical approach to successful EMR is essential as a starting point, since the
erative nature of monitoring to inform mid-course corrections and future mangrove history of mangrove forest management and restoration is replete with failed efforts
forest management. The references section of this chapter contains enough materi- (see Stevenson et al. 1989, Lewis 2005 and Samson and Rollon 2008). In fact, we all
als to point the interested practitioner in the right direction believe the failures far exceed the successes, with as much as 80-90% of the projects
not meeting their goals (if any exist) or simply failing to establish a biodiverse eco-
logically functioning mangrove forest.

12 13
1 EMR Manual Chapter 1 - Introduction

EMR focuses on removing the barriers which may prevent nature taking its course to an adjacent reference site supporting more less natural mangroves characteristic
by interventions that restore or create the topography and hydrology which wetland of the local area.
plants and animals require. EMR may also intervene by delivering propagules and
in specific cases provide complementary planting of species known to thrive in the Both restoration and rehabilitation may also mean returning a site with existing but
particular conditions which exist. stressed mangrove forest cover to a more hydrologically connected system prior to a
die-off of trees occurring due to extended flooding, or hypersaline conditions. This
EMR recognizes that wetland species are found in identifiable habitats and does not approach requires being able to measure the existing hydrology and determine if
promote rehabilitation or establishment in locations where these conditions do not stress is present and intervene prior to a mangrove die-off.
exist or cannot be created.
Another term of the art is “mangrove forest creation.” Creation generally refers to
EMR exists because its practitioners recognize the value of wetland goods and ser- the conversion of uplands to wetlands. Planting mangroves on a mudflat that his-
vices to people. They also recognize that people are in most cases a part of the coastal torically did not support mangroves is a similar type of effort, which could properly
environment and that unless these users agree to the perpetuation of the wetland it be called “mangrove forest afforestation.” Most mangrove afforestation efforts are
will be degraded or converted to alternate purposes, oftentimes dictated by wealthier not successful as documented by Samson and Rollon (2010) in the Philippines (but
individuals at the detriment to the public-at-large . has worked in the Sudarbans and Guyana). Mangrove creation through excavation
of uplands to mangrove wetland elevations and connecting these to tidal flow can
1.6 Terminology: Rehabilitation, Restoration and other Terms of work but is very expensive due to the excavation costs.
the Art
For purposes of this manual, the term “restoration” has a very broad meaning. It Finally, the term “mangrove forest enhancement” or “replenishment” is often used
generally follows the definition of Lewis (1990a): to describe some sort of planting within existing mangroves for the purpose of im-
proving existing ecological conditions. These are also called “enrichment plantings.”
“Returned from a disturbed or totally altered condition to a previously There is no scientific evidence that any of these enhancement efforts really enhance
existing natural or altered condition by some action of humans.” the exiting functions or benefits of mangroves. Often they may actually further de-
grade the system, if for example, planting of mangroves takes place if areas within
“Rehabilitation” is similar to restoration in that the goal is not to return to some mangroves that are devoid of mangroves. Often these are important habitat areas for
previous condition as defined by measurable reference criteria, but conversion of an wading birds to feed for example, or they may be tidal flushing channels, and their
altered wetland to some beneficial use as defined by locally agreed upon goals and planting while successful, may ultimate doom the forest to reduced tidal flooding,
criteria. An example might be the conversion of abandoned aquaculture ponds to encroachment into channels and the final death of the forest due to human-induced
tidally influenced open water but not the mangroves that originally existed. hydrologic restrictions.

In this manual, we have attempted to primarily use the term rehabilitation, owing Although the above foray into differing terminology may seem like an exercise in
to the relative difficulty of achieving pure restoration. Sometimes, however, we have semantics, it is important that appropriate terminology be used around mangrove
invariably used the words restoration and restore, but in a broader sense, that does rehabilitation. Oftentimes, a single guiding document will determine the fate of an
NOT always indicate a return to some historical pre-human impact condition, nor a activity or series of activities. The differences between rehabilitation, restoration,
return to the exact conditions that existed before some change occurred. creation, afforestation and enhancement could very well be the deciding factor in the
viability and success of a multi-million dollar project.
Of course any attempt at pure restoration is bound to fail as the exact pre-human
impact conditions of a mangrove forest are rarely known, so a proper measurable
success criterion to define success of restoration could not be accurately determined
if the goal is to produce a forest like those that existed hundreds of years ago. For this
reason we emphasize quantitative comparison of a restoration or rehabilitation site

14 15
1 EMR Manual

16
2
KEY BIOPHYSICAL FACTORS

1. Introduction
2. Three Key Biophysical Questions
• Question 1: On Propagule Availability
• Question 2: On Substrate Elevation
• Question 3: On Waves and Currents
3. Conclusions
2 EMR Manual Chapter 2 - Key Biophysical Factors

Understanding the biophysical factors that control

mangrove seedling establishment and survival
by Dan Friess, National University of Singapore. [email protected]

2.1 Introduction
Mangroves are unique plants, adapted to survive in a stressful environment that is
continuously changing throughout the day, as the tides moves in and out. Mangroves
have to be able to tolerate these dynamic and stressful physical processes in order to
establish, survive and grow.

We can often observe the role of biophysical processes and their effect on the dis-
tribution of mangrove trees. Take Figure 2.1 as an example, from a rehabilitation
site in Sumatra. Rhizophora propagules were planted throughout this brackish water
aquaculture pond (tambak). After planting, they grew well towards the back of the
tambak, but struggled to grow, or died at the front. What differences between the
back and the front of the tambak cause these differences in mangrove establishment
and survival? How can establishment and survival be so different over such a small
area? Why haven’t natural mangrove propagules colonized this area?

To identify what is causing this difference in survival, we need to understand:

a. If mangrove propagules are able to disperse to a new intertidal surface in order
to colonize Figure 2.1. A mangrove restoration site in Sumatra, 2010. Planted Rhizophora
b. the physical processes operating on this new intertidal surface that affect man- trees are growing well at the back, but Rhizophora propagules planted in front
grove establishment and growth, notably tidal inundation and waves, and have never been able to establish. Why?
c. the tolerance that different mangrove species may have to these physical pro-
cesses.
processes processeswill be discussed in this chapter, which must be considered for
Tolerance is species-specific; the species of some genera such as Avicennia and Son- successful rehabilitation:
neratia are able to tolerate harsher physical conditions such as longer periods of tidal
inundation. These are known as pioneer species because they are the first species able 1. There must be enough propagules available in the local area to disperse to the
to colonize the pioneer mangrove zone, where tidal inundation and waves are high- rehabilitation site
est. Hence, these species would be more appropriate for low elevation rehabilitation 2. Once propagules have travelled to the rehabilitation site, they must find a loca-
zones, where flooding is highest. Other species may be more suitable for other loca- tion that is high enough relative to the tide level that they do not drown;
tions, for example Lumnitzera is better able to colonize other areas such as the edge 3. Propagules must find a location where waves and currents do not dislodge the
of the tambak wall. seedlings

Understanding the biophysical processes that control mangrove survival, and un- These three factors – propagule supply, tidal flooding and waves/currents are inter-
derstanding which species may be the best suited for a rehabilitation site are two linked (Figure 2.2). Propagule supply and dispersal into a rehabilitation site require
key components of EMR. Successful EMR relies on working with, not against the water flow by waves and currents. Waves and currents and tidal flooding are also
local biophysical conditions that occur at the rehabilitation site. Three biophysical linked. Tidal flooding increases the landward reach of waves and currents.

18 19
2 EMR Manual Chapter 2 - Key Biophysical Factors

In this chapter we will investigate these biophysical processes in the form of ques- In particular, Lewis (2005 and 2009) describe 6 key steps for successful EMR which
tions that should be asked of every potential rehabilitation site. Many of the follow- are closely related to the biophysical processes that we will discuss in this chapter.
ing ideas are summarized from three scientific papers: These 6 Steps for successful EMR are summarized below:
1. Lewis 2005. Ecological engineering for successful management and restoration 1. Understand the individual species ecology (reproduction, dispersal, seedling es-
of mangrove forests. Ecological Engineering 24, 403-418 tablishment)
2. Lewis 2009. Methods and criteria for successful mangrove forest restoration. In: 2. Understand the hydrological patterns that control seedling distribution and es-
Perillo, Wolanski, Cahoon and Brinson (Eds). Coastal Wetlands: an Integrated tablishment
3. Assess human modifications that may be preventing natural colonization
Approach. Elsevier. Pgs 787-800. 4. Spend a sufficient amount of time selecting the most appropriate restoration site
3. Friess et al. 2012. Are all intertidal wetlands naturally created equal? Bottle- possible, using information from Steps 1-3. As well as assessing physical and
necks, thresholds and knowledge gaps to mangrove and saltmarsh ecosystems. ecological parameters as above, this step also involves anticipating and resolving
Biological Reviews 87, 346-366. community issues such as land tenure and land use, to allow long-term access
to the site. Design the restoration to restore appropriate hydrology and natural
These papers are freely available from the following websites: recruitment
• www.mangroverestoration.com/html/downloads.html 5. Only actively plant propagules and seedlings if step 4 will not be successful or
• www.themangrovelab.com/publications rapid vegetation cover is required

Various aspects of these 6 steps will be discussed in the following three (3) key ques-
tions that should be asked and investigated for any new rehabilitation site.

2.2 Three Key Biophysical Questions

Question 1 - How close is your rehabilitation site to other natu-

ral mangrove stands?
This question relates to Steps 1 and 4 of the EMR criteria. Successful EMR should
not require a huge amount of planting, but can often be naturally colonized by prop-
agules coming into the site from surrounding natural mangrove stands. A rehabilita-
tion site will only be naturally colonized by mangroves if propagules are available to
be transported into the site. So there are two requirements:

1. That natural mangrove stands are located in close proximity to the rehabilitation site;
2. That water flows connect natural mangrove stands and the rehabilitation site.

Propagules Can Float

Mangrove propagules are predominantly dispersed by water, through a mechanism
called hydrochory. (See Fig 2.3) To achieve this, the propagules of many mangrove
species have special adaptations in order to float in water. Many of these adaptations
Adapted from Friess & Oliver, 2014.
are described by Tomlinson (1986) in his book The Botany of Mangroves. For exam-
Figure 2.2 Some of the important biophysical processes that affect mangrove ple, Avicennia propagules trap air bubbles in small root hairs or between underneath
establishment, survival and growth. the pericarp (seed coat). Rhizophora propagules are composed of large air-filled cells

20 21
2 EMR Manual Chapter 2 - Key Biophysical Factors

propagules can disperse into the new area before they sink or do not become vi-
able. Understanding the reproductive ecology of the target mangrove species to be
restored is a key step in the EMR process (Lewis 2005).

Why is This Important for Rehabilitation?

Utilizing natural propagule dispersal has many advantages for EMR. First of all, us
ing naturally colonizing propagules reduces the requirement for planting. This may
be more cost-effective over the long-term (Lewis et al. 2005), as it does not require-
costs for nurseries, planting manpower etc.

Secondly, utilizing natural propagule dispersal may make an EMR project more
sustainable over the long-term. A regular supply of propagules from outside the site
brings in new recruits to replace seedlings lost by waves, disease or insect damage.

How to Test This in the Field?

1. Observe the natural mangrove stands surrounding your rehabilitation site. Are
they healthy and producing propagules? Note that fecundity (the ability to re-
produce) is often seasonal in many mangrove species, even close to the equator,
so observations will be affected by the time of year that they are taken. For this
reason, it is essential to understand the autecology of the species of interest
(Lewis (2005) Rule 1). High fecundity is an ecological trait typical of pioneer
Figure 2.3 Hydrochory is the natural process by which mangrove propagules are dis- mangrove species such as Avicennia spp., as well as pioneer terrestrial forest spe-
persed on tidal waters. Avicennia seedlings are excellent pioneers, establishing them- cies.
selves on open intertidal surfaces (bottom left), while in Bintuni Bay Papua we see a
2. Observe where propagules wash up on the shore. Do you see propagules natu-
virtual carpet of mangrove seeds and fruits on the mature forest floor.
rally collecting near your rehabilitation site, e.g. near the strand line (Figure
2.3)? This is an indication that the water currents are bringing in propagules
called aerenchyma. The large seed of Xylocarpus species (the “cannon ball” mangrove)
from nearby mangroves
is made of a corky material that floats. Because different species have different ad-
aptations to aid flotation, this means that they float for different lengths of time: the 3. Google Earth can be used to observe the number and size of mangrove patches
flotation period is species-specific. Unpublished experimental results of Southeast in close proximity to your restoration site. Google Earth can be used to calculate
Asian mangrove species have shown that Avicennia species can float for an average inter-patch distance. See appendix - using Google Earth for EMR.
of 6 days, while Rhizophora species may float for an average of 22 days or as long as
163 days, and still remain viable.
Question 2 - What is the elevation of your rehabilitation site?
Propagule Flotation + Water currents = Dispersal This question is related to Steps 2 and 4 of the EMR criteria. The frequency and du-
The flotation period gives us information on how long a propagule stays afloat, and ration of tidal flooding is the most important determinant of mangrove restoration
thus how long it could potentially disperse for. However, propagules rely on water success in many settings (Lewis and Streever 2000). Different species can tolerate
currents in order to disperse away from the parent tree and on to new mangrove different durations of tidal flooding and other hydrodynamic forces such as waves.
patches. Water currents are driven by many factors, such as the tides, wind and Figure 4 shows a transect through a typical natural mangrove in Southeast Asia.
differences in salinity. Thus, it is crucial that natural mangrove stands are situated
close enough to a rehabilitation site and in the correct water flow direction, so that

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2 EMR Manual Chapter 2 - Key Biophysical Factors

broad patterns between the inundation class, and the type of vegetation that could
be expected to be found there. We have to be careful about apply Watson’s Inunda-
tion Classes directly to other sites, as this can be site-specific. A particular problem
with this classification is that some mangrove species can actually colonize a range
of different elevations (and hydroperiods). However, these inundation classes at least
give us a general idea of species distribution in order to guide restoration. Under-
standing some of the hydrological factors that control mangrove seedling establish-
ment and distribution is a key step in the EMR process (Lewis 2005).

Tolerance to flooding is species-specific

Flooding causes a rapid drop in oxygen levels in the mangrove soil, and can be an-
oxic (oxygen-depleted) even at shallow depths. Anoxic soil conditions can lead to a
reduction in photosynthesis rate (Krauss et al. 2008), so mangroves have evolved a
numberof adaptations to cope with these stressful conditions. Aerial roots and pneu-
matophores above the soil are an obvious and clearly visible adaptation to anoxic soil
conditions. Mangroves can also maintain high oxygen concentrations in their roots,
and aerate a thin layer of soil around the root (Krauss et al. 2008).Similar to the
range of different flotation periods of different mangrove species, there are a range
of tolerances to tidal inundation between different species, that contribute to the
species “zonation” we find in natural mangroves along an elevation gradient. Differ-
ent species have different tolerances to tidal inundation because they have a range of
different adaptations to flooding.

Figure 2.4 A typical cross section of a natural Southeast Asian mangrove along
an elevation gradient. Tidal inundation and wave energy both change as eleva- Fig 2.5 The Watson Inundation Classes for a mangrove in Benut,
tion increases towards the back of the mangrove. Adapted from Friess & Oliver southern Peninsular Malaysia.
2014. See also Lewis 2005
Inundation Times flooded Mangrove tree species that may
Flooded by:
Class per month be found here
The mudflat is found most seaward and is very low in elevation; the hydroperiod
1 All high tides 56-62 Sonneratia alba, Avicennia alba
here is too long and frequent for any mangrove vegetation to grow. As we begin to
move landward, the elevation increases, and the hydroperiod decreases. First, pioneer 2 Medium high tides 45-59 Rhizophora spp., Bruguiera spp
mangrove species such as Sonneratia alba and Avicennia alba colonize, as they are 3 Normal high tides 20-45 Xylocarpus spp., many species
some of the few species best adapted to tolerate the hydroperiod found here. As we 4 Spring high tides 2-20 Lumnitzera littorea, many species
move further landward, the hydroperiod decreases further. A greater range of species
are found at the more landward extent (the back mangrove) as they are only able to 5 Rare tides <2 Many species
tolerate these lower-hydroperiod conditions. Adapted from Tomlinson 1986.

The influence of flooding on species distribution is not a new idea, but was first
noted by Watson (1928). Watson mapped the distribution of different mangrove
species against elevation in a mangrove near Benut, in southern Peninsular Malay-
sia, and was able to calculate the Watson Inundation Classes. These classes divided
a mangrove area by the frequency of tidal inundation per month. Watson observed

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2 EMR Manual Chapter 2 - Key Biophysical Factors

Why is this important for rehabilitation? Fig 2.6 Determining Substrate Elevations
Surface elevation is important for EMR because it controls the areas where new A trio of methods to compare tidal elevations be-
mangrove seedlings can colonize. Understanding this information – the flooding tween a rehabilitation site and a reference forest;
tolerance of different species, at what elevations they may be found in a natural 1) a water level, 2) tide gauge and 3) total station.
mangrove – can inform aspects of rehabilitation site design. This knowledge allows
us to manipulate the environmental conditions at the site to be below the key tol-
erance thresholds to allow a natural propagule to successfully establish on a newly
rehabilitated surface.

How to test this in the field?

The key step in the field is to compare the elevation of your rehabilitation site with
a natural mangrove site. Since colonization has already occurred at the natural man-
grove site, it suggests that the elevation, and other environmental factors are suitable.
There are many ways to compare elevations between rehabilitation and natural sites:

1) We can use the natural distribution of mangrove trees as a “biological bench-

mark”. Installing a marker at the lowest elevation of the natural mangrove zone
(e.g. the bole of the tree that is furthest seaward) and at the highest elevation of the
natural mangrove zone gives you an idea of the elevation that is flooded between
low and high tides. Installing markers in the restoration site at the same time gives
an easy comparison. E.g., if the lowest marker in the natural mangrove zone is dry,
but the restoration site is inundated, it suggests that the elevation of the restoration
site is too low.

2) The hose water level is a quick and cheap way to calculate relative differences in
elevation. The following information is adapted from this website:
The Total Station is very accurate (a few millimetres – actually more accurate than
http://www.buildeazy.com/fp_waterlevel.html is required for a rehabilitation elevation survey) and relatively easy to use after some
This technique is useful because it is cheap, and it allows you to rapidly deter- training. Another advantage is the ability to create 3-dimensional maps, that are
mine the difference in elevation between two points. You would then adjust the useful for visualizing and communicating elevation data (Figure 7). The biggest ad-
elevation of the 2nd point (rehab site) to match the first point (natural mangrove). vantage is to be able to map over longer distances than the water hose method
However, you can only cover short distances, limited by the length of the hose. – many hundreds of metres. However, the Total Station does require training, the
laser can be blocked by trees (it needs “line of sight”), and can be expensive. A Total
3) Total Station surveying is often used in the construction industry, and can be ap- Station + operator can be rented for a relatively cheap daily rate.
plied to mangroves too. The principle is similar to the water hose technique (Figure
6), and can be used to collect elevation information from natural mangroves and 4) If a tide gauge is available, elevations may be referred to the relevant Watson
potential rehabilitation sites. Starting with a known point, you know the height of class. The Watson classes are useful for approximately delineating areas of a natural
the instrument. The instrument has a laser, which is fired at a reflective prism. The mangrove or rehabilitation site by elevation and tidal inundation, though the classes
Total Station uses the timing and angle of reflectance to calculate the position of the were only derived from a single site in Malaysia, so may not be applicable to all sites
prism. Since we know the height of the prism also, we can calculate the elevation of or species.
the point below the prism.

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2 EMR Manual Chapter 2 - Key Biophysical Factors

Question 3 – Is your rehabilitation site protected from waves

and currents?
This question relates to steps 1, 2 and 4 of the EMR criteria. Mangroves are gener-
ally found in sheltered, low-energy environments such as estuaries, sheltered coasts
or behind barrier islands and beaches. These environments do not generally experi-
ence large waves or strong currents, except during extreme events. Together, waves
and currents can be defined as hydrodynamics. Hydrodynamics are linked to tidal
inundation (Question 2 above).

Hydrodynamics are an important control on mangrove establishment and distribu-

tion, and understanding the role of hydrodynamics is key to successful restoration
(Lewis (2005) Steps 1 and 2). To resist being dislodged by currents and waves, a
mangrove seedling must grow roots to anchor sufficiently into the soil.

Rapid rooting is a key trait of pioneer species in terrestrial and mangrove forest
environments. This adaptation allows pioneer species to take advantage of calm hy-
drodynamic conditions, or periods when there is no flooding (such as during a neap
tide cycle or calm weather). We can define the “window of opportunity” required by
different mangrove species in order to anchor sufficiently to resist dislodgement by
large waves.

The “window of opportunity has been calculated for Avicennia alba (the following
is described by Balke et al. 2011). This species requires 2-4 days after stranding to Figure 2.7 A Total Station survey of several abandoned tambak in Makassar,
begin rooting. Because the A. alba propagule is buoyant, it requires roots 2 cm in Sulawesi. Red areas are high in elevation, blue areas (inside the ponds) are lower
length to not float up during inundation, which requires approximately 5-6 days. If in elevation. Data collected by Rachel Oh (National University of Singapore) and
Mangrove Action Project, September 2013.
the seedling has a root length of 4 cm it is able to resist dislodgement by normal
hydrodynamics. The seedling requires an average of 8 days to achieve this, thus the How to test this in the field?
“window of opportunity” required by A. alba is 8 days. More research is needed to A suitable hydrodynamic environment for colonization can be estimated by com-
define the window of opportunity required for other mangrove species. paring the hydrodynamics in the rehabilitation site with the hydrodynamics in a
natural mangrove as a baseline. While seedlings in a rehabilitation site have different
Why is this important for rehabilitation? resistance to hydrodynamics compared to full trees in a natural mangrove, it provides
Knowledge of the hydrodynamics at a potential rehabilitation site is important in a useful approximate comparison to suggest an area with a suitable approximate
order to assess whether the site is suitable for restoration. In particular, if we can esti- hydrodynamic environment.
mate the “window of opportunity” required by different species to root and establish,
then propagule releases can be planned for times of the month or year when the tidal Boizard and DeWreede (2006) in a freely available online publication describe a
regime is most suitable (e.g. a neap tide period, that may allow parts of a rehabilita- number of low-tech methods in order to monitor hydrodynamics, using items that
tion site to remain inundation-free, depending on elevation). are placed in the area of water flow.

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1. Clod cards or blocks (made of gypsum or plaster of paris), glued to a plexiglass 2.3 Conclusions
surface Decades of failed mangrove plantings around the world have shown the importance
2. Sucrose candy of understanding the planting environment and the biophysical factors that act as
a stress on an establishing seedling. The intertidal zone is a stressful environment,
with many biophysical factors fluctuating greatly over the short time period of the
tidal cycle, and greatly influencing the establishment and subsequent distribution of
mangrove vegetation. Three important biophysical factors – 1.distance from other
mangrove patches, 2. tidal inundation, and 3. hydrodynamics – have been discussed
here. However, other factors may also influence seedling establishment to varying
degrees. Such factors may include waterlogging and drainage, salinity (see Krauss et
al. 2010 for a fuller description of these processes).

In conclusion, working with the biophysical environmentand understanding the key

physical processes affecting colonization and establishment is an important aspect
of EMR. It is particularly important in the context of Step 4 of the EMR criteria,
which describes how important it is to “do your homework” on these biophysical
parameters, so that we can select the most appropriate restoration site that will have
Figure 2.8. Dissolution of a gypsum block clod card to estimate relative the greatest chance of success. This means that instead of selecting the most conve-
hydrodynamic stresses. Source: Boizard and DeWreede, 2006 nient site (e.g. an open mudflat), we instead select sites with the right biophysical
conditions, such as (1) distance from nearest mangrove patch with available propa-
gules, (2) the right elevation and tidal flooding levels, and (3) sufficiently low waves
These techniques depend on the principle of dissolution – if you deploy one of these and currents so that (naturally colonizing) seedlings are not dislodged.The tolerance
materials of a fixed weight into the field, the water motion will erode the material of mangroves to these physical processes is species-specific, but understanding these
and it will dissolve in the water (Figure 8). Faster water motion equals faster rates of tolerances during the initial planning phase of a rehabilitation project will go some
dissolution. The original weight minus the final weight tells us how much material way to improving its ultimate success.
has been lost. Areas of the site where more material was lost suggests hydrodynamic
“hotspots”, and measurements of loss can be compared to a standard calibration Acknowledgements
curve to estimate water velocities (Boizard and DeWreede 2006). Some of the work presented in this chapter (e.g. Figure 7) has been conducted by
Rachel Oh (National University of Singapore), Rio Ahmad, and other colleagues
We can also use the “window of opportunity” concept to guide restoration. This fac- from Mangrove Action Project Indonesia. This work was funded by the National
tor can be estimated by collecting and growing mangrove propagules and taking reg- University of Singapore (R-109-000-141-133).Thanks to Robin Lewis and Ben
ular measurements of their root growth. Simple experiments can then be conducted Brown for helpful comments and suggestions on this chapter.
to calculate the force required to dislodge a seedling in the field by pulling (Balke
et al. 2011). Once we know the “window of opportunity” for different species, we
can tide tables, tide gauges and/or elevation measurements (from Question 2 above)
to estimate periods of the year when the “window of opportunity” may be available.

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32
3
Program Design

1. Introduction
2. Designing an Assessment Program
3. Preliminary Assessment
4. Comprehensive Assessments
(Biophysical & Socio-Economic)
5. From Assessments to Action
6. Model Programs
7. Costs of Restoration
3 EMR Manual Chapter 3 - Program Design

3.1 Introduction rehabilitation design, biological indicators which will form the baseline for future
The measurements and observations described in this manual taken together span the monitoring, and socio-economic information which will inform stakeholder involve-
physical, biological and to some extent chemical elements that define the ecological ment. Moving along this path, one develops a “big picture” view of water the man-
integrity of any given mangrove system. This includes degraded mangrove systems grove forest in its many dimensions, but also a deeper understanding of the potential
that are being considered for rehabilitation, as well as analogue mangrove forests for mangrove rehabilitation at a site specific level. Those groups and individuals who
which act as references used in the design of rehabilitation in a degraded system. are developing a mangrove rehabilitation program can choose appropriate initial as-
These reference systems may also serve to provide estimates for future performance sessment activities depending upon the factors described later in this chapter. We
of a mangrove rehabilitation effort; in terms of total production, carbon sequestration make recommendations for assessment activities which we consider essential as well
and storage, biodiversity, fisheries value or other desired metrics. as those which can be considered optional.

A program to assess a degraded mangrove area usually is begun in response to com- 3.2 Designing an Assessment Program
munity or government concern over the state of the mangrove and a desire to restore Designing an effective mangrove rehabilitation assessment program requires under-
it. A thorough assessment phase is always recommended before engaging in any standing of two aspects; the physical nature of the mangrove forest and surrounding
mangrove rehabilitation effort, to clearly demonstrate both the ecological feasibility watershed, and the human dimensions of the program participants and local com-
of mangrove rehabilitation as well as genuine stakeholder interest and involvement. munity. From this understanding, one can develop and assessment program that not
Although effective assessment programs follow similar paths in their development, only meets human needs, but that is also viable and likely to result in biophysical
each is unique and reflects both the physical nature of the mangrove area and sur- success.
rounding watershed, as well as the people involved.
Assessment in this process is broken down into two phases. The initial phase is
Mangroves of the world vary in many ways including size, hydrology, productiv- called a preliminary assessment. The preliminary assessment is performed in a rapid
ity, biodiversity, surrounding land use, degree of disturbance and human utilization. manner, with only a small amount of stakeholder involvement, to try and determine
Readers of this manual, and participants in the Mangrove Action Project network rapidly both the physical as well as social viability of continuing with mangrove reha-
also vary in terms of resources available, degree of affiliation with established coastal bilitation. This is especially important nowadays, as eagerness to plant (not “replant”
resource management programs, the needs and concerns that drive rehabilitation ef- which refers to a second or third planting effort often after failure of the first) man-
forts, understanding of the mangrove and surrounding watershed, and level of stake- groves has resulted in numerous failures, most often due to planting inappropriate
holder skill, knowledge and experience (Lewis, 2009). areas (most often intertidal mudflats below Mean Sea Level) or due to lack of local
community interest and involvement.
The purpose of this chapter is:
• To describe a measurement and observation path that builds from an aesthetic After a preliminary assessment is performed, a more in-depth or comprehensive as-
(qualitative) understanding of the mangrove and surrounding area to more quan- sessment may be recommended or required. The results of both preliminary and full
titative measures taken in the mangrove forest itself. assessment then need to be appraised, before continuing with mangrove rehabilita-
tion design and implementation.
• To describe the factors that shape the design of a mangrove rehabilitation as-
sessment in order to inform an appraisal stage which will either recommend that
This is depicted below in the project cycle which has been adapted specifically for
mangrove rehabilitation is not feasible, or that stakeholders should move to the
mangrove rehabilitation projects.
design phase for actual mangrove rehabilitation.
•
Mangrove rehabilitation assessment are based upon the following main questions;
3.1.1 Assessment of the Mangrove Forest and its Surrounding Watershed
1. Who is interested in this mangrove system? What is their concern?
The path described here follows a general pattern beginning with the use of physical 2. What do we want to assess? What indicators need to be measured or observed?
indicators (remote sensing and mangrove forest surveys) which will inform the 3.1.1 3. How will we make those assessments? What approaches and methods are re-
Assessment of the Mangrove Forest and its Surrounding Watershed mangrove quired? What measurements are optional?

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3 EMR Manual Chapter 3 - Program Design

4. Where do we want to make our measurements and observations? Is there an

adequate reference forest available? Do we need to re-create a model of the
mangrove forest in the past?
5. When do we want to make our measurements and observations?

3.3 Preliminary Assessment

A preliminary assessment often includes looking at one or a series of remote sensing
imagery such as aerial photos or satellite images, to begin to understand the extent of
mangrove degradation, change over time, the proximity to a natural source of seed-
lings and or reference forest. Looking both upriver and out to sea will also reveal
local land uses, which should provide a focus for the development of questions that
need answers.

99 Is there obvious disturbance to the mangrove forest?

99 Was the area in question indeed a previous mangrove forest? Or has an affores-
tration (planting mangroves where there were never mangroves before) project
been suggested by some stakeholder?
99 Are there any obvious disturbances to the ways in which water flow in and out
of the mangrove area?
99 Where are nearby communities located, are there any clear community impacts
on the forest?
99 What are major nearby landuses?”
99 Is there any large industry nearby or agricultural/aquaculture lands?
99 Are they these landuses encroaching on the mangrove forest?
99 Are there any clear patterns of sedimentation or erosion evident?

Once potential assessment sites have been identified, a mangrove walk may be the
next step. This can initially be undertaken in a rapid and qualitative manner, still fall-
ing under the category of preliminary assessment or as part of a more comprehensive
assessment.

This preliminary assessment method will be covered in Chapter 4.

3.4 Comprehensive Assessments - Biophysical and Socio-Economic

This step in the program is often a more organized and focused approach that builds
Figure 3.1 - The project cycle. Each step is built upon the previous step, the answers
from the questions addressed in the preliminary assessment. The purpose of assess-
and questions generated by one step, inform and shape the next level. (note – use
ment is to determine, through measurements, observations, interviews and discus-
the EMR specific project cycle).
sions

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3 EMR Manual Chapter 3 - Program Design

• whether there is a mangrove degradation problem, • Who will use the survey/assessment measurements? What type of quality needs do
• the sources of the problem, they have for the data?
• interest in resolving the problem, • Do community groups exists? To what extent is community organizing required?
• and the overall viability of mangrove rehabilitation. • What are the resources available to the group?
• What is the general skill level in terms of taking measurements and interpreting ob-
In this manual, Chapter 5 will cover comprehensive biophysical assessments, while servations? To what extent is training or capacity building required?
Chapter 6 will cover comprehensive socio-economic assessments, both of which will • What is the community’s level of experience with mangrove resources?
inform rehabilitation design and implementation. • What is the value of the mangrove resource to the local community?
• What is the value of in-tact mangrove resources?
3.4.1 Biophysical Assessments • What are the levels of economic welfare in the local community?
Activities in Chapter 5 describe various approaches to measuring and observing bio- • What are economic priorities of the community? Other stakeholders?
logical and physical characteristics of both the rehabilitation site in question as well as
nearby reference mangrove forests. This includes studies of ecology (vegetation, habi- The information uncovered in both Biophysical and Socio-economic assessments will
tat, fauna, edaphic conditions), hydrology (size and shape of tidal channels, erosion/ provide the foundation for planning a rehabilitation program that is at an appropriate
sedimentation patterns influencing tidal inundation and frequency, substrate height), scale and that seeks to answer the right questions.
and disturbances which inhibit mangrove establishment and healthy growth. From
these activities, more specific questions will emerge. These questions will help deter- The assessment activities and approaches chosen will be based upon the physical character
mine which indicators to measure to both inform restoration, and also to provide a of the mangrove, the skill level of the group, others who might use the data or observa-
baseline from which to compare future development of the rehabilitated system. tions and the resources available to the group.

We also include biological and productivity assessments, which may not be necessary “Where” to make measurements and observations is based primarily upon the area de-
to inform rehabilitation design, but can be useful to the practitioner to prove the value fined in the preliminary assessment. “When” to make measurements and observations
of rehabilitation activities to government or other stakeholders. is influenced by the time schedule of interested stakeholders, seasons (wet and dry), tide
schedules and other factors.
3.4.2 Social-Economic Dimensions of Assessment
Given an understanding of the existence of problems which impede natural mangrove
Chapter 6 will take us through the process of assessing socio-economic factors of the
growth, the sources of these problems, the level of community interest and the viability
local community and other relevant stakeholders. The following questions address the
of rehabilitation, it is then possible to plan for and take effective action, described in
other important aspect, alongside the biophysical nature of the mangrove forest, that
Chapters 7 (project design) and 8 (implementation).
helps determine the direction a mangrove rehabilitation program will take; the social
dimension.
3.5 From Assessment to Action
• Who cares about the state of the mangroves?
An assessment program often generates another set of questions that generate another
• Who currently has access to and control over the mangrove/intertidal area? Is this
round of measurements and observations that lead ever closer to defining the sources
in the form of ownership or customary use rights?
of the problem or issues to resolve. The questions under the action-taking step include:
• Who are the marginalized and powerless members of the community?
What are the root causes of mangrove degradation (definition of the problem)? Who
• Who should be involved in rapid surveys? Longer term assessments? is affected by the problem? (people, animals) Who is responsible for the problem?
• What government policies exist, at all levels, that impact on the mangroves?
• Are there conflicting policies? Overlap in government jurisdiction? The transition from observations and measurements to interpretation of the data and
• Where does the power currently lie in the community? definition of the problem is critical. Only then is it possible to create an informed
design to address the roots causes of mangrove degradation. Rehabilitation may cer

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3 EMR Manual Chapter 3 - Program Design

tainly be one outcome of this process. But it is equally likely that rehabilitation will For example typical constructed mangroves in Florida cost usd $125,000 per ha, and
not be recommended. There will almost certainly be additional actions required to even simple hydrologic restoration is about usd $25,000 per successful ha due to high
address the root causes of destruction. design, permitting and monitoring costs. These costs can be reduced significantly (to
say USD$100-1,000 per successful ha) where extensive mechanical excavation is not
Some of these include; needed and extended permitting time frames and requirements do not exist or can be
• Short to medium term livelihoods support to relieve community pressure off of reduced.
mangroves.
• Policy amendment to offer a greater degree of protection to mangroves. Why worry about costs? There is only a limited amount of money for mangrove res-
• Focused community awareness building, oftentimes requiring a specific gendered toration, and wasting it on projects that do not work, or paying more than is needed
approach. to achieve successful mangrove cover over time just wastes those limited funds. All
• Environmental education for youth to ensure long-term understanding of man- mangrove restoration projects should have as one of their goals to achieve “cost effec-
grove resources and develop an ethic of appreciation, protection and sustainable tive and successful restoration.” Too often, project funds are made available and spent
utilization. without proper accounting for what was achieved at what cost. Each project provides
the opportunity to learn where funds are best spent, and where expenditures are not
Chapters 7 and 8 are dedicated to moving from assessment to mangrove rehabilitation needed. Construction and operating a nursery for mangroves is a common initial ex-
implementation and other forms of action taking, by going through a planning process penditure without determining in advance if volunteer mangroves might come into a
and then discussing implementation. project site and eliminate the need for a nursery.

3.6 Model Programs If growing and planting nursery grown mangroves is defined not necessarily as an es-
Several case studies are provided in Chapters 8 on Implementation and Chapter 10 to sential part of the successful restoration of an area, it may be identified as an important
show how different stakeholders have approached the issue of mangrove degradation. educational tool, or as an essential part of a community based effort where local fisher
EMR was originally laid out as a 5 step process, the first three of which were of an
assessment nature (Ecological Assessment, Hydrological Assessment and Assessment
of Disturbances). In the model program from Tanakeke Island, South Sulawesi, MAP
- Indonesia found that between 18 – 22 distinct steps were required in undertaking
EMR alone, without considering additional programs such as livelihoods, community
based coastal resource management or environmental education. What is clear in all
approaches, is that a significant amount of time and resources dedicated to assess-
ments (social and ecological), greatly improves the quality of the program and the
likelihood of success of the future action.

The moral of the story is that you need to do your homework, in the form of assess-
ments, before taking action.

3.7 Costs of Restoration

The actual cost of mangrove restoration are rarely reported or documented. Lewis
(2005) summarizes most of what we know about costs, but these are largely costs
within the USA. Costs of projects outside of the USA are usually lump sums for a
project which may include significant overhead (office costs, travel, accounting) costs.
Where they are reported, they need to be broken down into various categories such as Figure 3.2 - Demarcating Mean Sea Level as part of an EMR training.
institutional overhead, planning, permitting, land acquisition, planted mangrove costs
if used, labor, machinery costs if used, surveys, engineering, monitoring and reporting.

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3 EMR Manual

folk wish to help a project along. That is fine as long as the costs to build a nursery
and grow mangroves for these purposes does not take essential funding away from
efforts like careful site selection, hydrologic restoration, or monitoring and reporting.

How should costs be reported? It should never be a cost per seedling, as that im-
plies planting. It should be cost per ha of successfully restored mangroves over five
years, which likely produces only about 1000-2000 viable trees per ha in the long
term (20-40 yrs) (but that can be as low as 500). usd $1,000 per ha is reason-
able if some design of an EMR project has already taken place, or the people in
charge are well trained in EMR. The larger the project, the lower the per hect-
are costs (down to usd $100 per ha for projects over approximately 1,000 ha). All
these numbers are ballpark estimates, and every project has individual circum-
stances, like resolution of land ownership and use issues which can increase the
time and costs. Monitoring costs are not included here, just actual restoration costs.

Remember it is mostly hydrologic restoration that is needed with plantings only for
education or to encourage community based involvement, which is fine.

42
4
PRELIMINARY
ASSESSMENT

1. Introduction
2. A Bird’s Eye View of the Mangrove Forest
3. Mangrove Greenbelts
4. Changing Land Uses Over Time
5. Community Mapping of Mangrove Forest
6. Mangroves and People
7. Perimeter, Land Ownership and Management
Status Mapping
4 EMR Manual Chapter 4 - Preliminary Assessment

4.1 Introduction Quickbird ? 1/10,000

A mangrove ecosystem is an area where fresh water meets sea water in a semi-pro- Google Earth ?
tected coastal environment. The dominant vegetation of this ecosystem are mangrove
trees which are specially adapted to live in this specific environment of variable salin- IKONOS and Quickbird are two types of satellite images which are usually good
ity, tidal inundation and water-logged soils. It is useful to begin a mangrove action for specific site management plans, for instance for planning hydrological/ecological
project by studying the interactions of land and sea, and the patterns of water flow in mangrove rehabilitation. The recent liberation of satellite images by Google Earth
and out of a mangrove area (part of the area’s hydrology) as a whole, before examin- has democratized the use of remote sensing. A specific guide outlining some of the
ing parts of the system. To understand how human activities impact the mangrove more basic uses of Google Earth for EMR is provided in this manual as an appendix.
ecosystem, it is best to observe first the physical characteristics of the mangrove area.
By taking a bird’s eye view of the mangrove forest through topographic maps and Another major advantage of remote sensing is that it can detect a much wider range
satellite images, it is possible to grasp the physical complexities of the mangrove eco- of the electromagnetic spectrum than the human eye can see. Various sensory devic-
system before visiting the actual forest. es can detect information about objects in the ultraviolet, visible and infrared wave-
lengths. For example, IKONOS satellite images with a very high spatial resolution
Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about objects by way of sensory of 1 meter are being used to distinguish between mangrove species in Sri Lanka
devices which are remotely situated, such as in airplanes and satellites. Remote sens- Not only is this an advancement for the monitoring of forests, it is even more impor-
ing has proven to be a powerful and valuable tool for analyzing mangrove forests and tant considering their patchy nature in Sri Lankan mangroves (in contrast to classi-
land-use practices within and adjacent to mangrove areas. Aerial photographs and cally zoned forests). The presence of species such as Acrostichum aureum can also be
satellite images are useful in the detection and analysis of threats to the mangrove detected from IKONOS imagery, which is important in the early warning for cryptic
forest. The relationship between adjacent land use and mangrove forests as well as ecological changes (Dahdouh-Guebas et al. 2005) that may affect mangrove species
information on floods, droughts, deforestation, green-belt width for storm protec- composition. The highest resolutions (as in pan-sharpened multi-spectral compos-
tion, wave patterns and agricultural/aquacultural development and practices are in- ites) remain invaluable for visual ecological investigations. Advancements such as
creasingly monitored through remote sensing. this may serve many management purposes, not the least in prioritizing and planning
for mangrove rehabilitation if needed.
The two major forms of remotely sensed data are aerial photography and satellite im-
ages. Both have benefits and drawbacks, and the preferred system depends on what Another limitation is the cost of purchasing the imagery. Government offices, plan-
information is needed. There are some universal strengths and weaknesses associated ning bodies, international NGO’s, and universities often have aerial photographs or
with both methods of remote sensing. Remote sensing allows large scale monitoring satellite images than may be available for class use (especially slightly older imagery).
After the Indian Ocean tsunami, many international agencies have made satellite
of the environment. A single image can cover an entire mangrove forest, allowing
imagery available for greenbelt rehabilitation works. A list of contacts for provi-
the user to see the “big picture” and to monitor a large area instead of small individual
sion of free satellite imagery has been attached as an appendix. Moderate resolution
areas. Of course, the larger the area imaged, the lower the resolution, or detail will be.
imagery is available for free from Goggle Earth, but the higher resolution imagery
The spatial resolution of satellite images is measured in units called pixels, which are
(Google Earth Pro) is available only by paid subscription at about $USD400 per year.
the smallest pieces of information that can be detected. The resolution and common
scales of some common satellites are as follows:
Activities 4.2 - 4.5 ahead focus on the implications of changing land-use practices on
the health of the mangrove system. Activities 4.6 and 4.7 seek to answer the ques-
Satellite Resolution Preferred Scales
tions: How large is the functional mangrove area? Where are the boundaries of the
LandSat ETM 28 meters 1/50,000
mangrove? Who own the mangroves? Who has jurisdiction over the mangrove for-
Spot 5 Colour 2.5 1/30,000
est? How has the mangrove and surrounding area changed over time?
French Spot 2, 4 10 meters 1/25,000
IRS ID Pan 5 1/15,000
Activities for this section are listed below:
IKONOS ? 1/5000

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Activity 4.2 A Bird’s Eye View of the Mangrove Forest 2. A mangrove begins at its terrestrial edge and continues down to the river-bank,
Activity 4.3 Mangrove Greenbelts estuary, lagoon or coast. Mangrove forests rely on a mix of fresh water coming
Activity 4.4 Changing Land Uses Over Time from land and salt water from the sea. Fresh water sources include streams and
Activity 4.5 Community Mapping of Mangrove Forest rivers, ground water and rain water. The resulting water is brackish and is heavily
Activity 4.6 Mangroves and People influenced by the tides.
Activity 4.7 Perimeter, Land Ownership and Management Status Mapping 3. On the satellite image, see if you can locate sources of freshwater and salt water.
4. Tidal creeks assist the flow of water in and out of a mangrove area. Tidal creeks
Additional Section begin at the landward edge and widen as they meander toward the sea. Note the
• Appendix X - Using Google Earth for EMR (end of manual) position and shape of tidal creeks on the satellite imagery. Are they straight like
ditches or curved like natural rivers?
Activity 4.2 A Bird’s Eye View Of The Mangrove Forest

Objectives Activity 4.3 Mangrove Greenbelts

99 Learn to interpret aerial photographs and satellite imagery.
99 Develop a basic understanding of the structure of mangrove forests. Objectives
99 View the mangrove forest holistically. 99 Learn about the functions of a greenbelt.
99 Gain comprehension of mangrove forests, inflows/drainage/discharge, tidal 99 Learn about local legislation affecting the width of the greenbelt.
creeks, rivers and estuaries. 99 Measure greenbelt widths using remote images and compare with legal mini-
99 Gain basic comprehension of mangrove hydrology. mum greenbelt widths.

Materials Materials
Digital remote sensing imagery, LCD projector and/or copies of satellite images or National laws, local ordinances on greenbelt sizes. Copies of satellite images or aerial
aerial photographs, topographic maps of coast (if available), markers or crayons, and photographs with scales. Markers or crayons, and pencils. Calculator.
pencils.
Time Approximately 30 minutes.
Time: Approximately 45 minutes.
Background Information
Background Information Much has been made of the importance of greenbelts since the Dec 2004 tsunami
This activity is designed to provide students/workshop participants with a founda- which devastated coastal areas around the Indian ocean basin. Although empirical
tion of knowledge of mangrove forests and hydrology. It is important to understand evidence is lacking that an intact mangrove greenbelt can confound a tsunami, there
the basic structure of a mangrove forest to fully understand the processes and factors is no doubt that a vigorous greenbelt helps to remediate potential damage from both
that control the mangrove ecosystem. Aerial photographs and satellite imagery offer wave and storm.
an opportunity to view the mangrove forest as a whole entity. Through looking at
images of the whole mangrove forest, participants will gain comprehension of man- Each country has its own set of laws to determine the extent of obligatory mangrove
grove forests, inflows/drainage/discharge, tidal creeks, rivers and estuaries. greenbelt in natural mangrove areas. Common figures in the region are similar to
Indonesian law which stipulates a 200 meter greenbelt depth along the coast and 50
Procedures meters along major rivers. In some cases a formula is used to determine the breadth
1. Use an LCD projector or provide multiple copies of an aerial photo/satellite im- of the greenbelt. An ecological formula has been calculated in Indonesia calling for a
age of a local mangrove forest so that everyone can follow along with the activity. greenbelt 130 times the difference between the average annual high tide and average
Also hand out topographic maps of the coastal area so that students can write in annual low tide.
characteristics of the forest as the activity progresses.

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Ex: Where the average difference between the high and low tide is 1.7 meters the Activity 4.4 Changing Land Uses Over Time
prescribed greenbelt depth is: 130 x 1.7m = 221 meters.
Objectives
In this activity, participants will measure greenbelts both along the coastline and riv- 99 Study different land uses in the mangrove area
ers and compare their findings with national laws or local ordinances. 99 Develop an understanding of how land use affects the mangrove forest
99 Gain awareness of human impacts on the mangrove forest and associated fisher-
Procedures ies.
1. Work in small groups with images of your mangrove area.
2. Determine what local and national laws state regarding mangrove buffers along Materials
the coast and major rivers. Laminated copies of an aerial photograph or satellite image depicting a local man-
3. Determine the scale of the remote image. For this example we will use a 1/5000 grove forest. Transparencies, clear tape, pens.
scale.
4. Using a 1:5000 scale, means that every cm on the image equals 500 meters. Time Approximately 30 minutes.
5. This means a 200 meter greenbelt will be greater than 0.4 cm (4 millimeters)
Background Information
Most people think of mangrove forests as coastal ecosystems, and this is true, but
200 : x = 0.4 cm since mangrove forests rely on a consistent fresh water influx, land based activities
500 1 which im- pact fresh water sources also have a large impact on the mangrove. Farm-
ing activities, road or even footpath construction, housing development, aquaculture
and a 50 meter greenbelt will be greater than 0.1 cm (or 1 millimeter) development and other land uses can alter the regular flow of freshwater into the
mangrove. Deforestation in the highlands behind a mangrove forest may have a del-
50 : x = 0.1 cm eterious effect as well on mangrove health, as deforested uplands show an increase
500 1 in run-off and decrease in infiltration to the aquifer, mangroves which once received
a steady flow of fresh water will experience fresh water floods after rain events and
6. Begin to measure mangrove buffers along the coastline and river banks if pos- longer dry periods due to empty aquifers.
sible. Locate areas on the map where buffer sizes are in conflict with local/
national laws. More directly affecting mangrove forests are land-use decisions which lead to the
7. Areas where the greenbelt seems inadequate can be ground-truthed. Bring a con- version of mangrove forests to other ecosystems. Due to short term thinking,
GPS unit, measuring tape and a digital camera to the field site, and begin to col- man- grove forests are converted to industrial shrimp farms, oil palm plantations, or
lect evidence of inadequate coastal buffers. are clear cut for charcoal making. Mangroves are also often converted for develop-
ment projects such as housing, airports, harbors, hotels etc. These conversions largely
Discussion Questions ignore the multiple long-term economic benefits and environmental services that
1. What functions do coastal greenbelts serve? mangrove provide such as fisheries production, non-timber forest products, waste
2. Are the majority of coastlines and rivers in your area adequately protected by a water treat- ment, storm and wave protection and erosion control. The following ex-
greenbelt? ercise has been developed to examine what land-uses are taking place in and around
3. Why are some greenbelt areas not intact? your local man- grove area. Identification of various land-uses is the first step in mak-
4. Do you have the political approval to rehabilitate the coastal greenbelt? ing informed future land-use decisions.
5. Do you have the technical capability to rehabilitate the coastal greenbelt?

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Procedures Activity 4.5 Community Mapping of Mangrove Forest

1. Work in pairs or larger groups, depending on the availability of images.
2. Place a transparency over the part of the image that includes your mangrove area Objectives
and tape it down. 99 Map the boundaries of a local mangrove forest
3. Once you have the transparency properly placed, outline your mangrove forest. 99 Show the locations of the tidal creeks, and water inflows/outflows that enter your
4. All around the mangrove forest label the different land-uses that you can detect mangrove.
from the photo. 99 Locate significant natural features in and around your mangrove
5. Locate your community on the map if visible. How close is it to the mangrove? 99 Illustrate major land uses in and around your mangrove forest.
6. Denote any land-uses occurring within the mangrove forest such as aquaculture 99 Determine access, land ownership and land use permissions in for the mangrove
pond, or charcoal production area. area.
7. How might the different land uses in and adjacent to the mangroves affect the
mangrove forest? Look especially at the vegetation, development and blockages Materials
of water flow. Geographic survey maps, road maps, topographic maps, land-ownership data, trans-
parencies, pencils, crayons or colored pencils, paper (preferably tracing paper), Activ-
Discussion Questions ity 1.4 data sheet from Appendix A. (The map should include the entire mangrove
1. Discuss the effects on the mangrove forest of noted land use changes in and forest to be studied).
behind the mangrove. Which changes would be most detrimental to the health
of the mangrove forest? Time Approximately 80 minutes.
2. How have land use practices changed in and around your mangrove in the last
10 years? 20 years? 30 years? Background Information
3. What has been the effect of these land use practices on the health of your man- The first step in a mangrove action project or rehabilitation project is to define the
grove? On the fisheries of the mangrove? boundaries of the mangrove forest. The health of the mangrove forest is also directly
linked to the land and use of the land that surrounds the mangrove forest and resul-
tantly affects the flow of water in and out of the mangrove system. This expands the
concept of a mangrove forest to that of the actual area where mangroves are grow-
ing, plus the surrounding land area that affects the health of the mangrove forest.
Extending this paradigm, we see the mangrove forest as part of the larger watershed
which flows from mountains to sea. There is increasing attention given to this whole
watershed approach.

Due to global warming and resultant sea-level rise, there is also much talk of man-
grove migration inland. As coastal mangroves become inundated with sea water,
mangroves are migrating inland in cases where there is room for landward move-
ment. In this exercise, we will draw the boundaries of the actual mangrove forest as
a management unit, but also draw in the areas that affect the future of the mangrove.
This will allow us to contact the appropriate agencies with jurisdiction and land own-
ers of the areas that need to be managed in the present as well as the future ensure
the long-term survival of the mangrove forest.

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Procedures or will have permission from a government agency that does not actually have
1. Locate your local mangrove on a survey map or road map and find the corre- jurisdiction over the area in question. Resolving land use and ownership issues
sponding area on your satellite photo. needs to be done carefully, but is important to providing long term security to a
2. On the satellite photo, differentiate between mangrove trees and terrestrial veg- mangrove rehabilitation or management initiative and also in providing benefit
etation if possible. If this proves difficult look for roads on the satellite map or to a larger swath of society, namely local fisherfolk communities.
if roads are not visible, look at the survey or road map and note the position of
roads or other landmarks. Determining and mapping land ownership/land use may be a separate activity.
3. Try and draw a line around the entire mangrove area which will separate the Participatory, community mapping is a common strategy to expose and resolve
mangrove forest from terrestrial areas. land ownership issues/conflicts.
4. Calculate the area of your mangrove from the map: Make a grid on a transpar-
ency with boxes 1 cm x 1 cm. Place the grid transparency over the mangrove 11. Locate or draw on the map significant features (including forests, salt pans, mud-
forest area. Count the number of boxes covering the mangrove area. Determine flats, rivers)
measurement of distance on the map by using the map and its scale. To find the 12. Locate or draw on the map additional hydrologic features such as weirs, trenches,
area, multiply the centimeter scale by the number of boxes (#1 on Activity 1.4 canals, dike walls, drainage pipes etc.
data sheet in Appendix A). 13. The finished map will be useful as a start to any mangrove action or restoration
5. Trace the visible tidal creeks running through the mangrove area. Count these project.
and record on the data sheet.
6. Record the names of any major rivers. Discussion Questions
7. Record any other place names that can be determined. 1. Where does the water for your mangrove forest come from? Do streams and
8. Use your own and other people’s knowledge of your region to identify on the rivers flowing into the mangrove flow all year? Are there historical creeks that
map the major land uses within and surrounding the mangrove forest. (General no longer flow into the mangrove forest due to blockage? Are there other altera-
Development Maps and Zoning Maps, available from county and township gov- tions to the natural flow of water into the mangrove area?
ernments are helpful in identifying land use. For this activity you may want a 2. What are some of the major land uses in and around your mangrove forest?
larger view of the mangrove area including parts of the mid or upper watershed. How might these different land uses affect the mangrove.
9. Record on the data sheet the area percentage of the land uses. You can use the 3. What are the percentages of land use types in the and around the mangrove for-
tracing paper with various colors representing the various land uses. Major land est? Do land use changes occur as you move from the upper watershed to the
uses may include aquaculture, agriculture, urban/suburban, industrial, mining, mangrove?
logging, forested, reserve, etc. 4. Which government agency or agencies have jurisdiction over your mangrove
forest? What do you know about these agencies? Are they actively managing
the mangrove forest? Is there an opportunity for community involvement in
Use the grid transparency to help calculate percentages of land use. Calculate the
mangrove management?
total mapped area, then count the boxes under a specific land use. To determine a
5. Which government agency or agencies have jurisdiction over the areas surround-
percent land use, divide the total mapped area by the specific land use.
ing your mangrove forest? Are they in coordination with the agency/agencies in
charge of the mangrove forest?
Ex. Total mapped area = 600 cm2.
6. Are there any private land-owners with claims inside of the mangrove forest? If
Area under aquaculture = 85 cm2 (85 boxes)
so, are these claims legal?
7. Who owns the land immediately behind the mangrove forest on the landward
85/600 = 0.1416666 = 14 %
edge? Are their activities disturbing the health of the mangrove forest?
8. How would human activities in one part of the mangrove or adjacent to the
10. Determining ownership of the mangrove and surrounding land area is an activ-
mangrove affect the health of the mangrove? For example, how does land based
ity which may potentially cause conflict. The situation will differ in each region.
agriculture affect the mangrove forest?
Oftentimes, a user or developer of the mangrove will not have official permission

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Activity 4.6 Mangroves and People • Try to interview older people, who may have a lot of knowledge about lo-
cal history. Family members and neighbors may be a good place to start in
Objectives recruiting people to interview.
• Develop interviewing skills • Inform the person you are planning to interview of the purpose of the inter-
• Design a questionnaire view, how long it will last, and how the interview results will be used.
• Compile the results of interviews and piece together the history of the mangrove • Give the interviewee an idea of the types of questions you will be asking.
forest. • Try to draw out specific examples from people who make general state-
ments. For example, if someone were to tell you that they used to catch fish
Materials in the mangrove ask them where, during what tides, what kinds of fish, how
Pencil, paper, tape recorder (optional). much, what equipment they used, etc.
• Role-play interviewing other students/participants before conducting the
Time real interviews.
Approximately 80 minutes class time; 40 minutes to design questionnaire and 40
minutes to discuss results (Participants should do the actual interviews outside of Discussion Questions
class). 1. Discuss your interview findings as a whole group. How do the student’s view of
the mangrove differ from the people they interviewed
Background Information 2. In what ways is the mangrove of today like the mangrove of the past (10, 20, 30,
Mangrove forests are the focal points of human activity around the world. People 40 years ago)? How is it different?
who live close to mangrove forests come to know them intimately. Fisherfolk com- 3. Were there any common experiences with the mangrove? How did the experi-
munities especially have watched and interacted with the mangrove forest and its ences differ?
inhabitants for their entire lives. Fisherfolk have knowledge about the mangrove and 4. How did it feel to learn about the mangrove forest from other people?
local community just waiting to be tapped.

In this activity. Students will interview fisherfolk to learn more about the mangroves.
History comes alive through interviews. Discussions with real people about their
impressions and experiences with the mangrove forest is often much more meaning-
ful than reading a book, article or viewing a video or film. It will be useful to have the
data sheets from Activity 1.4 on hand when performing the interviews.

Procedures
1. Have students work alone or in groups to develop a series of questions they
would like to ask someone about the mangrove forest. Below are some sample
questions.
• How long have you lived in this area?
• What do you remember the mangrove forest being like when you were a
teenager?
• Did you use the mangrove forest in different ways than it is used now?
• What are your hopes for the mangrove forest in the next 50 years.
2. Have students interview several people about the mangrove forest (they can do
this as a homework assignment over a weekend or overnight in the case of a
workshop). The following suggestions will help students to conduct an effective
interview.

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Activity 4.7 Perimeter, Land Ownership and Management Status mangrove rehabilitation practitioner to consider how to promote improved access to,
Mapping (Required) and control over, mangrove resources by first hand natural resource users (fishers, farm-
ers, community foresters, women, marginalized individuals, the poor) as a major prior-
Objectives ity.
• Identify and accurately mark the perimeter of the potential rehabilitation site.
• Determine and confirm ownership/use rights of the rehabilitation site. Figure x, below, depicts various land use and ownership possibilities in Indonesia, as an
• Confirm the use status of each area of potential rehabilitation site and confirm example of tenure arrangements that need to be considered from the onset of a man-
areas for rehabilitation. grove rehabilitation program.
• Confirm owner willingness to allow rehabilitation.

Output A complete map of area, ownership and status, confirming areas for rehabili- Figure x: Possible Forest Tenure Arrangements ex: Indonesia (CIEL, 2002)
tation, with size of each area marked.

Materials
• GPS
• Current aerial photographs of potential rehabilitation site, both laminated and
un-laminated.
• Government maps (Dept Forestry, Fisheries, Land Planning)
• Any additional previously created maps of potential rehabilitation site.
• White board markers (different colours).
• Pens
• Notebook

Time 3 days
• 1 day for perimeter, ownership and status interviews
• 1 day to ground truth
• 1 day for map creation

Background Information
With regards to land use and ownership, mangroves are placed in a precarious posi-
tion between land and sea. They fall in the jurisdiction of various agencies, from
technical agencies such as forestry and fisheries departments, to various levels of
governments from village, municipal, district, provincial or national levels. To add to
the confusion, some mangroves are individually owned, by numerous small-holders
or conglomerated into the hands of one or very few wealthy landowners.

Lack of clear policy on mangrove jurisdiction in no small part has resulted in large-
scale degradation. It also makes it extremely important to resolve land ownership
and use issues, to the extent possible, before attempting rehabilitation. As this man-
ual has a pro-community bent, we strongly encourage a

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views in your notebook.

Procedures
4. If areas within the border are not individually Make sure the map includes
On laminated aerial photograph identify potential area for rehabilitation. The po- areas surrounding the area to
owned (eg. owned by the whole community)
tential rehabilitation area includes ALL areas owned or managed by the community be rehabilitated in faint out-
mark with the following code: line, so land and water chan-
at hand. Consult with community representatives, village heads, and technical gov-
5. Areas adjacent to areas available to reha- nel continuations are visible.
ernment agencies, to outline borders of community owned/managed land. Mark on
bilitation (the green areas) where natural re-
photograph.
vegetation has occurred and the majority of
1. Review individual ownership of areas within the community boarder. Mark on
vegetation is still in the seedling and sapling stage, overlay status colours with
photograph.
the following code:
6. Using a GPS, ground truth the perimeter of ponds discussed above, as well as
Currently operated
adjacent natural re-vegetated areas.
7. Calculate areas potentially available for rehabilitation in km² and mark on map.
Disused but plans to operate
A pair of actual land ownership and status maps are included on the next pages for
Disused and willing to rehabilitate
reference
2. Find owners identified in 2., confirm border of individual ownership areas and
Discussion Questions
mark status of each area using the following colour codes:
1. What are the difficulties in talking with landowners about relinquishing their
ponds for mangrove rehabilitation? What surprised you about this activity?
After every interview recorded details on a map to avoid any loss of
2. If land use or ownership is unclear, what steps can you take to help bring about
information.
clarity? Who else needs to be involved?
3. Record any issues of ownership/additional information arising from these inter

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64
5
BIOPHYSICAL EMR ASSESSMENTS

1. Initial
Hydrological
Adjustment
Assessments
of Clump Structure
2. Weeding
Ecological Assessments
3. Disturbance
Soil SystemsAnalysis
& Bamboo
4. Soil
Biological
Nutrient
Surveys
Management
5. Sustainable Harvest
6. Ecological Pests & Disease Management
5 EMR Manual Chapter 5 - Introduction

5.0 Overview We also offer a study of edaphic conditions (properties of soil/substrate) in this sec-
This chapter provides activities to guide learners in a biophysical analysis of their tion. Activities in section 5.3 take a look at disturbance, assessing modifications of
mangrove area. The chapter is divided into four sections; on hydrology, ecology, dis- the original mangrove environment that currently prevent natural secondary succes-
turbances inhibiting natural mangrove growth/regrowth, and finally biological and sion.
productivity indicators. Not all of the activities in this section are necessary in order
to develop an Ecological Mangrove Rehabilitation plan or design. We have labeled Section 5.4 contains biological and productivity assessments, which, although not
some activities as required, while others are optional. essential to inform mangrove rehabilitation design, are used for creating a baseline
for quantifying the success of a rehabilitation effort. Especially useful are measure-
When undertaking these activities, you may be doing so to inform your EMR de- ments of invertebrate and fish populations helps create a baseline by which to moni-
sign, or also to establish a baseline for future monitoring after the rehabilitation tor ecosystem functioning. Birds and mammals could be added, which also indicate
project. Before undertaking the surveys, it will be important to clearly establish your ecosystem functioning, but are not discussed explicitly in this manual. A partici-
project’s goals. If the project is simply one to rehabilitate mangroves, you might patory biodiversity survey is also discussed here – as a way for local communities
not need as many replicates during your surveys. If the project is also intended for to increase their appreciation of the richness of their mangrove resource. Tracking
academic purposes, or to demonstrate the change in quality or value of parts of the changes in productivity, biomass and carbon sequestration and storage are helpful to
mangrove system, your survey methods will need to be more rigorous, with an ad- managers, to demonstrate the economic value of the system.
equate number of replicates. Consulting a statistician before designing the surveys
will be important. Section 5.1: Hydrology Assessments (Sedimentation/Erosion Patterns,
Substrate Elevation, Tidal Inundations and Frequency, Tidal
As it stands, we present basic methods for a variety of surveys, with the caveat that Creeks and Channels)
they should be adapted to suit an individual project’s needs. Section 5.2: Ecology Assessments (Autecology, Community Associations,
Edaphic Conditions)
Factors Influencing Mangrove Establishment and Early Growth Section 5.3: Disturbance Analysis
Key ecological principles influencing mangrove establishment and early growth Section 5.4: Biological Surveys (biodiversity, benthic macro-invertebrates,
were discussed in Chapter 2. To reiterate, of the environmental requirements for nekton survey).
mangrove recruitment, growth and healthy long-term functioning, there are eight
– major determining factors (Chapman, 1977, Brown, 2007 and Lewis, personal Many of the activities relate to one another, building knowledge step by step; how-
communications and Friess, 2012). ever, the activities are also designed to stand alone.

1) temperature, 2) protected coastlines, 3) currents, 4) edaphic conditions, 5) sedi- Each activity is written in curriculum style – in order to be useful in a training
mentation patterns, 6) salt water and 7) tidal inundation and frequency and 8) pres- setting, such as an EMR training or field school. Use the descriptions in the back-
ence and functioning of tidal creeks. ground section to decide which activities to perform, keeping in mind what you
hope to accomplish, the skills and needs of the group, how you are going to use the
Not all, however, of these factors need to be measured as part of Ecological Man- information and available resources such as time, money and equipment. Again,
grove Rehabilitation surveys or monitoring. Activities in section 5.1 focus is on each activity is labeled as recommended or optional. This status was determined by
biophysical metrics related to hydrology. The first activity relates substrate elevation significance to designing and EMR plan, as well as cost and difficulty.
to tidal inundations and frequency. The second looks more closely at patterns of
sedimentation and erosion. The third looks at tidal creeks, which are essential at- Many of the activities include data sheets, which are found at the end of the Chap-
tributes of a healthy mangrove forest which functions over the long term. ter. These sheets provide an easy, organized manner of collecting data, and are meant
to be copied and used in the field.
Ecological metrics will be covered in section 5.2. This begins with a study of vegetation;
both individual mangrove ecology (autecology) as well as community associations. Finally, the findings from the various assessments can be rated on a scale of 1 – 3, and

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entered into a table of resilience indicators at the end of Chapter 6. To rate an in- Section 5.1 Hydrology Assessments
dicator, the condition of the indicator in the rehabilitation site can be roughly com- (Mapping historical and current channels (in rehab site and reference forest), dike
pared to the condition of the same indicator in a nearby reference forest. In this way, walls/breaches and instance of sedimentation, MSL, placement of tidal datums,
a practitioner or manager can quickly estimate the progress of the rehabilitation, in sedimentation/erosion Patterns)
order to make changes known as mid-course corrections.
Overview of Tidal Flows
As an example, a tidal creek in a rehabilitation area which is experiencing blockage, Towards the beginning of Mazda et al. (2007) describing their exhaustive study of
or filling up with sediment a year or two after hydrological rehabilitation might be hydraulics in mangroves in their Part I “Outline of the Physical Processes Within
rated a “1” when compared to a normal functioning tidal creek from a reference for- Mangrove Systems,” the authors state;
est. A manager will understand that the tidal creek might requiring re-excavating as
part of mid-course corrections. “Among the various types of water movement within mangrove areas,
tidally driven currents are crucially important.”
As another example, assessments may reveal that after 3 years, all naturally existing
mangrove species have colonized an area. This metric would be given a value of “3” Mazda et al. (2007) go on to describe in excellent detail, how mangroves are filled
and no new work would be required to reintroduce a certain species of mangrove and drained with tidal waters differentially (due to friction during the draining pro-
into that area. cess (ebb tide) with roots, trees, etc. It is an excellent and important read to anyone
who wishes to delve deeply into the physical mechanics of mangrove forests. What
we provide below are practitioners’ observations of tidal flows that can help a practi-
tioner survey a mangrove area in order to design a rehabilitation project.

Healthy mangrove systems owe their functioning to a network of tidal creeks, that
flood and drain the mangrove floor regularly. They are an essential natural feature, in
particular for ingress and egress of mobile fauna, particularly fish and larger inverte-
brates (crabs, shrimp). The extent of regular in and out flows of tidal waters, as well
as fresh water entering the system from inland (rivers, rainfall and groundwater) and
flowing out to sea, is measured as the tidal prism. The tidal prism as it flows through
a defined channel indicates the amount of scouring that will take place to keep tidal
creeks open, free of debris and siltation based upon the velocity of the water flows.

When the tidal prism is small, the creek may close due to silting and eventual over-
growth by mangroves. This further reduces the tidal prism and thus tidal exchange,
and eventually leads to the large die-off of mangroves from either hypersalinity, or
excessive flooding by heavy rains or spring or storm tides that cannot drain from the
system.

Blockage of tidal creeks through lack of bridges or culvers, inadequate design of

culverts or closure of culverts due to fouling are one of the most common causes
of mangrove die-offs worldwide. One indicator that a tidal creek is experiencing
blockage is build up of sediment in part of the channel. This sediment may be de-
posited during flood tides, or dur- ing ebbing tides, which will be indicated by the
direction in which the sediment is oriented.

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Which comes first - the mangrove or the creek? Look at a tidal delta mudflat. First 5.1.1 Mapping Extent of Tidal Channels (recommended)
the creeks, then further deposition, then mangroves colonize, but only on higher
Objectives
ground, which limits tidal cover and flows and channelizes the creeks further until
• To calculate the extent of a tidal creek network in the study site (historical and
a functioning network of tidal creeks is formed. These changes can be tracked over
present day) and in a reference forest (present day).
time during a mangrove rehabilitation program.
• To gain an idea of the morphology of the tidal creek network.
Some researchers have noted that tidal creeks in New World mangroves tend to
Materials – Mapping Historical Flows
form sinuous, braided networks, while mangroves in the Old World exhibit den-
• Large current aerial photograph of potential rehabilitation site, and a local un-
dritic creek systems; larger channels with smaller branches near to perpendicular to
disturbed reference site, both laminated and un-laminated.
the larger channel, and again smaller perpendicular channels. (Lovelock, Personal
• White board marker.
Communication)
• Pens
• Notebook
• Bamboo stakes – for estimating tidal path in the field
• Tea & Snacks for community

Time 1 day and 1 evening

Background Information
This activity will look at the extent of a tidal creek network at both the rehabilitation
site and a nearby reference forest. As the rehabilitation may have undergone signifi-
cant alteration, it may be necessary to refer extensively to historical remote sensing
images and maps, and also undertake community interviews with community elders.
Tidal creeks usually widen as they approach the coast, and may or may not have con-
Fig 5.1 Perpindular tidal creek morphology in Old World Mangroves (left) vs. Sinu-
nections to terrestrial sources of fresh water. The main tidal creek (or river) generally
ous tidal creeks of New World Mangroves (right).
runs perpendicular to the coast, with branches running perpendicular to the main
creek. Tertiary creeks may again run perpendicular to the secondary creeks, forming
This general morphology of tidal creeks should be kept in mind during a rehabilita-
a dendritic network, which floods and drains the mangrove flats. Mazda et al. (2007)
tion project.
discuss the hydraulics of this system in great detail.
Two activities will be presented related to tidal creeks which will be useful to a man-
A mangrove rehabilitation practitioner may end up creating or restoring a natural
grove rehabilitation practitioner;
looking tidal creek system in the rehabilitation site as part of hydrological repair,
thus it is essential to determine where historical tidal creeks used to flow, and also
1. Delineating the extent and general morphology or shape of a tidal creek net-
the general extent of and shape of a tidal creek system from a nearby functioning
work in a reference forest,
reference forest.
2. Measuring physical characteristics of tidal channels (at rehab site and in refer-
ence forest) such as cross-sections, flow/ and total discharge. These measure-
Procedure – Mapping Historical Flows
ments are useful for re-creation of tidal channels at the rehabilitation site.
1. If possible obtain a historical, high resolution map that outlines historical veg-
etation cover and tidal creeks and evaluate where historical water channels pre-
viously existed at the proposed rehabilitation site. Mark as best as possible on
the laminated map with white board marker. If it is not possible to obtain a
historical/ high resolution map, continue with the below methods.

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Procedure – Mapping Present-day Flows

2. Organize a meeting time in the evening which is best for elders to meet.
3. Identify elders of the village with the community organizers and head of village 1. A major water flow is classified as any flow of water that is relatively large and
government. Invite them to a meeting that evening, along with elders already its channel is self maintaining i.e. the flow of water on the flowing and ebbing of
invited during the ownership and use status interviews. Provide tea, coffee and the tide does not allow for sedimentation to infill the channel.
cakes. 2. In an ex-aquaculture area, watch the ebbing tide to gain the best view of major
4. Begin by identifying major features on an aerial photograph that elders will water flows. Mark each point the channel passes through a dike wall breach and
identify with (eg., the village location, the place where the meeting is held, a estimate its course between each breach. Be sure to record major water flows
big tree that might be known to everyone, ownership of ponds etc., and include directly outside of the perimeter also.
any features that might have been identified in interviews of activity 1). It is a 3. Record on map with the key below:
good idea to start from the place building where the meeting is held and work 4. While watching the tide ebb to record major waterways/channels, qualitatively
your way out from here to the perimeter of the rehabilitation area. Make sure note the relative water runoff and drainage of the area using the following cat-
all participants understand the positioning of the photograph before proceeding egories:
further.
5. Gain accounts of what this area looked like before disturbance. E.g. Did man-
groves grow further out towards the ocean before the disturbance? Was the
shape of the area different before disturbance? If so, how?
6. Ask participants to remember where old tidal creeks used to flow prior to dis-
turbance. 5. Run off of tidal water: High, low, negligible (evidence of standing water).
7. Record on the map with white board pen. Does everyone agree? 6. Soil drainage: good (fast), poor (slow), water-logging prolonged feature
8. Refer back to the historical photograph if available. 7. If the site has a combination of each category, note the most prominent category.
9. Invite a group of community elders to go into the rehabilitation area the follow-
ing morning. Analysis
10. Agree on a time for departure.
11. In the field point out landmarks and positioning on maps discussed the evening 1. Mark a piece of string using the scale on the map (250m, 500m, 1000m)
before. Go to areas of historical tidal creeks identified the previous evening. 2. Using the string, calculate the total linear meters of the mapped tidal creek net-
Mark any changes. work in the reference forest and the historical flows.
12. Record the historical tidal creeks on a the perimeter, ownership and use status 3. Divide this total by 1000 to get linear kilometers.
map created in activity 1 using the below symbol: 4. Calculate the total area of the forest in hectares.
5. Divide the linear km by the total number of hectares of the site to arrive at linear
km per hectare
6. Calculate the current network of tidal creeks at the rehabilitation site and deter-
mine linear km per hectare
7. Compare linear km per hectare of tidal creeks in the reference forest, historical
forest and current mangrove rehabilitation area.
Materials – Mapping Present Day Flows
• Large current aerial photograph of potential rehabilitation site, laminated. Discussion Questions
• Markers. • What were the difficulties encountered in determining historical flows?
• GPS • Were there any difficulties encountered in determining current tidal creek extent
in the rehabilitation site? In the reference forest?
Time: one or two tides from high to low per forest • How do the linear km compare between the sites? Explain.

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• What were other interesting features or observations of the tidal creek system, Procedures
in terms of morphology? Flood and ebb? Divide into groups. As there are many tasks in this section, tasks can be divided
• What further studies, observations, do you think are required of tidal creek sys- amongst the groups, with a sharing session at the end. Measurements should be
tems to help inform your rehabilitation plans? taken during rising and ebbing tides. Times and dates should be noted, and cor-
related to tide predictions.
5.1.2 Channel Cross Section, F low and Total Discharge – Reference For-
est and Rehab Area (Optional) 1. Record on the data sheet the location of your observation site. Use maps cre-
Objectives ated in previous activities.
• Measure the physical characteristics of tidal creeks/channels 2. Channel type: At your observation site is the channel straight, meandering,
• Understand the relevance and impact of physical characteristics. braided, human made, natural? Check the appropriate box on the data sheet.
3. Weather: Record the weather over the last 24 hour period. Clear, sunny, over-
Materials cast, rain, showers, storm, etc.) Recent rainfall can affect flow and amount of
Pencils, tape measure, string, several oranges (or similar floating objects), thermom- water in the tidal channel.
eter, stop watch. Some helpful definitions;
• Rain < .75 cm over 24 hours
Time 2 hours • Showers 0.76 – 2.5 cm over
24 hours
Background Information • Storm > 2.5 cm over 24 hours
Water flow in tidal creeks fringed by mangroves (i.e., R-type systems) is very differ-
ent from that in rivers without mangroves (Mazda et al., 2007). The flow in a tidal 4. Last Precipitation: record date, amount (cm) and duration (hours)
creek in a mangrove system can be very high, facilitating the inundation of the man-
5. Recent Weather: Record recent weather that may have some effect on the water
grove forest floor during flood tide, and the drainage of the mangrove forest during
conditions, especially major storms. Be sure to record the date of this weather
ebb tide, which may be much delayed due to the presence of mangrove vegetation
condition. Ask fishers and farmers, or consult news reports for aid.
causing friction.
6. Air Temperature: Using a thermometer, measure the temperature of the air in
There are various ways to calculate this exchange in water, including flow rate, total degrees Centigrade.
discharge and calculation of the tidal prism. More important than measurements, 7. Water Temperature:
are understanding the concept of how a healthy tidal creek system facilitates the - Lower the thermometer 10 cm below the surface of the water
long-term functioning of a mangrove forest, by allowing for healthy flooding and - Keep the thermometer in the water until a constant reading is obtained
drainage, which has effects on the substrate (size of particles, texture, aeration), as (about 2 minutes)
well as floral and faunal communities. - Record your measurement in degrees Centigrade.
- Take 5 measurements and average them on the data sheet.
Tidal creek flow is also, of course, influenced by water emanating from the mainland, 8. Average Channel Width: Measure the stream’s width from bank to bank at 5
in the form of freshwater from rivers and groundwater. The dynamics of tidal creeks locations along the observation site. Record each measurement on the data
are numerous and can be studied at depth. For the purposes of a mangrove reha- sheet. Compute the average (immediately or later).
bilitation practitioner, it is important to understand the physical nature of individual
tidal channels, and the tidal creek system as a whole, when it comes time to repair Note: If tidal channel is too deep to cross (or there are crocodiles around),
dysfunctional hydrology (improper flooding and draining). Re-establishment and you may estimate the channel width using the following width classes;
maintenance of an adequate tidal prism is a general goal of hydrological rehabilita- < 2m, 2-5m, 5.1-10m, >10m
tion, to ensure long-term growth and functioning of the mangrove ecosystem.

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9. Average Channel Depth: (For shallow channels only) Wade into the channel.
Do not go deeper than waist deep. Using a meter stick, measure the depth of Fig 5.2 Channel Bottom Types
the water in 5 locations and record your measurements on the data sheet. You Inorganic
can average this measurement immediately or later. Bedrock
10. Surface Velocity: Boulder (> 25cm diameter)
a. Use a tape measure along the channel or streambank to mark a section at Cobble (6.5 - 25.5 cm diameter)
least 20m in length. Gravel (2mm – 6.5 cm diameter)
b. Position someone at the upstream (depending on direction of tidal flow) Sand (0.005 – 0.20 cm diameter)
and someone at the downstream ends of the marked section. Silt (soft, fine sand)
c. Release an orange to travel with the direction of the flow along the main Clay (fine sand with a sticky texture)
current. Dead Coral (whole or fragmented)
d. Use a stop watch to time the passage of the orange from the beginning to
the end of the marked length. Organic
e. The downstream person should yell when the orange floats by the end point Muck-mud (black, very fine)
to inform the time recorder. Pulpy Peat (unrecognizable plant parts)
f. Repeat this test 3-5 times and average the results. Fibrous Peat (partially decomposed plant material)
g. Save, peal and eat the orange to maintain vitamin c levels. Detritus (sticks, wood chips, coarse plant material)
h. Calculate the velocity in meters/second and record on the data sheet. Logs, Limbs (large woody debris)
Seagrass (live beds)
Velocity = Distance/Time Live Coral (attached)
Sponges (attached)
Note: An orange works well because it floats more or less in the zone of
maximum velocity (just below the surface). However, a similar object may
be used.
Discussion Questions
9. Bank-full Width: Most tidal creek surveys are conducted during rising and fall- • Channel bottoms, cross-sections, and surface water velocity are interrelated.
ing tide, but not at peak high tide. The width of the tidal creek will be reliant How are these observations and measurements related at your sampling site?
on your estimate of where the bank occurs. Some judgment will be required to • Could you predict, govern the shape of the channel cross-section and the water-
predict the bank-full stage – which is the point where the tidal creek spills over course bottom, what the water velocity might be like?
into the general floodplain of the mangrove forest floor. • Is there evidence of human-causes change in the channel or water-course bot-
10. Channel Cross Section: Is your channel rectangular, U-shaped, V-shaped, or tom?
other? Please check the box on the data sheet which matches the shape of the • How do tidal channels at the reference site differ from channels at the rehabili-
tidal creek channel. If you are unable to see the shape of the bottom and banks, tation site?
please estimate with your best guess. You can base your estimate on the flow of
water. The slower the water in the middle of the stream, the flatter the bottom.
11. Channel Bottom: What is the predominant inorganic and organic substrate of
your tidal creek? Check the appropriate boxes on the data sheet. (see Fig 5.2)
12. Channel Alteration: At your site, or nearby, have there been any major channel
amendments, such as dredging, straightening, hard-scaping? Are there dams or
weirs present? Check the appropriate boxes on the data sheets.

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SPECIAL TOPIC: DETERMINING THE TIDAL PRISM

The tidal prism is defined as the amount of water necessary to fill up the basin
between ebb tidal water level and flood tidal water level and is calculated by
multiplying the tidal range times the basin area and subtracting the volume of
sandy shoals.

This is related to the tidal volume, which is defined as the amount of water flow-
ing through the inlet during ebb and flood and can be calculated by multiplying
the measured velocities in the inlet with the cross-section area of the inlet.

Theoretically the tidal prism should be half of the tidal volume.

Degradation of the upper watershed changes the tidal prism. A denuded catch-
ment or watershed, will have larger fluctuations of water contributed to the
mangroves. High and intense flows will be common in the rainy season, as
runoff is increased due to lack of absorption of rainwater into the ground water.
These high flows will deliver large loads of sediment to the mangroves, due to Fig 5.3 Catchment Health and Tidal Prisms. The tidal prism above, under
increased erosion. conditions of a healthy upper watershed, is high and consistent, due to
absorption of water into the aquifer, and slow release throughout the
Lack of absorption of rainwater into the ground causes low flows during the dry year. Below, a degraded upper watershed will have highly fluctuating
season, as aquifer recharge is lower. This means that aquifers have less water to tidal prism, high volumes during rain events, and low volumes, leading to
contribute downstream over time. These long periods of low flow, and hence tidal creek siltation, during the dry season.
reduced tidal prism, can be problematic for mangroves, as sediments delivered
in the rainy season are can clog up tidal creeks,.

Clogged tidal creeks cause stress in mangroves, due to lack of water exchange.
They can cause mortality as well, especially during times of flooding, as drainage
of water out of the mangrove forest is hampered, and mangroves can "drown"
due to prolonged inundation in anoxic conditions.

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5.1.3 Mapping dike walls/breaches and instance of sedimentation Procedures

(recommended when working in disused aquaculture ponds) The relative condition of all dike walls within and on the perimeter of area to be
Objectives rehabilitated must be marked using the following categories and keys:
• To determine the relative condition of all dike walls in the area to be rehabilitated.
Note: Any wall that is slightly raised is still considered a dike wall as it acts as an
• Establish where current breaches in dike walls are located
interference to flows.
• Establish if any sedimentation is occurring in current breaches and water ways
1. Locate all walls to be categorized on the aerial photograph.
Materials
2. In the field, allocate each wall within and surrounding rehabilitation areas a
• Current aerial photograph with current marked breaches and waterways.
category and associated number.
• Pen
• GPS 3. Mark dike walls on map with the following key.
• Laminated aerial photograph
• Categorisation key (this can be different than the map key to be used, eg. use
different colours in the field, or have abbreviations)
• Markers (different colours)

Time One day for field work (up to 25 ha) and half day for data entry on map

Background Information
The development of dike walls and artificial drainage channels in an aquaculture
complex severely disturbs the natural flood and ebb of tidal waters through an inter-
tidal area. Understanding the current status of dike walls, including their breaches,
and the flow of tidal waters through drainage channels is essential for planning
hydrological restoration.

In the case where a restoration of a former aquaculture area will include levelling
of dike walls, filling of channels, and regrading of the substrate, the pre-restoration
condition of dike walls and tidal channels is not critical, although it is good to depict
on a map in order to track change over time. 4. Record all major breaches in the perimeter and internal dike walls on the lami-
nated photograph using the following classifications:
In the case where a restoration of a former aquaculture area will largely rely on the
cost-effective practice of strategic dike walls breaching, filling of artificial channels
and creation of "natural" meandering channels, mapping the pre-restoration condi-
tion of dike walls, breaches and tidal channels is essential.

Several case studies from chapter 8 (Implementation) and chapter 10 (EMR case
studies) will highlight the strategic breaching approach to mangrove rehabilitation
in greater detail.

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5. Evidence of sedimentation adjacent to major breaches (micro-delta formation) 5.1.4 Locally Determining Mean Sea Level (MSL) - recommended
or in tidal channels must be recorded. There are two types of micro-delta forma-
Objective
tions:
• To calculate a relative MSL height in rehabilitation area, when real measures or
a. Ebb tide micro-deltas form on the seaward side of a breach. tidal gauges are not available.
b. Flood tide micro delta form on the landward side of a breach.
Materials
• Current tide chart for closest area to rehabilitation site
• Measuring stick
• Data sheet
• Pencil
i • GPS

Time 14 days – one complete cycle from full to new moon.

Background Information
Determining current Mean Sea Level helps to set boundaries on the rehabilitation
project. Mean Sea Level seems to be the lowest substrate elevation where man-
groves will grow, and the total zone of optimum planting for mangroves or natural
colonization will range from MSL to above Mean High Water (MHW). Many
i planting projects fail, because they attempt to plant mangroves below mean sea
level, under the false assumption that mangroves can grow anywhere in the inter-
Fig. 5.4 tidal zone. Low tides, which expose sub-MSL mudflats, seem attractive to mangrove
planting projects, because there are seldom land-use conflicts this far out along the
coast. However, these plantings will nearly always fail, except during the occurrence
Use the following symbol to indicate sedimentation adjacent to major breaches where sedimentation brings sub-MSL mudflats up to the level of MSL or higher.
or in tidal channels. Rapid sedimentation, then, becomes a separate issues to measure and analyze (see
activity 5.1.5).

Procedure
1. Locate a stable place for measurement close to housing, and on the seaward edge
Discussion Questions of a mangrove area.
• After mapping dike walls, what are your concerns about the condition of 2. Place a stick where measurements will take place. GPS this point and record on
dike walls at the restoration site? data sheet.
• Do tidal channels at the site appear to be natural or very unnatural? How 3. Measurements begin on the first high or low tide on the full or new moon.
can you tell? 4. Every high and low tide for the following 14 days must be measured.
• Do some tidal channels seem to have heavier flows than others? How does 5. In areas where tides are semi-diurnal, 2 highs and 2 lows per day must be re-
this influence flooding and drainage at the site? corded.
6. Record all measurements on data sheet

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7. After all data has been collected, add all high tides together, and all low tides
together and divide by number of tides recorded.
8. If tides are semi-diurnal, add all of the highest tides together, all of the lower
high tides together, Average each.
9. Record relative MSL

Discussion Questions
• Were you able to calculate Mean Sea Level?
• How might you demarcate mean sea level in the field?
• Do you have any observations regarding the distribution of mangroves and
mean sea level at your site?
• Do you have any observations regarding the mangrove colonization and mean
sea level at your site?

5.1.5 Observing Patterns of Sedimentation & Erosion (optional)

Objectives Fig. 5.5 Duration of tidal inundation and frequency - assuming two daily high
• Recognize evidence of bank erosion coastally and along tidal channels/rivers. tides over the course of an entire year. (Lewis, 2005)
• Recognize evidence of sedimentation/accretion coastally, in micro-deltas and
along rivers. Substrate heights, however, are not constant over time. Some areas experience sedi-
mentation, while other areas erode. Rates of sedimentation and erosion will vary as
Materials well. An area which supports mangroves today, yet is experiencing a high degree of
sedimentation, will not support mangroves in the future (see Fig. 5.6). Rather this
• Time-series remote sensing imagery (10 to 30+ years) system will turn into some type of terrestrial system, such as a beach forest, salt-
• Pencils marsh, freshwater wetland or terrestrial forest. Likewise, where rates of erosion are
• Activity 2.3 data sheets high, (Fig. 5.6) even adult mangroves fall into the sea, and there is no chance of es-
tablishing young mangroves of the same species, without remediating the effects of
Time – half day for 25 hectares erosion, which may require an engineering intervention, or may not be possible at all.

Background Information What about the effects of future sea level rise? Even where sedimentation is occur-
The critical factors of the duration and frequency of tidal inundation, which are the ring, it may not be able to keep up with the pace of sea-level rise.
main drivers of successful mangrove recruitment and growth, are closely linked to
surface elevation. From the simple tidal profile in Fig. 5.5, we can see that the high- There are numerous methods for calculating rates of sedimentation and erosion
er up the intertidal zone we go, the less frequent tidal inundation occurs throughout which require long study and/or expensive equipment, is thus. What is provided
the year. This dictates species distribution and the overall range of mangroves in any below are qualitative methods for observing patterns of erosion and sedimentation,
given area. which should help guide rehabilitation and other management options.

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Fig. 5.6 The area of surface water in Segara Anakan Lagoon, Central Java reduced
from nearly 3000 ha to 400 ha over a 25 year period due to upland erosion, reduc-
ing mangrove habitat as well (opposite page). Mature coastal mangroves in Mimi-
ka, Papua (above) and Bengkalis, Riau (below) have succumb to severe abrasion,
part of the dynamic nature of coastal geomorphological processes.

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Procedures Discussion Questions

Take measurements both on rivers/major tidal channels, as well as along the coastal. • Are there areas of sloughing or obvious erosion along the river and or coast?
Combine both sides of the river for riparian measurements, Record observations on What are the causes of erosion?
Activity 5.15 data sheet in Appendix B. • Is there evidence of sedimentation? Is it gradual or rapid?
• What are management or rehabilitation options in areas undergoing gradual
Estimating extent of erosion (qualitative) erosion?
1. Bare Soil/Substrate: estimate the percentage of the area along river banks and the • What are management or rehabilitation options in areas undergoing extreme
cost, which is bare soil, not bound by plants and their root structures or covered erosion?
in concrete or rocks. These bare areas could be due to people access, roads or • What are management or rehabilitation options in areas undergoing gradual
crossings, boat traffic, clearing, erosion from strong, changing currents…Record sedimentation?
your estimate on the data sheet. • What are management or rehabilitation options in areas undergoing rapid sedi-
mentation?
2. Bank Slope: note the steepness of the bank slope. Is it steep, moderate or slight?
Check the appropriate box on the data sheet.
Fig. 5.7 Rod Surface-Elevation Table–Marker Horizons (RSET-MH)
3. Bank Stability: estimate the amount of erosion that is present on the banks. The use of Rod Surface-Elevation Table–Marker Horizons (RSET-MH) are gaining
Rate the bank erosion using the qualitative rating system in the conclusions/ popularity due to concerns about patterns of coastal erosion and sedimenta-
indicators section below. Record the rating you have selected on the data sheet. tion in the background of sea-level rise. This low-cost, simple, highly precise
4. Slumping or Bank Movement: rate the slumping and movement of the bank us- method can be paired with spatial data sets and used to create models useful
ing the quantitative rating system in the conclusions/indicators section below. for spatial planning and mangrove restoration design. Use of RSET's for moni-
In some areas the removal of vegetation leads to slumping and movement of the toring of substrate elevations, in a coordinated manner between nations, is
banks. Record you selection on the data sheet. important to inform climate change policy at local, national and regional scales.
5. Observe and record evidence of adult mangrove or other trees fallen due to ero-
sion.
6. Observe and record presence or absence of mangrove seedlings underneath
adult mangrove trees.

Estimating extent of sedimentation (qualitative)

1. Normative Sedimentation: estimate the percentage of the area along river banks
and the cost, which is bare soil, not bound by plants and their root structures
or covered in concrete or rocks. These bare areas could be due to people ac-
cess, roads or crossings, boat traffic, clearing, erosion from strong, changing cur-
rents…Record your estimate on the data sheet.
2. Colonization: by Mangrove seedlings and/or halophytic grass.
3. Colonization: initially by mangrove vegetation quickly turning to terrestrial or
beach vegetation., - indicates Rapid Sedimentation.

For a quantitative measurement of sedimentation - refer to Fig 5.7 on RSET's.

Driving an RSET rod through a mangrove soil profile (left). Measuring salt-
marsh surface elevation with an RSET (right).

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Section 5.2 Ecological Assessments 5.2.1 Rapid Vegetation Survey (optional)

(Autecology, Community Associations, Edaphic Conditions) Objective:
• To classify rehabilitation area and/or reference forest by mangrove species and
Overview maturity class with rapid survey methods.
This section starts with a rapid vegetation survey, to quickly understand what the
remnant mangrove community looks like. The rapid survey can also be undertaken Output
in a reference forest. At the end of this survey – you will have an idea of natural • Completed map of rehabilitation area with rapid survey mangroves species
sources of propagules available for restoration, and their proximity to the restoration and maturity classes.
site. If close – natural revegetation is highly likely. If propagules are limited, reha-
bilitation may require human assisted propgule distribution. This means harvesting Materials:
ripe mangrove fruits and seeds, and releasing them periodically in the rehabilitation • Current aerial photograph of rehabilitation site
area. • Map of rehabilitation area
• Markers
After rapid vegetation survey, a more thorough survey needs to take place. Detailed
surveys can take place both in a restoration site as well as a reference forest. The first Time: 3 hours or more depending on size of rehabilitation site.
step in a restoration site is to roughly divide the site into mangrove zones (seaward,
mesozone and landward). Next, survey plots are established which may involve a Procedure
mixture of permanent or temporary transects and quadrats. 1. Analyze a current remote sensing image of the rehabilitation site. Determine
which areas of the rehabilitation site have abundant vegetation, a moderate
Finally you will be ready to undertake vegetation surveys, gathering information on amount of vegetation, or little to no vegetation. Mark these zones on the map,
autecology (individual species ecology) and community associations (associations of for easy reference in the field.
different mangrove species commonly found growing together).
2. Walk each zone in the field, rapidly classifying them for species and relative
maturity, and estimates of percent dominance.
This section closes with optional edpahic studies, which investigates the qualities
of the substrate which are important to facilitate mangrove establishment and early • Species: use a different color to represent each species
growth. • Relative maturity: represented by tinted shades of each species color
οο 25% - seedlings
οο 50% - saplings
οο 75% - young trees
οο 100% – old trees
• Estimate percent dominance using a rough percentage (25%, 50%, 75%,
100%)
Areas with no vegetation are left blank.
3. Record data on a baseline map (see Fig 5.9)

Fig. 5.8 Examples of Mangrove

Community Associations

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Materials
• Map created in activity 5.2.1, current remote sensing images of rehab site and
surrounding area, pen, ruler
Time 1 hour
Procedure
1. Analyse the remote sensing image and map from activity 5.2.1. On the map,
indicate a trio of zones.
Zone 1: Seaward zone
Zone 2: Mesozone
Zone 3: Landward zone
2. Demarcate zone 3, the landward zone creating a contour line. Measure the wid-
Fig. 5.9 Map from rapid vegetation survey. est point from the terrestrial edge to the edge of zone three. Record.
3. Continue to demarcate the mesozone and seaward zone, also creating contour
Discussion Questions lines. The lines should run relatively parallel to the coast, but take care around
tidal creeks, which will alter the shape of the contour.
• What are the dominant adult trees in or adjacent to the rehab area?
4. Try and give names to these zones based on dominant species or community
• Do you consider the area to still maintain a high level of mangrove biodiversity?
associations.
• Are pioneer mangrove species (Avicennia spp., Sonneratia spp., etc.) present?
• Is there evidence of natural regeneration in the rehabilitation site? Adjacent to Discussion Questions
the site? • Are all three mangrove zones represented at your site?
• Would you consider the rehabilitation site to be propagule limited? (sensu Lewis • What are the major, noticeable distinctions between zones in terms of vegetation?
2005) • What are the major, noticeable distinctions between zones in terms of substrate
type?
5.2.2 Delineation of Mangrove Zones (optional) • How do tidal creeks influence your mangrove zonation?
Objective
Fig. 5.10 Typical cross-section divided into
To create stratifications within the rehabilitation area that are an arbitrary represen-
lower, meso and upper mangrove zones.
tation of mangrove zones. These stratification will be used for the random placement
of 3 sampling plots in each zone.

Background Information
Mangroves traditionally occur between Mean Sea Level and Highest Gravi-
tational Tide. Mangroves may be split into three zones based on relative posi-
tion in the intertidal system (see Fig. 5.10). This activity involves demarcating
stratified zones (seaward, mesozone and landward), before determining place-
ment of random plots, in order to ensure that all potential mangrove zones
are represented before detailed vegetation surveys. . If tidal inundation lev-
els are known, use these as the guide for stratifying the rehabilitation area
into 3 zones. If inundation levels are not known, use the following method.

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5.2.3 Establishing Permanent Transects (recommended) 6. In the field, locate the start point GPS coordinate in the field. If this point is
located on a dike wall, move just in front of the wall.
Objective:
7. Install one permanent transect marker at the GPS point by digging a hole large
• Establishment of permanent transect lines that run through all representative enough to fit the base of the pre-made marker so it is flush with the soil surface.
zones of the rehabilitation area (seaward, mesozone, landward) Infill around the base, compact soil until marker is sturdy.
8. Attach transect line.
Output 9. Walk in the compass direction already identified.
• GPS coordinates for start and end point transect line and the compass direc- 10. Using a 20m measuring tape, place bamboo stakes every 20 meters stretching a
tion of transect from start point. rope between them, until the end point GPS coordinate has been reached.
11. Number each of the stakes (A1, A2, A3....) and mark with GPS.
Materials 12. Install the remaining permanent transect marker at the GPS endpoint and at-
tach the transect line.
• Map of perimeter, ownership and status created in activity 1.
13. Repeat for the total number of transect lines required.
• Ruler
• Marker
Discussion Questions
• Notebook
• Do your transect lines run through all representative mangrove zones (seaward,
• 2 pre-made permanent transect markers.
meso, windward)?
• Bamboo stakes every 20 m of permanent line – number required depends on
• How do you know if you have enough transect lines? Too many?
length of
• How can modern technologies help you in laying out appropriate transect lines?
• Transect line
• Spade
• Crowbar
• Nylon string (the length of transect)
• Compass
• Long measuring tape (the one you can wind up)
• GPS

Time 2 hours

Procedure
1. On the map from activity 5.2.2 identify a single path for a transect line which
extends through all three mangrove zones, running from the coastline, land-
ward.
2. Determine the GPS points of both the start and end points of the transect.
Record.
3. Determine compass direction of transect line from the start point. Record.
4. Determine length of transect. Record.
5. The permanent transect will be used for both measuring substrate elevations
(Activity 5.2.4) and vegetation (Activity 5.2.5)

Fig. 5.11 Running a transect line through a recently logged area in South Sulawesi

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5.2.4 Substrate Elevation Survey (recommended) Procedure

Background Information 1. Determine the time of the peak high tide for the day of the activity. It is a good
Mangrove establishment, growth and zonation are inextricably linked to substrate to choose a day near the full or new moon, to ensure a very high tide.
elevation. Mangroves normally grow between Mean Sea Level and Highest Gravi- 2. The day before the activity, during high tide, check all measuring stations to see
tational tide, with pioneers colonizing lowest elevations, and the greatest variety of if they are inundated by the tide. Mark those stations not reached by the high
biodiversity at higher elevations near the mangrove – hinterland interface. tide.
3. Organise your team, give each a ruler or equivalent measuring tool and a data
Substrate elevation directly affects the duration and frequency of tidal inundation, sheet with required measuring time marked on the top.
which may be the most important factor in determining mangrove distribution. 4. Allocate measuring stations to be reached by high tide to team members, ensure
This survey is carried out in the rehabilitation site and a reference forest, and is everyone knows where to go in the field and which stations they are responsible
linked directly to the following activity, creating a vegetation profile. for. Circle each station the team member is responsible for on data sheets.
5. Ensure watches/cell-phones are synchronised and all recorders are sure of the
These activities are required. They are excellent activities to run in a group setting, time of highest high tide before leaving for the field.
to illuminate to stakeholders where mangroves should be expected to grow and why. 6. Ensure there is enough time for each team to get to the most remote measuring
Creating large murals depicting substrate elevation and vegetation profiles is a com- stations.
mon practice over the first two days of an EMR training. 7. At the appointed time, each member of the team will place their measuring
device on the surface of the substrate and measure how many centimetres up the
stake the water reaches.
Objective: 8. Substrate elevation is then calculated by subtracting the distance between the
• Obtain height of substrate every 20 meters along the permanent transect as water surface and the substrate, from the known elevation of the water surface
well as start and end points. (read from the tide chart).

Output Example: 16/6/14 at 10:30 High Tide = 130 cm Fig. 5.12

• A completed cross section profile of combined substrate height and associate measuring stick
vegetation data.
90 cm 55 cm
Materials High Tide
• Bamboo stakes (pre-placed during permanent transect placement)
Substrate Profile
• Meter rulers or equivalent
• Data sheets
• Tide Chart (adjusted to local MSL calculated in activity 5.1.4)
• Timers Station 3 Station 4
• People ( 1 person per every 3 stakes minimum)
• 30 m clear plastic hose
• Water Substrate elevation at station 3 = 130 cm - 90 cm
= 40 cm above 0 (lowest gravitational tide)
Time One hour (during high tide) Substrate elevation at station 4 = 130 m - 55 cm
= 75 cm above 0
Note: this is a low-cost, but labor intensive activity. Substrate elevation is more
easily measured with a theodolite or total station the use of which requires trained
operators.

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9. If the water level of the high tide does not finish at a measuring station, place an Discussion Questions
additional bamboo stake where the water and the substrate meet (the high tide • What is the total range between lowest tide and highest tide?
mark). The substrate elevation at this point will be the exact height of the tide • What tidal information do you still find confusing?
above 0. (see Fig 5.13) • Do you have any initial observations relating vegetation to substrate elevation?
10. For remaining measuring stations that high tide did not reach, use a water level
to determine the height and record on data sheets. (see Fig 5.13)

Example: 16/6/14 at 10:30 High Tide = 130 cm Fig. 5.13

Water in hose Water in hose
Water in hose at 100 at 60 cm above at 50 cm above
cm above substrate substrate substrate

High tide
at 130 cm
above 0

170 cm
above 0

Point where substrate

elevation and water Stn 9 Stn 10 Stn 11
surface at high tide
are the same.

11. To calculate the substrate elevation at station 9:

• We know the high tide level is 130 cm (from the tide chart). Therefore we
know the substrate height where the water surface intersects with the sub-
strate is also 130 cm above 0.
• The water in the water level is positioned at 100 cm above this point. There-
fore the point at which the water is held is 230 cm above 0.
• The water at station 9 is level with the water at 230 cm above 0. It reads 60
cm on the measuring stick. It is therefore 60 cm above substrate.
• Therefore the substrate elevation is 230 cm - 60cm = 170 cm above 0.
12. To calculate the substrate elevation for station 10, take the substrate elevation of
station 9 (170 cm) and subtract the water level height measurement at station
10 (50 cm). The substrate elevation at station 10 is therefore 170 cm - 50 cm =
120 cm above 0.
13. Once all data sheets have been received, compile data onto one sheet. DO NOT
throw away any data sheets. Fig. 5.14 Using a water level to measure substrate elevations towards the
14. Make all required substrate elevation calculations and an rough sketch of the landward edge of the mangrove which is rarely inundated by high tide.
substrate profile in a grid at the bottom of the data sheet.

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5.2.5 Vegetation profile linked to substrate heights (recommended) 8. Record % coverage of halophytic grasses. Do this by
Tree:
measuring the range (in centimeters) along the mea-
Background Information Height > 1.3 m
suring stick these plants occupy, and calculate the fol-
This exercise builds from the previous activity, relating vegetation to substrate el- Dbh ≥ 2.5 cm
lowing equation to obtain percent cover:
evations. This activity is carried out in the rehabilitation site (in the event that
some natural regeneration or planted material is growing in the rehabilitation site) Sapling:
Species % cover = Sum of cm occupied/2
as well as the reference forest. This information will be crucial in the design of the Height > 1m < 4m
rehabilitation initiative, informing the practitioner in terms of what species can be Dbh < 2.5 cm
9. Carry out steps 3. to 8 along the entire transect at 20
expected to grow in the various intertidal zones of the rehabilitation site, and also m intervals.
clearly defining the current boundaries of the rehabilitation area (not yet taking into Seedling:
10. Back at lab input data into spread sheet and calculate
consideration patterns of short or long term sedimentation and erosion). Height < 1m
for each measuring station:
Dbh N/A
• Total # individuals for each species
Objective: • Total # individuals for each size class
• Record species, size class and height of all vegetation as well as percentage of • Average height of each size class Fig 5.14 - Key
halophytes (salt-water tolerant grasses) one meter left and right of a transect Mangrove size class.
line.
Discussion Questions
Output
• What was difficult about this activity? Do you have recommendations to change
• Cross-section profile relating substrate elevation to vegetation type.
the activity?
• What patterns do you notice which relate mangrove species to substrate eleva-
Materials
tion?
• 2m PVC pipe (2" diameter) • How do you expect the pattern of distribution of mangrove species to look after
• measuring tape (dress-makers tape) the rehabilitation effort? Explain.
• telescoping tree height measuring stick
• mangrove id field guide
• data sheet

Time 1 or 2 days – 1-2 low tides depending on length of transect.

Procedure
1. Measurements are to be taken along the permanent transect, at every 20 meters
pre-place bamboo stake and at the start and end permanent markers.
2. Start at the seaward transect marker at low tide.
3. Lay the 2m PVC pipe perpendicular to the transect line, with the center of the
pipe intersecting the transect line.
4. Record all species touching the PVC pipe both right and left of the transect line.
5. Record size class of each species (see Fig 5.14) on data sheet.
6. Record height of each species, including seedlings, on data sheet.
7. Only record DBH for trees, not seedlings or saplings.

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5.2.6 Establishment of Sample Plots – Quadrats (recommended) 7. Attach a rope to the marker and extend 20 m perpendicular to the shoreline.
Place a bamboo stake and attach the rope.
Objective:
8. Extend the rope 5 m 90˚ to first side of quadrat. Place bamboo stake and attach
• To randomly select and install three 5m x 20m sample plots within each zone
rope.
identified in activity 8.
9. Extend rope another 20 m parallel to the first side of the quadrat, place bamboo
Output
stake and attach.
• A total of 6 sample plots randomly selected and established with permanent
10. Extend the rope 5 m to complete the long plot.
markers for easy identification in future monitoring.
11. Repeat steps 7 - 10 for each sample plot.
Materials 12. Ensure each plot is clearly labeled to avoid future confusion. For example, the
• 6 pre-made permanent plot markers – depending on number of zones identi- three plots in zone one could be labelled Z1.1, Z1.2, Z1.3 - reading from left to
fied in activity 8 right in facing from the shoreline.
• Crowbar
• Spade
• 3 pre-measured rope 20m long + additional length for attaching to stakes Discussion Questions
• 12 bamboo stakes • Was there anything difficult about laying proper quadrats?
• Map with marked zones and transects • Do you feel that quadrat size or shape needs to be changed for your survey site?
• Scientific calculator Why or why not?
• Pen

Time 2 hours for random selection of plots, 30 minutes per plot establishment.
5.2.7 Vegetation Survey – Quadrats (recommended)
Procedure Objective
1. On map with marked zones, overlay a grid of 5m x 20m squares, or use Google • To obtain representative data on key factors for individuals, species and com-
Earth’s random sampling point generator (instructions in Appendix - Using munity vegetation within the rehabilitation area to use as a baseline by which
Google Earth for EMR) future monitoring will be measured against.
2. Allocate each grid square within the rehabilitation area a number. Output
3. Using the random number generator on calculator, select three numbers per • Analysed data and presented in baseline monitoring report. All raw data stored
zone, mark the associated squares. on database.
4. If numbers generated fall outside of the rehabilitation zone, or in a zone that al- Materials
ready has 3 numbers selected, discard and continue selecting until three squares
have been selected in each zone. • telescoping tree height measuring stick
• measuring tape (dress-makers tape)
5. With your back to the ocean, install the permanent plot marker in the bottom
• scientific calculator
left hand corner of the quadrat. GPS these points and record on vegetation
• premade 1m x 1m gridded quadrats
ecology data sheets (Appendix B)
• data sheets
6. In the field locate the GPS coordinate for permanent marker installation. Install • canopy reader
by digging a whole deep enough to leave 5 - 10 cm of marker above the substrate • field id guide for mangroves, associates and halophytic grasses
surface. Place a bamboo stake next to marker.

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Time 2 hours per quadrat + time to go between sample plots and the addition 30 to diameter. As trees within mangroves are often varying in growth patterns, we
minutes per plot establishment. cannot use one standard rule for measuring. See figure on following page as a
guide to determine where to measure on trunk.
Procedure 4. Record all sapling species within the 5m x 5m plot.
1. Trees and saplings will be measured within each 5m x 20m plot, to measure 5. For each species of sapling, record the height of the first 10 encountered, and
seedlings and grass ground cover, using three 1m x 1m nested sub-plots within average.
the larger plot area.
2. Before entering the field, on paper divide each 5m x 20m plot into 1m x 1m For Seedlings & Halophytic Grass
squares. Allocate each square a number and randomly generate numbers on a 6. Locate each subplot coordinate preselected in step 2 and place premade quad-
scientific calculator until 3 plots have been selected. These squares are where the rates.
1 m x 1m subplots will be placed. Give each bottom (seaward) left hand corner
7. Within each subplot record the number of seedlings of each species present.
of subplots a coordinate (see Fig. 5.15 ). Mark each plot coordinate on the top
of the data sheet. 8. For each species of seedlings, record the height of the first 10 encountered, and
average.
Fig 5.15 - Long Plot 9. If other halophytic grasses are present in subplots, count the number of squares
they occupy and calculate percent cover using the following equation:

No. of squares occupied x 100 = % ground cover of given species

Total no. of squares

Analysis
Back at base, convert all tree circumference measurements to diameters using the
following formula:
dbh = C/Π
calculate Basal Area (BA) for each species of tree present using the following for-
mula:
BA = Π* dbh2 / 4
For Trees & Saplings
To calculate canopy cover, use the following equation:
3. In a 5m x 5m plot, for each tree present record on data sheet:
a. Species – use species guide book for identification, if unable to identify in field, Total number of squares with leaves present x 2
take sample, label and bring back for future identification.
b. Height – use the extendable measuring stick, estimations can be made for the Insert data into pre-prepared excel spreadsheet and calculate standard deviation,
top 20cm of tree. Ensure the same team member measures the height of tree to variance, total, and mean of each plot and subplot.
minimise human variation. The team member responsible for measuring height
should always hold the pole at the same height on his body eg. at their breast. Data from quadrats can also be analyzed to uncover common community associa-
The height from ground to breast must be added to measuring stick reading to tions (associations of species) in the forest.
gain total height of tree.
c. Diameter at Breast Height (dbh) – is always measured at 1.3 m above ground Although it is helpful to apply statistics to uncover community associations, this can
level. We will measure the circumference at breast height and later convert this also be undertaken qualitatively.

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A column has been added to the Autecology data sheet, to note species frequently So, the question remains, what edaphic measurements can be taken simply that can
growing in proximity to one another. also inform rehabilitation design, and how to take them. Below we offer a very brief
look at some of the important edaphic measures and even briefer methods on how to
Discussion questions collect them. Resources are provided at the end of the section for further investiga-
• Was the quadrat size appropriate for your site? tion. Later, in the chapter on implementation, we re-visit edaphic studies, recom-
• Are there clear community associations present at your reference forest? Reha- mending some trials that can be undertaken at the rehabilitation site to potentially
bilitation site? enhance edaphic conditions and improved conditions for seedling establishment
and growth.

5.2.8 Edaphic Surveys (optional) Fig 5.17 Special Topic: Physico‐chemical changes in the substrate
Objective When a mature forest dies, such as occurred in R.stylosa forests in Darwin
• To measure and track key soil conditions that influence mangrove recruitment Harbour after Cyclone Tracey, a number of other environmental factors includ-
and early growth. ing physical and chemical changes in substrates can be initiated which may in
• To understand which key soil conditions can be both a) easily and meaning- turn inhibit seedling recruitment. McKee (1993) found clearing of mangrove
fully measured and, b) effectively augemented during mangrove rehabilitation. forests can result in changes in soil redox potential, associated rapid accumula-
tion of sulphide and subsequent acidification. Such changes have been linked
Background Information with limited natural regeneration of seedlings in one hectare clearfelled lots
(Hamilton and Snedaker (1984) as cited in Ellison and Farnsworth, 1996). The
There are numerous soil characteristics, ranging from physical to biochemical, but
process has reciprocal effects however, because the root systems of adult man-
not all are important to measure for the rehabilitation practitioner. Particle size and
grove trees modify the surrounding soil, reducing redox potential and toxic
soil structure, for instance, are important properties, but since they are difficult for a
sulphide levels (McKee, 1993). It follows that if toxic soil conditions actively
practitioner to change, these are not necessary measurements, but rather metrics for
limits seedling establishment and survival, as suggested by recent research by
academic study.
Youssef and Saenger (1996; 1998), then clearings created by disturbance may
remain largely devoid of vegetation until a sufficient level of forest cover alters
Related to this may be the measurement of pore-water soil salinity. This is an im-
and improves sediment structure and chemistry. Such unfavourable substrate
portant soil characteristic, which can be improved quickly by restoring a normal hy-
conditions in the middle of clearings would provide additional reasons for the
drological regime to a rehabilitation area. However, salt concentrations in soil-pore
incremental recovery of mangrove forests outward from the edge of the for-
water varies greatly, not only seasonally or monthly, but hourly. Many measurements
est—as is often observed in disturbed mangroves. One may speculate further,
would need to be taken for proper analysis, and because of that, they are not practical
that once a critical threshold level of mangrove vegetation cover is reached
for the rehabilitation practitioner. Thus, although rehabilitation efforts can influence
and substrate conditions are suitably ameliorated, subsequent reforestation
soil-pore water salinity, the measurement of it is too variable to be of great use to a
may be quite rapid. Nevertheless, this whole recovery process may require
practitioner.
several decades after the original forest has decayed. It should be noted that
during the nine years since this experiment was commenced, seaward cyclone
It is clear, however, that many edaphic conditions determine the extent of mangrove
damaged clearings have recently shown substantial and relatively rapid re-
recruitment and growth. Soil attributes such as texture, nutrient availability, hydro-
covery (pers. obs.). This may indicate that substrate conditions have stabilised
gen ion concentration (pH), redox potential (Eh), organic content, temperature and
and altered sufficiently for this threshold to have been breached. Sonneratia
density seem to effect recruitment and growth. What is more, these conditions can
alba has, however, effectively replaced R. stylosa, which is now virtually absent
be enhanced by methods such as planting marine tolerant grasses, or mixing organic
from these clearings. (Metcalfe, 2007)
matter into the substrate in strategic patches.

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Important Soil Parameters to Measure for the Practitioner • gravel (greater than 2 millimeters),
Redox Potential (Eh) is a quantitative measure of reducing power which provides • sand (0.062 ‐ 2 millimeters)
a diagnostic index of the degree of anaerobiosis or anoxia (Patrick and DeLaune, • mud (silt and clay).
1972). Typical Redox potentials may range from -200mV to +300 mV, the former
being completely anoxic (typical of waterlogged soils with a high concentration of The mud fraction is further divided into coarse silt (62‐15.6 μm), fine silt
anaerobic bacteria) and the latter indicative of well oxygenated soil. (15.6‐3.9μm) and clay (less than 3.9 μm). A graded scheme for soils is given by
the Wentworth Grade Scale (Folk, 1974). The species composition and growth
Sulfides can also be measured to understand to what extent a soil may be aerobic of mangroves is directly affected by the physical composition of mangrove soils.
or anaerobic. H2S is a waste product of anaerobic bacteria, and quite toxic to plant The proportions of clay, silt and sand, together with the grain size, dictate the per-
roots. Mangroves are able to buffer the soil around their root hairs from H2S by meability (or hydraulic conductivity) of the soil to water, which influences soil
breathing oxygen through their roots and bark, and sending it down to the root hairs. salinity and water content. Nutrient status is also affected by the physical
However, each species of mangrove has different tolerance to H2S concentrations, composition of the soil with clay soils, which are generally higher in nutrients
which also differs between newly established seedlings, saplings and mature trees. than sandy soils (English et al., 1997).
(McKee 1993)
Major Nutrients
Hydrogen Concentration (pH) Phosphate and nitrate are the major nutrients in mangroves systems. Total phos-
Acidity in mangrove soils influences the availability of nutrients. Most mangrove phate (PO4) and total nitrate (NO3) can be measured in situ with a soil test field kit
soils are well buffered, having a pH in the range of 6 to 7, but some have a pH as (Lamotte, Hach), or in the lab, as can a variety of other forms of phosphorous and
low as 5. (Kathiresan, 1999) nitrogen, including both organic and mineral and rates of mineralization.

Measurement of the acidity or alkalinity of soils using pH must be done with fresh Nitrogen is normally a limiting factor for mangrove growth at all sites, although in
samples to avoid oxidation of iron pyrites (a common constituent of mangrove some mangrove environments (with low amounts of “native” soil) phosphates have
soils) to sulphuric acid, thus giving a much lower value of pH than normally oc- been shown to be the limiting factor (Boto, 1983, Chen and Twilley, 1999). As
curs in situ (English et al. 1997). fertilization of a mangrove rehabilitation site presents significant challenges, this
measurement in not normally taken strictly to inform practitioners, but rather for
Salinity academic studies.
The salinity of mangrove soils has a significant effect on the growth and zona- tion
of mangrove forests. The majority of mangrove species grow best in low to mod- er- General Method
ate salinities (25 ppt), although there appear to be marked differences in the ability 1. Soil samples can be taken with a corer/auger. A variety of augers are needed for
of species to tolerate very high salinities. In the past, soil salinity was measured in different substrates, form soft to hard. A typical auger has a 5cm diameter and
pore water that drained into a hole made by removing a sediment core. This is not measures anywhere from 50 cm – 200 cm long depending on data requirements.
a reliable measure of soil salinity because of uncertainty about the source of water Soil samples are usually taken from 10 cm sections of the auger, and quickly
filling the core hole. The method, in which pore water is physically squeezed from saved in labeled plastic bags for analysis in the lab.
the soil sample, is preferred (English et al., 1997). 2. Special care needs to be given to samples for metrics like Redox potential –
which can not be exposed to oxygen, and requires saving in a glass test tube with
Soil Particle Size a stopper.
Two methods are presented for the analysis of soil particle size: a ‘hydrometer 3. Temperature is normally taken at two depths, 10 cm and 40 cm.
method’ (after Bouyoucos, 1962) and ‘pipette method’ (after Buchanan, 1984). 4. Both pH and Redox potential are also taken at two depths, 10 cm and 40 cm
All soils and sediment (unconsolidated or ‘loose’ deposits) are composed of particles using a pH/millivoltmeter with platinum electrode.
with a wide range of sizes. These are generally divided into 3 major groups: 5. Soil can be collected at both depths and strained using a 20 ml syringe to collect
pore water for analysis of salinity using a refractometer.

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6. In the lab – soil samples can be analyzed for further metrics such as; wet weight, Section 5.3 Disturbance Analysis
dry weight, nutrients, trace elements, microbial counts, soil organic carbon and
Introduction
soil composition
The nature of disturbances to a site can be natural, man-made, or a mixture of the
7. For each site, three replicates from each sampling plot are used.
two. It is important to understand the cause of degradation in a mangrove area and
(English, 1997)
ongoing barriers to natural recruitment.
Soil Density - Measured as Shear Strength
Once information has been gathered in activities 5.1, 5.2 and 5.4, we need to syn-
In a natural forest, soil density is often higher than in a disturbed site, due to thick
thesis and analyze the nature of disturbances present within the site that are inhib-
root growth and more consolidated clay substrates.
iting natural regeneration to inform an effective technical rehabilitation plan and
anticipate future disturbances to the site. This activity poses a set of discussion ques-
Soil density was shown to have a high degree of correlation to mangrove survi-
tions to highlight the current hydrological and ecological state of the site (Chapter
vorship and early growth in sites damaged by bulldozer tracks in Darwin Harbor
5) and visually identify specific points of consideration during the planning process
(Metcalfe, 2007)
(Chapter 7).
Method
The questions outlined here and resultant map are useful in planning workshops at
Soil shear strength (indicating soil density) of near surface soil can be measured
both the community level as well as higher level planning sessions.
using the 33 mm or 19 mm vane test. The shear strength is a measure of the force
required to rupture the soil. Three measurements are made at random points within
Objective Identify and analyze sources of disturbance to site inhibiting natural re-
each disturbed site and three readings were also taken in a nearby reference forest.
cruitment to inform implementation design and guide to implementation planning
Soil shear strength is calculated using the formula:
workshops.
s = 10 x 6 T
9

x Output Identified disturbances within the rehabilitation site comprehensively
Π D (3H + D)
2
mapped. Synthesized information from activities in Chapter 5 Comprehensive Bio-
physical Assessments to link with strategy statements in Chapter 7 CBEMR Plan-
where s = vane shear strength , in kilopascals; T = torque to shear the soil, in kilo
ning activity 6.
Newton metres; D= diameter of vane, in millimetres; and H = length of vane, in
millimeters.
Materials
• Large aerial photograph or map of rehabilitation site and surrounding area with
current tidal creeks marked.
Discussion Questions
• Large plain paper.
• Which edaphic parameters are you interested in measuring? • Masking tape.
• Are any of the edaphic measures you measured useful to inform your rehabilita- • Coloured markers.
tion plan?
• How do you expect those edaphic measures to change after rehabilitation? Procedure
Tape the aerial photograph and plain paper to the wall during this discussion. For
every question, either mark on the photograph locations of barriers and disturbances
with appropriate key, or jot answers on plain paper. This map will be helpful in
Chapter 7 CBEMR Planning.

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Discussion Questions: 3. Disturbances to Ecology

1. Nature of the disturbance: a. What species were present within the rehabilitation site before disturbance?
a. Is the altering disturbance to the site natural, manmade, or both? b. Is there evidence of natural regeneration in the rehabilitation site? Adjacent to
b. If natural, how often does this disturbance occur? the site?
c. How has disturbed sites naturally recovered in past disturbance events? c. If yes, is there a pattern of natural regeneration? Eg. Small areas of high recruit-
d. Could the natural recovery process be sped up with human intervention? ment, or low, widespread recruitment.
How? d. If natural regeneration is occurring in places, are the species the same as species
e. If manmade, are the disturbances permanent or temporary? (eg., Large fac- listed in question a. of this section? Which species are missing?
tories built within the mangrove area vs. areas of clear cut mangrove forests). e. Are there fruiting adult trees within or adjacent to the rehabilitation site? What
are the dominant species of fruiting trees?
2. Disturbances to Hydrology f. Are pioneer mangrove species (Avicennia spp., Sonneratia spp., etc.) present?
a. Is the rehabilitation site within the appropriate intertidal range of man- g. Are seaward, meso and landward zone adult mangrove species present in or
grove habitat – from MSL to HAT? Where is the local MSL boundary? adjacent to the rehabilitation site?
b. Are there areas within the site where substrate elevations are either too high h. Are there physical barriers preventing fruits from entering the site? Can these
or too low to support mangrove recruitment? Where? barriers be removed?
c. Is the site flooding and draining completely on ebb and flood tides? i. Do you consider the site to be propagule limited? As a whole or species specific
d. Are there blockages to water entering the site from the seaward side? If yes, propagule limited?
are these blockages permanent structures? Where?
Fig 5.18 Hydrological Disturbance - Although this dike wall was levelled during initial re-
e. Are there blockages to water entering the site from the landward side? If
habilitation, it is still high enough to block drainage of the pond (background) into the tidal
yes, are these blockages permanent structures? Where
creek (foreground). After identifying continued hydrological disturbance during monitor-
f. Are there more or less linear meters of tidal creek networks per hectare
ing, plans for improving drainage need to be made as part of mid-course corrections.
within the rehab site compared to historical/reference forest creek networks?
g. Are current tidal creeks following a naturally created path or manmade
channels?
h. Are there dams/weirs present along current tidal creeks hindering continu-
ous flow of water into and out of the site? Where? Can these be removed?
i. Are tidal creeks experiencing sedimentation or blockages?
j. Are there water logged areas remaining in the site at low tide? Why are
these areas not draining fully? Can these areas be connected to existing or
planned tidal creeks?
k. Are there areas of anoxic soils within the site? Are they close to tidal creeks?
l. Are there areas of sloughing or obvious erosion along the tidal creeks and or
coast? Where are they? What are the causes of erosion?
m. Is there evidence of sedimentation? Where? Is it gradual or rapid?
n. Are dike walls (if present) blocking flows to areas of standing water and/or
areas of no or low natural recruitment? Which dike walls are causing the
most disturbances?

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Section 5.4 Biological Assessments Truly participatory survey activities can provide a way of building bridges between
"scientific" and local perspectives and establishing some common understanding of
5.4.1 Participatory Biodiversity Survey the concepts used. This can be contrasted to the "sledgehammer" approach which is
more common in Indonesia (more commonly referred to as sosialisasi) in which local
Introduction people are lectured on the contents and restrictions in natural resource management
A participatory biodiversity survey was put forward in an un-published document laws and (sometimes) definitions of terms such as those above.
by Claridge (2004). Aside from the obvious reason of collecting information on
biodiversity, the participatory nature of the activity is stressed in order to contribute Establishing Confidence in Local Knowledge and Management Skills
to establishing a situation whereby local people more prepared to take a meaningful The attitude that local people have no useful knowledge and no effective natural re-
role in biodiversity management. This can happen through empowering them, or source management techniques is all too prevalent among scientists and bureaucrats.
through creating the cultural, policy and legal "spaces" which allow com- munities This is fairly widely recognized, but what seems to attract less recognition is the fre-
to take on such a role. quent failure of local people to recognize that their own natural resource knowledge
base is quite likely not only extensive but also greater, and possibly more relevant,
Before local people can be involved meaningfully in conservation management than that possessed by outsiders.
(whether policy formulation, implementation or monitoring) there are two basic
prerequisites1 : The idea that "we are only simple poor people, with no schooling" often does as
much to hinder participation in management as does the condescending attitude of
• there needs to be some commonality of concepts and values between them and outsiders to local people. It is true that even apparently commonplace concepts such
the "outsiders" who are traditionally responsible for management, including, as "survey", "data compilation" and "data analysis" may not be easily understood by
particularly, scientists and professional managers; and
• the local people need to have some confidence in their own knowledge and ca- Fig 5.19 Participatory Biodiversity
pabilities and need to be able to demonstrate the extent of this knowledge and Survey As part of a 400 ha restora-
capability to outsiders, particularly those from the scientific and bureaucratic tion in the Restoring Coastal Liveli-
areas with whom they will be involved in management.2 hoods Project, MAP-Indonesia held a
single day event, a Biodiversity Col-
Establishing Commonality of Concepts lection competition, to raise aware-
Terms such as "biodiversity" and "conservation value" are part of the vocabulary of ness of the richness of existing man-
natural resource management. They have developed their current meanings through grove resources on Tanakeke Island.
a long process of debate and refinement through use, and are closely bound up with Biologists from the local university
scientific concepts as well as largely western values. Local communities are unlikely assisted with sorting the collection,
readily to understand these terms, but they typically have their own terms, value sys- but emphasis was placed on paratax-
tems and concepts which are associated with their approaches to natural resources. onomy (local names) and moreso on
These are frequently expressed in ways that, for outsiders schooled more in formal local relevance to the community.
western science than in the local culture, may mask the depth of their content and This event sparked the develop-
usefulness. ment of an illustrated participatory
mangrove rehabilitation monitoring
1 There are many conditions which need to be in place before sustainable participatory
activity (see Chp 9), which involves
natural resource management can exist - see, for example, Claridge (2004).
communities in post rehabilitation
2This is one element of the need to enhance and strengthen the capacity of local people to monitoring for at least 3 years after
participate in decision-making so as to safeguard their equity which has been emphasized intervention.
by the Working Group on Traditional Knowledge under the Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD, 2001).

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by local people in terms of their own experience and expertise. The lack of ability Procedure
to find parallels in their own experience with terms used by scientists and managers 1. Facilitate a discussion of the benefits gained by the community from plants and
contributes to the low self-image of local groups in relation to their ability to par- animals such as; food, spices, medicines, housing, various inputs to traditional
ticipate in natural resource management. aspects of daily life, fishing gear, clothing, water, and weapons.
It is often only when local people start to compile their knowledge of natural re- 2. List the key habitats where the above plants and animals (providing benefits)
sources and document their natural resource management approaches that they can be found. It needs to be noted that communities may break their environ-
come to realize the full extent of their knowledge and capabilities. Such realization ment into different habitats than those identified by ecologists. Communities
is the beginning of confidence in their own potential to play an official role in man- might lump two habitats together if they do not perceive them as providing
aging their resources. different benefits, or might divide a habitat into smaller units if they derive
different benefits from the smaller units. This kind of information about local
Objectives habitats is extremely useful local ecological knowledge and facilitators need to
be sensitive to it and to avoid forcing preconceived classifications onto the com-
Gadgil (2002) lists the following 6 factors as important considerations in a partici-
munity. . A facilitator can think here about ecotones (the gradual but distinct
patory assessment program;
differences within an ecosystem) – rather than whole ecosystems, although nei-
1. Motivating local people to revive and build on their traditional conservation ther the term ecotone or ecosystem should be used with the group at the start
practices; of the exercise.
2. Establishing a positive relationship between local communities and government
agencies; 3. Brainstorm on the characteristics of these different habitats, to reveal that each
3. Identifying and establishing a system of positive incentives for local communi- habitat contains a range of different plants and animals, and that making a com-
ties to adopt conservation management; plete survey of the whole habitat would be impossibly time-consuming.
4. Enhancing elements of good governance such as efficiency, participation and 4. The concept of sampling should be introduced, with the idea of quadrats (plots)
transparency; and the need for randomness in order to overcome bias.
5. Incorporating local information into the formal system of scientific knowledge 5. The need to avoid bias in the results was further discussed, and a method for
so as to make it richer and more immediately relevant; and randomizing the choice of sample area was explained.
6. Ensuring that folk knowledge of conservation management and sustainable re-
source use is preserved and at the same time giving recognition to the validity One method for selecting random sampling sites follows:
of such knowledge. • choose one area of the particular habitat by writing each of the locations
mentioned by the community on pieces of paper and selecting one ran-
Time half day to full day for collecting, sorting, debriefing domly from a container;
• choose the direction to the sampling area from the middle of the habitat
Materials area by writing eight directions on pieces of paper and then drawing one
• collection buckets randomly from a container; and
• rafia line and bamboo posts for quadrats • choose the distance to the sampling point from the mid-point of the habitat
• nets (in the direction of indicated by the previous step) by writing distances on
• cameras (cell phone cameras) pieces of paper and then drawing one randomly from a container.
• GPS units
• maps 6. Develop together, instructions of how to set up plots and collect data on plants
• field guides (books) and animals.
• field guides (prepared, laminated, with common taxa/species – no names)
• data sheets 7. Provide training in use of maps and GPS for locating the plots exactly.

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8. Practice laying out a 20 m x 20 m quadrat at a randomly selected location, iden-

tified on a map using the following method;
• Use 80 meters of raffia line. Tie knots every 10 m. Every 20 meters you
will place a corner post, with the 10 m knot assisting the team in finding the
mid-point of each sector of the quadrat.
• Measure off Two 20 m lengths of line used to bisect the quadrat into four
equal plots.
• Record plant and animal information on standard forms.
9. Collect data in the field from a variety of mangrove habitats. Hopefully sea-
ward, mesozone and landward mangroves will be represented. Tidal creeks may
comprise a different habitat, as may hinterland zones. Degraded areas and refer-
ences forests will hopefully be considered. Data collected may include:
• the location of centre point of the plot (determined using GPS);
• the name(s) of the plant or animal (local language, national language, and
Latin) if known;
• a digital photograph of each plant species ;
• the part of the plant or animal that is used;
• any benefits of the plant or animal to each of: people, wildlife or livestock,
other plants, soil, and water.
Fig 5.20 A Community Event
10. Back in the village the raw data should be tabulated (see Attachment 4) by the A briefing before the event is es-
field survey teams and summary data was extracted and tabulated. The collec- sential to get everyone on the
tion can be sorted and tabulated in a central part of the village, to raise aware- same page; (top left) Encourage
ness/interest amongst a large portion of the population. families to participate together,
11. Hold a discussion to analyze the results. part of a life-long learning pro-
12. Video footage and digital still photographs of the field activity can be viewed by cess; (middle) Sorting the sam-
the participants and other members of the community each evening, providing ples in the center of town helps
an opportunity for reflection. raise awareness; (bottom left)
Contests for highest amount of
Discussion Questions biodiversity with appropriate priz-
• How did the amount of biodiversity revealed during the survey compare to your es (in this case mask and snorkel)
understanding of the different types of plants and animals in the mangroves help ensure a fun time and large
before the survey? turn-out; (top right) Mangroves
are highly biodiverse communi-
• What were the main differences in biodiversity between the rehabilitation area
ties, this event collected 82 spe-
and the reference forest?
cies of fauna in a single day (bot-
• Does your community appreciate biodiversity? Why or why not?
tom row).
• Is it important if an animal or plant has an economic use?
• Is it important if ALL animals and plants have economic uses?
• How might you be able to increase biodiversity in your mangrove area?

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5.4.2 Benthic Macroinvertebrate Survey Indices have been developed to evaluate the health of a river or catchment, based on
the types and diversity of macroinvertebrate taxa that live at the river bottom. For
Introduction
instance, species of juvenile water-born insects like mayfly, stonefly and caddisfly
There is a pressing need for a set of criteria that can be used to identify the degree of
indicate a river is healthy with well oxygenated water, while an abundance of leeches,
anthropogenic impact to mangroves, as well as to identify those areas most suitable
blood midges or pulmonary snails (snails with lungs) may indicate a river’s water is
for conservation and/or restoration initiatives. Layman et al., (2010) provide a set
less clean and oxygenated.
of taxa that can be used as indicators in mangrove-dominated tidal creek ecosys-
tems. The analysis was based on gradients of human impact measured at both local
One of the most descriptive of these indices was developed by Dr James Karr and
(tidal creek fragmentation) and regional (human threat indices) spatial scales. Such
his graduate students at the University of Washington for Pacific Northwest salmon
indicator taxa provide a simple tool for local resource managers, policy makers, and
streams. This index, known as a Benthic Index of Biological Integrity was devel-
educators, and can be used for rapid assessments of human impacts on floral and
oped with both five and ten metrics, which correlated well with the health of a river
faunal assemblages in tidal creeks.
especially related to anthropogenic (human-caused) degradation to the surrounding
catchment. Aside from percentages of stone, caddis and mayfly nymphs in a collec-
Benthic macroinvertebrates are small bottom dwelling organisms that can be seen
tion, long-lived macro-invertebrates, predatory macroinvertebrates and several other
with the naked eye. Macroinvertebrates are widely used as indicators of river wa-
metrics were used as key indicators.
ter quality, which itself reflects the health of the watershed or catchment, through
which a river flows. Benthic macroinvertebrates serve as good indicators because
Similar indices can be developed in tidal creeks which flow through mangrove sys-
their lack of mobility means their local populations change rapidly when environ-
tems. Craig Layman and colleagues experimented with the development of a B-IBI
mental conditions change. Most are not economically valuable, so fishing pressure
appropriate to mangrove dominated tidal creeks in the Caribbean and Bahamas. In
does not need to be accounted for, and surveys are relatively inexpensive compared
selecting taxa Layman considered an IBI, (e.g., % of individuals that are members of
with fisheries surveys. (See Fig 5.21 for more information about what makes a good
certain feeding guilds or % of individuals with a disease), but also undertook a search
bioindicator).
for a simple set of taxa, lending itself more useful to local coastal managers, policy
makers, educators and the public engaged in participatory monitoring.
Fig 5.21 Characteristics of Ideal Indicator Species
Although many organisms can be used to monitor water quality, the “ideal” They resultantly came upon a set of taxa (which included not only benthic macro-
characteristics that bioindicators should posses are: invertebrates (sponges, coral, barnacles) but flora (seagrass and Halimeda spp. [mac-
• Taxonomic soundness and easy recognition roalgae]), and a host of fish species as well ,whose population dynamics could be
• Broad distribution to facilitate application to other regions used to gauge the degree of habitat fragmentation at a local level, and also general
• Abundance to permit easy and repeatable sampling degradation of mangroves at broader scales.
• Large body size to facilitate sampling and sorting
• Limited mobility and relatively long life history Whether a collection of taxa should include benthic macroinvertebrates only, or
• Available data on organism ecology a range of flora and fauna, is entirely dependent upon factors in differing biogeo-
graphic regions. As mangrove types also vary, in terms of geomorphologic classifica-
tion, indicator species for at least three geomporphological types (riverine, fringing,
estuary) and perhaps as many as seven (see Fig 5.22).

Below, we present a method to collect benthic macroinvertebrates from tidal creeks

in mangrove systems, to prepare a Sequential Comparison Index. The SCI describes
a relative degree of biodiversity of the sample, which is a rough indicator of ecosys-
(Johnson et al. 1993) tem health. The SCI is meant to suffice, until researchers take up the challenge of
developing locally appropriate B-IBI’s.

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Objectives
• Become more familiar with the range of taxa found in mangrove dominated
tidal creek systems
• Measure tidal creek and mangrove ecosystem habitat quality by determining
diversity or number of different kinds of benthic macroinvertebrates.

Time Approx 3 hours

Materials
• Benthic macro-invertebrate sampling gear (dip nets, kick screens, surber sam-
plers, Hester-Dendy sampler)
• Snorkeling gear
• Waterproof paper/clipboard
• Sorting trays
• Forceps
• Guide books to local fauna
• Pickling alcohol
• Collection bottles
• Digital camera
Fig 5.23 A Hester-Dendy artificial
substrate sampler.

Background Information
The Sequential Comparison Index (SCI) is a measure of the distribution of individ-
uals among grops of organisms. This index relates to the diversity and relative abu-
dance of organisms. This measure is easily used by people unfamiliar with benthic
identification. The SCI is based on the theory of runs. A new run begins each time
an organism picked from a sample looks different that the one picked just before it.

SCI = # of runs/Total # of organisms picked

This index is being used in lieu of more complex indices, such as the B-IBI (benthic
index of biological integrity) which require exhaustive collection and analysis of lo-
cal taxa in comparison to previously understood habitat conditions, resulting in the
development of reliable, measureable indicator taxa.
Fig 5.22 Seven geomorphological classifications of mangroves (modified from
Lugo and Snedekar, 1974) which will likely each require different sets of indicator
taxa for assessing the extent of human-caused disturbances.

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Procedure e. Place organisms in a dish (a white Frisbee works well) to compare

1. Select sampling sites: The sites should be representative of major sections of each organism with the previously picked organism and record
tidal creeks typical to your mangrove forest. Sampling should be done in sea- them on a work sheet using the syumbols x and o (see example be-
ward, middle and landward sections of the tidal creek, from a pristine reference low). Record an “x” for the first organism picked. If the second or-
forest and degraded site such as the proposed rehabilitation site. Note the creek ganism picked is similar, record another “x.” In the example below,
position, and whether it takes place in reference forest or degraded site on your the third organism picked is dissimilar to the previous organism,
data sheet. and so that is recorded as an “o,” indicating the start of a new run.
2. Selection of substrate type: A variety of substrate types may be sampled in a f. After comparing specimens, place each in a perti dish (or Frisbee
variety of ways. Substrate types may include; for large organisms) containing similar organisms. This provides
a rough sorting of the organisms into major groups to aid in iden-
Rock structure, soft bottoms, sandy bottoms, gravelly bottoms, coral bottoms, tification.
seagrass beds, halophytic grass patches, tree root structures and around large
g. To calculate the SCI, count the number of runs and dived by the
woody debris.
total number of organisms.
Mark down the type of substrate on your data sheet. In very soft bottoms (fluid h. Calculate an SCI for each sample. Average the samples to calcu-
mud flats), artificial substrates such as a Hester-dendies sampler, may be placed. late a mean SCI for the
3. Sample using a D-frame net or kick screen. Hold the opening end of the net
into the current (direction depends on flood or ebb tide) and shuffle your feet Analysis
upcurrent from the net. Benthic macroinvertebrates should be dislodged by Determine the quantitative rating of the SCI , using the scale below.
your feet moving on the bottom and carried by the current into the net. A kick Circle the number on the data sheet that describes what you observed.
screen requires 3 people to operate, one person holding each pole, and a third
person who begins upcurrent and shuffles their feet (for a standard amount of SCI Value
time or distance) down to the net. The third person then helps lift the bottom 4 (excellent) 0.9 – 1.0
edge of the net out of the water so the sample can be collected and processed. 3 (good) 0.6 – 0.89
Three samples, of at least 300 total organisms should be collected at each station. 2 (fair) 0.3 – 0.59
4. If preparing a B-IBI collection, the sample can be preserved in 70 percent alco- 1 (poor) 0.0 – 0.29
hol. If not, the samples should be kept alive in plastic buckets with clear tidal
creek water, before processing. Keep the animals in the shade, to avoid stressing Discussion Questions
them. Following the instructions below, pick organisms from the sample to • It is thought that the tree roots have the highest level of diversity in
calculate the Sequential Comparison Index. the tidal creek. What did you find?
a. Make a grid of 5-7 cm squares on the bottom of a white tray with a black • How do soft bottoms compare to sandy or rocky substrates?
wax pencil or permanent black marker. Number the squares in order. • How does diversity change as you move landward or seaward?
b. Spread the organisms evenly over the bottom of the white tray. • What physical factors seem to influence diversity, and hence the SCI?
c. Randomly select a starting grid from which to start picking the sample.
Begin picking out organisms in a random sequence. Pick all specimens
from one square before moving to the next. Continue picking until all, or
50 specimens are selected.
d. Forceps, a pipette, or a paint-brush work well for picking smaller macroin-
vertebrates. Beware of potentially poisonous specimens, such as small octo-
pus, cone shells, or spines from certain species of fish, as well as the strong
claws of larger crab species.

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5.4.3 Nekton Diversity Procedure

The following method was provided courtesy of Severino Salmo, Philippines 1. A modified local triangular trap net will be used. The trap net is designed to
catch nekton that enter mangroves at high tide and will be potentially trapped
Introduction as the tide recedes. The net will have a height of 1.2 m, with 10 m wingspan on
Mangroves act as nursery sites and feeding areas for a variety of juveniles of com- each side (containing an area of ca. 43.3 m2) and 3 m pocket that is connected
mercially important shrimp and fish species (Robertson and Duke 1987; Halliday at the cod end. Bamboo stakes will be used to secure the wings and ends of the
and Young 1996). Fisheries production is linked with the extent and health of man- nets to the soil. All nets will have a stretched mesh size of 2 mm. A single trap
grove forests (Hamilton et al. 1989; Meynecke et al. 2007). The attractiveness of net will be deployed per site with the ends of the wings ~1 m from mangrove
mangroves to fish can be explained by two hypotheses: (1) the predator refuge hy- fringe at low tide.
pothesis (Laegdsgaard and Johnson, 1995) – where prey can avoid predators because 2. Identify a tidal creek of less than 10 m channel width as a sampling site. Record
of the structural complexity and high water turbidity in mangroves (Abrahams and the position of the site with a GPS.
Kattenfeld 1997); and (2) the feeding hypothesis – where mangroves offer foraging 3. Set the net during a rising tide.
areas because of their high productivity and carbon outwelling.
4. Measure ambient water quality parameters (i.e. salinity, DO, temperature, pH)
The aim of this exercise is to document and assess tide-mobile nekton communities 5. Wait for the tide to peak and recede. Collect nekton from the pocket of the trap
(fish, crustaceans and molluscs that move in and out of mangroves with changing net at the next low tide. Place in buckets with brackish water for transport to
tides). We will use a modified trap net to analyze nekton abundance, biomass and the lab.
diversity index. Depending on the availability of data and sampling locations (in 6. Take photos of the site and the trap net.
reference to other groups' projects), we will also assess whether there is a relationship 7. All collected individuals will be sorted in the laboratory. The collected samples
between nekton and the state of mangrove vegetation and soil. will be measured standard length (fish), carapace width (crabs), carapace length
(shrimp) using a ruler (± 1 mm), weighed using a digital balance (± 0.1 g), and
Objectives identified to species level using Allen et al. (2003) and Kuiter and Debelius
• Assess diversity, biomass and abundance of nekton communities moving in and (2006) (use local names as well as latin names). Data on trophic category, habitat
out of mangrove tidal creeks. preference and juvenile size for each species will be obtained from Matthes and
• Draw conclusions between nekton populations and the health of the mangrove Kapetsky (1988) and FISHBASE (Froese and Pauly 2004).
system. 8. Enter data and make calculations.

Time Approx 3 hours

An example data sheet for recording nekton in mangroves:
Materials Species Local Name Type of Length Weight (g) Life Stage Habitat Trophic
• Modified triangular trap net (1.2 m height x 10 m wingspan; 3 m pocket) Name Nekton (cm) Preference Structure
• Bamboo stakes (fish, crab,
• Ruler shrimp,
• Digital balance squid, etc.)
• Field Identification Guides for Fish and Crustaceans
• Buckets/plastic bins

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Discussion Questions
• What types of relationships exist between mangrove communities and nekton
communities? In terms of diversity? Abundance?
• How might the results of this survey change during the month? Year?
• Do you need to make considerations for local fishing pressure? How would you
need to alter the methodology to consider fishing pressure?
• How might the results of this survey be linked to mangrove value?

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6
Assessing RESILIENCE

1. Adding Socio-economic Factors to Complete

the Picture
2. Introducing Resilience
3. Socio-economic Indicators
4. General Approach to Collecting Data for
Assessing Resilience
5. Table of Resilience Indicators
6. Scoresheet for Resilience Indicators
7. Resources
6 EMR Manual Chapter 6 - Assessing Resilience

6.1 Adding Socio-economic Factors to Complete the Picture 2. ECONOMIC SYSTEM

Follows a commodity chain, from coastal resource capture
and production in to end use.

Chapter 5 provided approaches and activities to undertake

Biophysical Assessments of your rehabilitation site as well as
a nearby reference forest. These measurements will be used to
inform rehabilitation design, as well as to monitor changes over
time. Likewise, social and economic measures will need to be
taken, to help complete the picture in terms of EMR planning
ec o
and design, and also to track changes which take place amongst NO
society as a mangrove area is restored. M
I
There are numerous resources already available to help monitor
C
social and economic factors in a community. Many of these are c ia l
part of Participatory Rural Appraisal methods, or other simi- o
S
lar methods. At the end of this chapter we recommend several
good resources, which are available for free online.

Rather than re-create the wheel, what we offer in this chap-

ter is a brief overview of assessing social and economic factors
that have clear linkage to coastal community welfare, which can
be either assessed to inform a mangrove rehabilitation program
design, or monitored to track socio-economic changes linked
to the an EMR program. We also provide a little insight into
l
ca
resilience theory, which at it’s heart speaks to the integration of
social, economic and ecological factors into a single system. gi
Ec olo

1) SOCIAL SYSTEM
The community of people involved both directly
and indirectly in coastal resource use and management.

This includes fishers, fish farmers, farmers, charcoal makers,

etc. as well as purchasers, fisheries, agricultural and forestry 3) ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM
extension workers and managers, other government agents, Assessment of the ecological system has three focal points, 1) the landscape level,
NGO workers and academia. 2) agro-ecosystem level, 3) habitat restoration. An improved ecological base drives
continued social and economic development, by providing a diversity of opportuni-
ties and enhanced overall resilience.

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6.2 Introducing Resilience

Who Uses Information from EMR Resilience Assessments?
By tracking some key social, economic and ecological parameters around your man-
grove rehabilitation project, people engaged in mangrove rehabilitation and future yy Coastal Communities
management can explore management options and scenarios for the mangrove sys- yy Development workers and government extension agents,
tem of interest, from a resilience perspective. yy Researchers,
yy Policy makers and planners.
Resilience can be defined as the ability of a system to absorb shocks, to avoid cross-
ing a threshold into an alternate and possibly irreversible new state, and to regener- Why Perform a Resilience Assessment?
ate after disturbance (Walker, 2002). You can see how this definition is relevant to −− To identify at an early stage, remedies to problems caused by lack
mangrove rehabilitation, in term of thinking about coping with shocks and distur- of management or inappropriate management.
bances, avoiding degradation, and regenerating after disturbance. −− To act as baseline data for evaluation of the coastal system under
new management practices.
Resilience theory is complex, but quite worthwhile to pursue. A good place to start −− To provide policy makers and development planners a sound basis
is at the website of the resilience alliance (www.resalliance.org). For the purposes of in formulating and revising policies and programs.
this book, we will only offer two additional definitions to consider, which will help
ensure that your mangrove rehabilitation intervention, is not being thought of as an
ecological activity alone. Sources of Information
• District and Provincial Government Offices; forestry, fisheries, agriculture,
Socio-Economic-Ecological System (SEES) – an integrated system of human so- social, planning, etc.
ciety, businesses and livelihoods, and the mangrove ecosystem. By seeing the system • Research, extension and technology institutions
from social, economic and ecological aspects, there is less risk of over-simplifying • National government
management options. Parameters in a SEES system are understood to be inter- • Development organizations/NGOs
dependent, with reciprocating feedback mechanisms. The concept emphasizes the • Local people (using participatory methods; see Participatory appraisal
‘humans-in-nature’ perspective. methods.)
• Field measurements (e.g., of species and associations of mangroves, sub-
Adaptive capacity/Adaptability – the capacity to adapt and to shape change. In strate elevation, cross-sections of tidal channels).
a mangrove system, one of the keys to adaptation is biodiversity. A mangrove for-
est with a full complement of tree species will be able to colonize newly available Where possible, information from one source should be validated by checking with
substrates more successfully than a monospecific stand. In the age of sea-level rise, another source. For instance, the local bank’s assessment of credit availability ac-
and climate change, the ability to adapt to changes in the coastal landscape may be cording to the local bank can be checked against local people’s own assessment. This
greater than ever. cross-checking is called “triangulation. “

In a social-ecological system, adaptability amounts to the capacity of humans to Resilient resource use: The management or use of resources within their capacity to
manage resilience. Again, diversity, and even redundance may be an important at- renew themselves and maintain the integrity of the system within which they exist.
tribute. If community members, both poor and rich, as well as other external stake-
holders, all care about a mangrove system, it may become harder for an individual ac- Examples:
tor to affect change, such as an investor wishing to convert an area for development. • Substrate elevation levels may be maintained due to inputs of organic matter
from the forest itself, but succumb quickly to erosive forces when that source of
biomass is removed.
• Harvest of Avicennia fruit to drive a flour making industry, with limits to per-
centages of harvestable fruits, to allow for natural regeneration.

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6.3 Socio-Economic Indicators 6.4 Approach: Regard the indicators on the following pages, and use the data
Now that we have introduced the concept of resilience, not too much more will be sheets provided to begin or continue a survey based on the following steps.
said on the subject directly, but many sections in this book underscore the impor- 1. Identify the objectives of your assessment and select appropriate indicators. A
tance of the interdependence of social, economic and environmental factors. From number of potential indicators have been provided, but it is important to con-
the previous chapter, biophysical or ecological measurements were taken. In this sider the specific needs of your own program.
chapter we provide a simple means of collecting social and economic information to 2. Discuss the indicators with the local community and modify them to suit your
help complete the picture from a resilience standpoint. There are numerous resourc- programs specific objectives
es and tools specifically designed to gather socio-economic information in a coastal 3. Arrange for the team to go to the mangrove forest and coastal community and
community. Rather than reiterate all of the good tools out there such as seasonal record information
calenders, historical transects and gender analysis we refer the reader to a variety of 4. Validate the information by checking against other sources.
useful resources in the reference section at the end of this chapter. 5. Set up baseline data and identify specific indicators and parameters.
6. Rate the general state of the indicator you are measuring using the following
Towards the end of the chapter, we do provide a comprehensive scorecard, of indi- grading system
cators that can be measured and tracked throughout an Ecological Mangrove Re-
1 = not resilient (healthy over long term)
habilitation program; social, economic and environmental. We provide a simple
2 = building toward resilience
scoring system of 1, 2, and 3 (1 being the lowest, 3 the highest) for two purposes;
3 = resilient
1) to inform the EMR design 7. Interpret rated indicators through discussions.
2) to track changes over time. 8. Repeat steps 3-7 each year.
9. Check for changes in the ratings from year to year. If a rating falls over time, the
Parameters with low scores, will require greater consideration during EMR imple- system is becoming less resilient.
mentation, in order to be enhanced over time. 10. Propose changes in policy and program strategies to improve resilience.

By looking at social, economic and ecological indicators, when designing an inter- Outcomes
vention, there is greater likelihood of building the resilience of the whole system, in • Baseline data on individual coastal resources and utilization,
this case the integrated system of coastal communities and mangroves. • Baseline data on socioeconomic status of the local community.
• Trends related to the coastal resource and local community after several years of
As an example, it may seemed far-reachng that a mangrove rehabilitation program replication and analysis.
can influence patterns of community migration (the first social indicator), but if a
large mangrove area recovers, coupled perhaps with improved management of aqua-
culture, or development of sustainable livelihood alternatives, the need to migrate in
search of richer fisheries resources, or development of new aquaculture ponds may
be reduced, thus allowing fisherfolk to remain in their own communities.

Because of the holistic nature of this type of endeavour, we use the name Resilience
Assessment, to mean the measurement of social-economic and ecological factors.
The following approach and means of grossly rating various indicators was originally
developed by IIRR as part of “Resource Management for Upland Areas in SE Asia,”
and has been adapted for use in a coastal settings.

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6.5 Table of Resilience Indicators

SOCIAL Social Indicator Rating Means of Collection & Verification
INDICATORS
A) Settlement Pattern 1) frequent migration - records/reports on landlessness from public
2) seasonal/temporary migration welfare department, local government
3) permanent settlement - permanent migration, seasonal migration and
relocation policy

B) Food, nutrition and sanitation 1) severe shortage of food - records/statistics on health and well-being (e.g.
2) insufficient/permanent health, food shortage, condition of shelter and
3) sufficient and balanced diet, good condition of other social services.
shelter - key informant interviews
- field observations

C) Structure/condition 1) temporary/poor condition - statistics/spot maps/social maps from local gov-

2) semi-permanent ernment/NGO’s
3) permanent - field observation

D) Peace and order 1) unsafe - records/reports on criminal events

2) somewhat safe - key informant interviews
3) safe, peaceful and orderly - field observation

E) Exposure to toxic chemicals, pollutants and dangerous pesticides 1) frequent exposure - surveys/records/reports on yield and production
2) moderate exposure by agricultural extension officers
3) little or no exposure at all - reports from special studies (e.g. recent fish kills)
- key informant interviews
- field observation

1) few or no support services - research/evaluation reports from community

F) Access to support services (credit, extension service, inputs) 2) less than adequate support services development offices, NGO’s
3) adequate support services, self-help

G) People’s participation in natural resource management 1) no participation, male participation but no - attendance sheets
women’s participation - evaluation reports from community and from
2) little participation, active but few participants, meetings
few women - key informant interviews
3) active participation, equal participation by
women

H) Local rules and regulations on the use of natural resources 1) rules or regulations inadequate - historical/existing information on the rules and
2) adequate rules and regulations, inefficient regulations being implemented in the community
implementation or enforcement over natural resources management
3) good implementation and enforcement - key information interviews
- field observation

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Social Indicator Rating Means of Collection & Verification

SOCIAL I) Participation by government offices in extension work and active co-man- 1) no participation, no female extensionists - reports from field schools
INDICATORS agement 2) little participation, some female extensionists - key informant interviews
(cont’d) 3) active participation by men and women - field observation

J) Integration of appropriate cultural and traditional practices into natural 1) no integration - research
resource mgmt 2) adequate integration - key informant interviews
3) highly integrated - field observation

K) Community takes long-term perspective of livelihoods and environment 1) short-term decision making dominates - results from visioning activities
2) some long-term vision - natural resource management plans
3) long term vision and action/spatial plan - sustainable production or business practices in
place
L) Community, including women aware of its rights and the legal obligations
of government and other stakeholders to provide protection and services 1) lack of awareness of rights and responsibilities - pre/post tests
2) some awareness
3) highly aware and active in ensuring rights

M) Men and women able to access to government funds and services for 1) no access, few funds and services, especially for - government loan records
CBNRM and livelihood support. women - cooperative records
2) some access, some funds and services - bank records
3) clear access and adequate funds and services for
men and women
N) Local stakeholders committed to genuine partnerships (with open and
shared principles of collaboration, high levels of trust). 1) low participation, no collaborative mechanisms - interviews
available - community sought partnerships,
2) some participation and collaboration
3) adaptive collaborative management occurs
O) Community and local groups have capacity to recruit, train, support and
motivate community volunteers for CBNRM and Livelihoods development, 1) no to low genuine volunteerism - attendance sheets of volunteer events
and work together to do so. 2) volunteerism exists, but seldom for CBNRM - reports
and livelihoods
3) active volunteer base for CBNRM and
livelihoods

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NRM Natural Resource Management Indicator Rating Means of Collection & Verification
INDICATORS
P) Community understanding of characteristics and functioning of local natu- 1) unaware - Pre-post data from awareness campaign survey
ral environment and ecosystems (e.g. agro-ecosystems, forests) and human 2) some awareness - Resilience assessment
interventions that affect them (e.g. large-scale monocultures, conversion of 3) aware
forests, erosive farming practices).

Q) Adoption of sustainable environmental management practices (ecologi- 1) low amount of eco-friendly practices - Reports
cally friendly aquaculture, maintenance of shelter belts, natural forests, etc) 2) medium
3) high amount of eco-friendly practices

R) Understanding of relevant biodiversity and preservation of biodiversity 1) no intentional biodiversity protection - Participatory biodiversity survey
2) some intentional biodiversity protection - Pre and post test - awareness
3) biodiversity surveyed, monitored and protected

S) Preservation and application of indigenous knowledge and appropriate 1) eroding traditions - Survey
technologies relevant to environmental management. 2) strong tradition – little incorporation/credibility
3) incorporation of traditional practices into mod-
ern management of resources

T) Women and men’s access to common property resources that can support 1) low access - Designated common property resources (e.g.
coping and livelihood strategies in normal times and during crises. 2) some access by some members hutan pangandiran)
3) full access of most/all members - Local legislation

U) Women and men involved in development of natural resource manage- 1) no local plans - Community CBCRM Plans
ment plans which feed into local government development and landuse 2) local plans but no coordination - MOU’s between community and government
planning 3) local plans feeding into gov’t planning - Government management plans, land use plans

V) Habitat restoration cost 1) >$5000/ha - Project financial records, spatial data of

2) $2000 - 5000/ha hectarage restored
3) $500 - 2000/ha

W) Forest Restoration Methods 1) planting only projects - surveys

2) experimentation of methods - interviews with government practitioners
3) adoption of EMR or Human Assisted Natural - interviews with communities
Reforestation

X) Percentage & status of conservation areas 1) poor condition (encroachment, conversion, - statistics/records/reports of local forestry office
clear-felling) and conservation NGOs on forestry
2) average condition (infrequent encroachment , - field observations
conversion and clear-felling)
3) intact forest

Y) Connectivity of mangrove management to adjacent ecosystems 1) no connectivity - atlas

2) connected to other coastal environments only - management plans
3) mgmt connected to terrestrial environments

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ECONOMIC Economic Indicator Rating Means of Collection & Verification

INDICATORS
A) Level of local economic activity and employment (including among women 1) low – much unemployment - especially women - economic surveys
and vulnerable groups); 2) medium – some unemployment, few local - business plans
businesses - increasing oppportunities for - cooperative records
women - government trade records
3) high – numerous small businesses and - gendered divisiom of labor
cooperatives - women as major economic force

B) Stability in economic activity and employment levels. 1) constantly changing profession or resource base - resource surveys
2) adequate - household livelihood strategy surveys
3) highly stable professions – resource base

C) Distribution of wealth and livelihood assets in community 1) concentrated wealth with many poor, dominant - wealth ranking
male ownership of wealth - gender analysis
2) some rich and poor families, large middle class,
some women with assets
3) equitable

D) Livelihood diversification (household and community level), including on- 1) uniform - surveys
farm (fish farm and dry-land farm) and off-farm activities in rural areas. 2) medium - analysis of cooperative/business structures
3) highly diverse

E) People engaged in unsafe livelihood activities (e.g. mining, illegal logging) 1) many hazardous and risk professions - surveys
or hazard-vulnerable activities (e.g. rain-fed agriculture in drought-prone 2) few participants, but highly risk professions
locations). 3) non-hazardous, low-risk professions

F) Small enterprises have business protection and continuity/recovery plans. 1) vulnerable - study
2) adequate
3) resilient

G) Local trade and transport links with markets for products. 1) low local trade, few transport links - updated commodity chain
2) adequate
3) thriving local trade, adequate transport to
outside markets

H) Mechanisms for women to inherit property, ponds, housing. 1) no mechanisms, vulnerable women - surveys
2) adequate
3) clear mechanisms in placed and practiced

I) Household and community asset bases (income, savings, convertible prop- 1) vulnerable - resilience assessment
erty) sufficiently large and diverse to support crisis coping strategies. 2) adequate
3) resilient

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ECONOMIC Economic Indicator Rating Means of Collection & Verification

INDICATORS
(cont’d) J) Costs and risks of disasters shared through collective ownership of group/ 1) no risk sharing, individualistic - resilience assessment
community assets. 2) risk sharing through family and non-formal
structures
3) formal structures for risk sharing

K) Existence of community/group savings and credit schemes, and/or access 1) non-existent - bank statements
to micro-finance services. 2) non-formal structures - cooperative book-keeping records
3) formal structures

L) Sources of capital for livelihood activities 1) external sources - surveys

2) family, co-op
3) credit institutions, co-op, own enterprise, family
- commodity/use survey
M) Non-timber forest products use 1) unknown - market survey
2) subsistence use
3) subsistence use and marketed

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Ecological Indicators
Inset a mascot here The results of surveys from Chapter 5 can provide the basis for scor-
ing of ecological indicators on the following pages.

In order to score these indicators, you can compare the conditions in

the mangrove rehabilitation site, with conditions in the reference for-
est measured (as a benchmark).

Use the same scoring system as you used above for Socio-economic
indicators.
1 = not resilient (not natural/highly degraded)
2 = building toward resilience
3 = resilient (natural or in dynamic equilibrium)

Ecological Indicator Rating Means of Collection & Verification

ECOLOGICAL
INDICATORS Patterns of Sedimentation/Erosion
A) Erosion 1) serious erosion (90 degree cliffs, measureable - sediment in streams
shore erosion) - top soil thinning
2) moderate erosion (sluffing in some areas) - database/information from records/reports of
3) less erosion concerned agencies (forest & agriculture depts.)
- field observation
B) Sedimentation
1) rapid accretion of sediment, abundant coloniza- - records/reports on annual yield and production
tion of mangroves followed afterwards by terres- of some selected crops from
trial/beach vegetation, clogged tidal creeks agricultural extension offices.
2) some sedimentation, some colonization of - records/reports on the area and effects of prob-
mangroves lem soils
3) low degree of sedimentation

HYDROLOGY - FRESH WATER CONDITION

C) Streams/rivers 1) overflow after rainfall - records/reports on stream flow from irrigation
2) dry in dry season stations
3) relatively consistent flows year round

D) Occurrence of flood, drought 1) often - records.reports from the irrigation department,

2) moderate community development, etc. and key information
3) rare interviews.

E) Access to Sources of FW/Ground Water 1) poor, much diversion of freshwater inputs, or - records, reports from the irrigation department,
blockage community development, etc. and key informa-
2) average tion interviews
3) natural

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ECOLOGICAL Ecological Indicator Rating Means of Collection & Verification

INDICATORS
HYDROLOGY - INTERTIDAL CONDITION 1) unknown - hydrological survey, participatory monitoring,
F) Substrate Elevations 2) estimated remote sensing
3) measured and applicable at rehab site

1) unknown - hydrological survey, participatory monitoring,

G) Tidal Creeks Morphology 2) from historical images remote sensing
3) ground truthed and measured

H) Extent of Tidal Creeks 1) unknown - hydrological survey, participatory monitoring,

2) from historical images remote sensing
3) ground truthed and measured

I) Drainage from Rehab Area 1) standing water at low tide - hydrological survey, participatory monitoring
2) tidal channels beginning to form
3) well formed tidal channels, good drainage at
low tide
J) Condition of Dike Walls
1) walls in tact - hydrological survey, participatory monitoring
2) walls moderately degraded
3) walls degraded or with functioning strategic
breaches

EDAPHIC CONDITION
K) Organic Content 1) low organic content - fine soil texture - particle analysis or qualitative - visual assessment
2) adequate organic content - porosity
3) high organic contenty - porosity - some struc-
ture/roots/peat/ woody debris

L) Soil Density 1) fluid - shear strength test

2) semi-consolidated
3) consolidated

M) Redox Potential 1) -100 to -200 mV Redox Potential

2) -99 to +149 mV
3) +150 to +300 mV

N) Porewater Salinity 1) hypersaline (>40 ppt) Refractometer

2) 26-32 ppt
3) < 25 ppt

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ECOLOGICAL Ecological Indicator Rating Means of Collection & Verification

INDICATORS
VEGETATION
O) Mangrove - Autecology 1) poor record of original species - vegetation monitoring
2) some to most original species present - statistics/forest inventory reports
3) full range of original species known, phenology - local NGO interviews with foresters and villagers
known - field observation
- remote sensing
P) Mangrove - Community Associations 1) poor record of species associations
2) some to most species associations available
3) full range of species associations known

Q) Mangrove - stem density 1) < 500 seedlings/ha or >7500 seedlings/hectare

2) 500-1250 seedW) lings/ha, no canopy closure
3) 1250 - 5000 seedlings/ha, canopy closure in at
least some areas

R) Mangrove - % canopy closure 1) <51%

2) 51-75%
3) >75%

S) Mangrove Vegetation (diversity/species composition) 1) 1-2 species only

2) at least 2 representatives from each of lower,
mid and mangrove zone
3) 75% representation of species from analogue
forest

T) Mangrove Vegetation (growth) 1) stunted

2) moderate growth
3) excellent growth, equal to reference growth rate
(per species)

U) Salt Tolerant Grasses 1) unknown, not-present

2) sparse, sporadic
3) presence of natural salt tolerant grasses, at vari-
ous intertidal elevations

V) Condition of Hinterland Vegetation 1) un-natural or unvegetated hinterland with per-

manent structures
2) mosaic of agriculture and some trees in hinter-
land
3) wetlands and forests in the hinterland

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Indicator Rating Means of Collection & Verification

ECOLOGICAL FAUNA
INDICATORS W) Benthic Macroinvertebrates (shrimp, molluscs, crabs) 1) little evidence of mangrove benthic macroinver- - B-IBI, paticipatory monitoring
tebrates
2) some species becoming abundant
3) abundance of a diversity of molluscs, shrimp,
X) Fisheries (Functional Fisheries Equivalent) small crabs and mangrove crabs

1) low fish populations - <50% of FFE - fishing pressure assessment

2) moderate fish populations 50-75% of FFE - fisheries survey
3) 75% of FFE from Analogue
Y) Other Mangrove Fauna

1) few species (degraded habitat, hunting, over- - participatory biodiversity survey

fishing)
2) average species (moderate hunting/fishing pres-
sure)
3) diverse species (good reproduction, abundant
habitats, no destructive hunting/fishing)

AQUACULTURE AREA CONDITION

AA) Encroachment 1) significant on-going aquaculture development - records/reports, research papers from local uni-
2) little to no new aquaculture development versities, research institutions, NGO’s
3) no new aquaculture development, moratorium - interviews with villagers
- market survey
BB) Management Status
1) ponds actively managed - records/statistics/information on agriculture
2) disused but no clear plans for rehabilitation from agricultural extension offices, NGO’s research
3) high degree of disuse, abandonment institutions, development agencies, field school
CC) Weed and pest controls reports.

1) with chemicals
2) biological/mechanized
3) ecological, alternative pest management
DD) Incidence of Disease
1) high incidence of disease (EMS, Taura, White - key informant interviews
Spot, Yellowhead, etc.), and escapes
2) some disease but not impacting on crop, few - field observations
escapes
3) no disease, no escapes

EE) Use of External Inputs 1) high reliance on external inputs/chemical fertil-

izer, fish feeds, etc.
2) small production of local inputs/some organic
3) production of significant organic fertilizer, seeds,
fish feed
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6.6 Scoresheet of Resilience Indicators

Year
SOCIAL - INDICATORS Scoring: The following pages contain data sheets where you can
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 keep track of your resilience indicators as they change over time.
SOCIAL &
A) Settlement Pattern
ECONOMIC 1 = not resilient
INDICATORS B) Food, nutrition & sanitation 2 = building toward resilience
3 = resilient
C) Structure/condition
You will certainly want to monitor several indicators in a more quan-
D) Peace and order titative fashion. This will be presented in Chapter 10 on Monitoring.

E) Exposure to toxic chemicals and pollutants

F) Access to support services

NRM - Social Aspects (cont’d) Year
G) People’s participation in NRM
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
H) Local rules and regs on natural resource use W) Forest Restoration Methods

I) Participation by government offices in extension X) Percentage & status of conservation areas

work and active co-management
Y) Connectivity of mangrove management to
J) Integration of Culture & Tradition adjacent ecosystems
ECONOMIC - INDICATORS
K) Long-term community perspective
A) Economic activity & employment
L) Community awareness of rights to Gov’t service
B) Economic stability
M) Access to Gov’t funds for CBNRM
C) Distribution of wealth
N) Committment to partnerships
D) Livelihood diversification
O) Volunteerism
E) Unsafe livelihood activities
NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT - Social Aspects
F) Protection for small enterprise
P) Understanding of natural environment function
G) Local trade and transport linked to markets
Q) Adoption of sustainable environmental practices
H) Mechanisms for women to inherit property,
R) Understanding of relevant biodiversity land use
S) Preservation and Application of Indigenous I) Household asset bases convertible
Knowledge and Appropriate Technology to NRM
J) Costs and risks of disasters shared through col-
Mgmt
lective ownership
T) Women and men’s access to common property
resrources K) Community/group savings, credit schemes,
U) Men and women involved in NRM planning micro-finance services
which influences gov’t planning L) Sources of capital for livelihood activities
V) Habitat restoration cost M) Non-timber forest products use

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Year Year
ECOLOGICAL - Indicators ECOLOGICAL INDICATORS
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
ECOLOGICAL
Sedimenta- A) Erosion Fauna W) Benthic Macroinvertebrates
INDICATORS tion/Erosion B) Sedimentation (shrimp, molluscs, crabs)
Patterns
X) Fisheries (Functional Fisheries
Equivalent)

Y) Other Mangrove Fauna

Hydrology C) Streams/rivers
Aquaculture AA) Encroachment
D) Occurrence of flood, drought Area
E) Access to fresh water BB) Management Status
F) Substrate Elevations
G) Tidal Creeks Morphology CC) Weed and pest controls
H) Extent of Tidal Creeks
I) Drainage from Rehab Area DD) Incidence of Disease
J) Condition of Dike Walls
EE) Use of External Inputs
Edpahic K) Organic Content
Condition
L) Soil Density
Numbers provided
M) Redox Potential are examples of
ratings for each
N) Porewater Salinity i n d i c a t o r.

Vegetation O) Mangrove - Autecology Remember 3 is bet-

ter then 1. the
P) Mangrove - Community As- more points accu-
mulated the
sociations b e t t e r.
Q) Mangrove - stem density
Follow the trends
R) Mangrove - % canopy closure year to year to
determine if gen-
eral improvement
S) Mangrove Vegetation (diver- is being made.
sity/species composition)
M o n i t o r i n g
T) Mangrove Vegetation (growth) Resilience!
U) Salt Tolerant Grasses
V) Condition of Hinterland Vegeta- !
tion

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6.7 Resources
The concept for tracking resilience indicators in the simplified fashion
presented above came from:

FAO/IIRR “ Resource Management for Upland Areas

in SE Asia; An Information Kit.”

which is available online at the New Zealand Digital Library Project

http://nzdl.sadl.uleth.ca/cgi-bin/library?a=p&p=home&l=en&w=utf-8

The above manual is also an excellent resource for many forms of socio-
economic assessment activities.

Another pair of resources we recommend for undertaking socio-econom-

ic and forest resource assessments include;

• Asia Forest Network’s

Participatory Rural Appraisal for Community Forest Management
available at www.asiaforestnetwork.org (also available in Bhs Indonesia
from MAP-Indonesia)

• CARE’s
“Household Livelihood Security Assessments: A Toolkit for Practi-
tioners.” Prepared for the PHLS Unit by: TANGO International Inc.,
Tucson, Arizona 2002

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7
Community based
EMR Planning

1. Introduction
2. Participant Selection
3. The Social Contract
4. Developing a Vision for an EMR Project
5. Researching Information and Resources
Needed for EMR
6. Strategy and Resource Analysis
7. Developing Work Plans
7 EMR Manual Chapter 7 - CBEMR Planning

7.1 Introduction - Community Based EMR Planning Process Activity 7.2 Participant Selection

After essential assessments have been run, it is time to convene stakeholders (com- Background Information
munity members and other interested stakeholders) to plan and design the EMR Prior to developing a social contract, a transparent participation process needs to be
project. Six important points to keep in mind during project planning are; developed. Participant selection can be time consuming. Good participant selection
should be informed by social and economic assessments. It is important to develop
1. Analyze information from the assessments to inform your planning and design. some type of process to ensure that women, poor, and marginal community mem-
2. Develop clear, quantifiable objectives for the rehabilitation, based on a relevant bers have equal opportunity to be involved in mangrove rehabilitation planning.
benchmark for success, which can later be monitored to gauge project success.
3. Keep in mind any overarching goals of the project, such as conserving biodiver- There is a strong bias, in many coastal communities, for activities such as mangrove
sity or reducing poverty. rehabilitation to be geared towards men. There are also biases to involve already
4. Carefully consider the risks or reasons why the project may fail. powerful community members, especially village leaders. While village leaders
5. Develop a process that allows for sensible decisions to be made, which are should certainly be involved in the EMR project, they should not be allowed to pref-
based on science. erentially select all EMR participants. Instead, there is an opportunity to involve
6. Ensure equal participation by not only community leaders but marginal com- village leaders and elite, in explaining the social nature of mangrove rehabilitation,
munity members alike. and engaging their assistance in selecting a wide-array of participants for EMR
planning and implementation that can lead to shared macro-goals such as long-term
Comprehensive planning processes, such as ZOPP (ZielOrientierte ProjektPlanung mangrove recovery, poverty alleviation, and sustainable community development.
= objectives oriented project planning) method (GTZ, 1997) or The Conceptual
Model Approach to Planning Projects (Margoulis & Salafsky, 1998), are both very Goal:
thorough, and suggested for planning large-scale multi-stakeholder projects. - To ensure equal opportunity for participation, especially for women as
well as vulnerable, marginal and poorer community members.
For the purposes of this manual, we put forth a simple 6-step planning process, - To enlist village leaders to pro-actively support inclusion.
appropriate for rural first-hand natural resource users. This method was pieced to-
gether from original activities used by MAP during EMR training, as well as activi- Time: several days before developing social contract (Activity 7.3)
ties from FAO Community IPM program and the Global Rivers Environmental
Education Network (GREEN) for use in farmer field school and action-research/ Materials: This guide, a notebook, some pictures of Ecological Mangrove Rehabili-
problem solving programs, and has been adapted her for use in mangrove communi- tation process.
ties. It is also in line with processes used with Forest Management Learning Groups
(FMLG’s) a type of field school for community foresters (Miagostovich, 2002). Outcome: Equitable list of participants to attend social contract meeting.

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Procedure: Activity 7.3 The Social Contract

1. Prepare some simple visual aids depicting mangrove degradation at the site,
failed mangrove restoration efforts, involvement of communities in EMR at Background Information
other locations and a time-series of successful EMR. The motivations for mangrove rehabilitation, and participation in mangrove rehabil-
2. With the visual aids, explain the intentions of an EMR program, and the po- itation activities are not always pure. Many mangrove rehabilitation efforts are little
tential to plan for and carry out such an initiative to local leaders, such as formal more than budget spending exercises. Others fall out of the sky without genuine
government leaders, natural leaders, religious leaders, or leaders of community involvement of local communities. And, as we have seen in Chapter 2, the failure
organizations. rate of over-simplified, poorly planned, and non-participatory mangrove restora-
3. Ask for the village leader’s assistance in selecting participants to plan and even- tions is high.
tually implement an EMR project. Make it know that you strive towards equal
participation by women and men, and also involvement of all segments of a That being said, communities may also have become jaded by involvement in past
community, including poor, vulnerable and youth. Ask for village leaders for projects, may be interested in participation in activities simply to feel part of the
ideas of how to fairly select program participants, and ask for their assistance. group, or perhaps with the expectation for direct financial benefit. It is not uncom-
4. Spend time informally, with a wide-range of community members. Take part mon that community members walk away from a meeting nowadays disappointed
in normal village activities. Spread yourselves around the village, avoiding bias that no envelopes for attendance were handed out. These issues can be avoided to
towards single individuals or groups. a great extent by fully divulging the intent of any program, and receiving prior and
5. Enlist the assistance of potential natural leaders who are considered fair by a well informed consent by all participants. The following activity, development of a
wide variety of people in the community. Ask for their assistance to help select social contract, is an effort to make participation in mangrove rehabilitation fully
around 20-25 people to play an active role in EMR planning. transparent, and to formalize the commitments of both participants and project
6. If necessary, utilize tools such as stakeholder analysis, wealth analysis, gender staff.
analysis and participant analysis to improve participant selection.
7. Invite the selected participants to an initial meeting, to develop a Social Con- Goals:
tract (Activity 2). Inform village leaders about the initial participants selected 99 So that community members will understand the goals of EMR planning and
and the intent of the Social Contract meeting. future implementation
99 So that program participants formally declare their intention to participate in
Discussion Questions EMR planning activities.
• What types of difficulties did you encounter in trying to create a equitable list 99 So that project staff/facilitators formally declare their own roles and responsi-
of participants? bilities with regards to EMR (planning, implementation, monitoring and future
• Who, in the community, helped you overcome these challenges? management).
• Have you created any additional strife in the community? If so, note this down 99 So that participants can take part in determining the schedule of planning ac-
for the development of a strategy to resolve these new issues. tivities and in identifying any additional training needs.

Time: 45 minutes

Materials: This guide, a blank piece of paper, masking tape, felt-tipped pen

Procedure:
1. Begin by asking participants: “What will we be planning to do?” Some par-
ticipants will already know that the purpose of planning activities is to move
forward with mangrove rehabilitation they may answer: “To Plan Mangrove
Rehabilitation,” or something similar.

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2. Refer the participants to the diagram, “The EMR Planning Process”. Discuss Activity 7.4 Developing a Vision for an EMR Project
each point with the participants. Ask them what they think these points mean,
and why they are included . Background:
It is important in planning for mangrove rehabilitation, to have a future vision in
mind, of what the community would like their mangrove to look like. Is it possible
Vision Researching Informa- Strategy leading to Developing a Work to return the condition of the mangrove to its previous condition (restoration), or is
→ tion and Resources → rehabilitated → Plan it preferable to try and rehabilitate the area to some form of mangrove forest which
Needed mangroves
functions over the long term?

- A look at previous - A list of Resources - Determine Strategy - Activities In terms of biophysical properties, What mangrove species does the community
EMR projects and Strengths (SWOT) - Schedules
- Make a Drawing of A - Make symbols for - Budgets hope to bring back? The full local diversity of mangroves, or a subset? How many
Rehabilitated the map - People trees established per hectare would be considered successful? Is there a minimum
Mangrove - Filling in the map - Tasks/Roles and maximum number? What rate of growth would be considered healthy for the
- Develop Indicators of different species restored?
Rehabilitated
Mangroves Figure 7.1 The EMR Planning Process
In terms of socio-economics, will the future mangrove have zones based on different
uses such as logging, fisheries, non-timber forest products, research and education
or strict conservation? Who will be able to access mangrove resources? What kinds
3. Ask the participants if there is anything that is unclear. of limits will be placed on economic activities? Will there be sanctions for breaking
4. Ask the participants if they think there should be anything added to improve these limits?
the process.
5. Ask the group, what they think their commitment to this process needs to be? The community may have gained insight into a vision for the future when they as-
Are there different levels or types of commitment? Is there a minimum amount sessed their reference forest (Chapter 3). It may also be important, in developing a
of commitment? vision, to think about mangrove rehabilitation or similar activities that have previ-
6. At this time, it is best if the facilitators themselves write down their own roles ously been conducted in their villages, and how these activities fared.
and responsibilities throughout the entire EMR process, including Planning,
Implementation, Monitoring and Future Management. For a more complete visioning process, please refer to “Do Your Own Mangrove Ac-
7. Next, the participants should be asked to pledge their level of involvement in the tion Project,” (Brown, 2004) where the visioning activity follows after development
EMR planning process. The group should also, at this time, determine if there of past and present murals of the mangrove area.
are any consequences of not following through with a commitment. Finally,
their pledge of commitment should be formalized in some way, for instance by Goal:
putting their name on a notice to the public, or receiving some sort of token • Help coastal communities, whether at the village level or higher, to determine
8. Once a social contract is made, participants can begin to discuss the schedule for the ideal set of conditions that they would like to achieve in their rehabilitation
the initial planning session (visioning), the role of the trainers, the anticipated area as part of their Community EMR plan.
role for participants, and ask whether this is acceptable or if there should be
changes. Materials:
• Mural paper, colored markers and cray-pas, masking tape
Discussion Questions:
• What kinds of issues were raised during social contracting? Time: 90 minutes

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Outcomes: 8. Ask each group to present their drawing to the large group and discuss how
Mural of future vision of mangrove rehabilitation area the drawing clarifies the characteristics that were developed in step five. Attach
Lists of characteristics (ecological, social and economic) that the mangrove area these drawings to the wall for the rest of the planning sessions.
should have.
Discussion Questions:
Procedure: • What new thoughts were generated as a result of your visualization activity?
1. Ask participants when mangrove rehabilitation and/or EMR activities began in • Do you feel what you visualized can become a reality?
their area. Write all the participants’ answers on mural paper. Next ask clarify- • Do you think you will need the help of others to make your visualizations a real-
ing questions about each activity (for example, when, where, source of funding, ity? Who can you ask for help?
who facilitated the activity, who were the participants, what were the outcomes
or results).
2. Now ask the participants what different roles community members have played
across the sequence of these activities beginning with the earliest and conclud-
ing with the final? Write down their ideas.
3. Now ask the participants to think about how the role of coastal community
members should evolve EMR activities. They can also think beyond EMR to
think about the mangrove area and its management in the future. Write out the
participants’ answers.
4. After this ask the participants to brainstorm and agree on what would be the
characteristics (what will a visitor be able to see) of their area if EMR program
is successful after five years. Ten years. What do they expect to be able to see as
a result of the impact of EMR activities in their area?
5. Ask if there are other programs or activities, beside EMR, that are needed to
help achieve this vision, and to list these programs and activities.
6. Finally, ask the participants to draw a general picture that fits with the charac-
teristics that were developed in the last step at some distinct geographical unit.
Divide the large group up into small groups of around 5 people and have each
group:
a. Draw all the characteristics resulting from an EMR Programme,
b. or Draw single pictures of each characteristic.
c. Add some ecological characteristics. Remember to provide detail in the
drawing. How many mangroves should be growing in the area after 3 or 5 or
10 years? What is the rate of colonization? What are growth rates? What
species should be present? Should fauna be included?
d. Add socio-economic characteristics. Will the mangrove be divided into dif-
ferent zones? What are these zones? What are some basic rules that need
to be followed for each zone?
Fig. 7.2: Visioning Process A Department of Fisheries staff
from Takalar, South Sulawesi, Indonesia, presents her groups
vision for a disused shrimp pond in Puntondo Bay

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Activity 7.5 Researching Information and Resources Needed for EMR a. Good contacts include local environmental NGO, international environ-
mental NGOs, community groups with experience in problem area, local
Background Information: This activity is designed to help develop basic research government agencies, academicians, nature lover’s groups, local businesses
skills which are essential to effective problem-solving. It is important to learn to with an interest in problem area such as dive operators, eco-tourism groups,
gather information from diverse sources and to critically evaluate this information model airplane clubs (for help with aerial photos), etc.
to resolve environmental problems. b. Useful resources for finding contacts are: phone books, governmental direc-
tories, newspapers, magazine articles, internet, government workers or com-
This activity can be used to help research the problems around mangrove rehabilita- munity members.
tion. The research you conduct will provide you with a better understanding of issues, c. A special E-mail group has been set up to discuss mangrove rehabilitation;
and prepare you to develop a work plan (Activity 5). [email protected]
4. Once you have identified contact persons or organizations, the next step is to
Goals: phone, write or visit (whatever is most appropriate for the situation). If you
• Identify community resources wrote letters, read your letters aloud in front of your group before sending them
• Gather information related to mangrove rehabilitation. to the contact person. To prepare for a visit practice what you will say in front
• Develop phone and personal interviewing skills of the group using a role playing exercise with someone playing the student,
• Effectively use the internet/social networks to search for information someone else the NGO member, the professor etc.
• Learn how to write effective letters 5. Search for contacts or other information leads. Often, people working in gov-
ernment, academia and NGO’s have developed a network of contacts that your
Materials: Newspapers, telephone directories, government directories, reference community might also utilize.
books, internet, stamps, paper, envelopes, money for telephone calls. 6. Report the results of your inquiries to the whole group. Be certain to discuss and
analyze the information that each small group or group member presents.
Time: Approximately 1-2 hours 7. Some additional suggestions:
a. Because of their interdisciplinary nature, complex issues may require several
Outcomes: rounds of information gathering. You will need patience and persistence!
• List of information needed to achieve successful mangrove rehabilitation b. Keep a record of phone numbers, emails and addresses, when people were
• List of resources needed to assist with successful mangrove rehabilitation contacted, and the subject of the conversation or letter for later reference.
c. Consider asking one or more contact persons to make a presentation to the
Procedures: group. This is an excellent way to learn about an issue.
1. You have raised many difficult questions throughout the course of the previ- 4. After having contacting people and organizations, update your list of INFOR-
ous assessments and activities. Now you have the chance to search out some MATION and RESOURCES required for mangrove rehabilitation. This will
answers. In small groups or individually, generate a list of questions you have be referred to in the next activity.
related to mangrove rehabilitation.
2. Prioritize both the INFORMATION and the RESOURCES your community Discussion Questions:
needs in order to both better understand the challenges of mangrove rehabilita- • Were the organizations and decision makers you contacted helpful to you?
tion and the materials and methods needed to undertake mangrove rehabilita- • How could they have been more helpful?
tion. Keep track of information needed on one sheet of paper, and resources • What surprised you in this process?
needed on a second sheet of paper. Keep these sheets for revision in Activity
6 – Work Planning.
3. Discuss what agencies, organizations or individuals would be appropriate to
contact to find answers to your questions and assist in the provision of resources.

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Activity 7.6 Strategy and Resource Analysis Procedure:

1. Explain the purpose of this session by referring to what is written under ‘Back-
Background: ground’ for this session.
Having a strategy is necessary to try to achieve a goal or ideal situation. To develop 2. Attach to the wall the following: the mural of the vision of the future mangrove,
a strategy several things must be kept in mind: the list of characteristics that the community thinks the future mangrove should
• What is the goal? have, and the lists of information and resources need for mangrove rehabilita-
• What resources or strengths exist that can be used to achieve the goal? tion.
• What weaknesses exist that might inhibit the achievement of the goal? 3. Have the participants conduct a SWOT Analysis. Start by saying:
• What opportunities exist that can be taken advantage of to achieve the goal?
• What threats might exist that could be obstacles to achieving the goal? “Given the strengths or resources that we have identified and the vision for your
Community EMR programme that we have determined, what are the existing
A general goal or ‘vision’ of the ideal was developed in the second activity. Existing strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, or threats that confront your mangrover reha-
resources in the area and information needed for mangrove rehabilitation were iden- bilitation activities?”
tified and contacted in the third session. Now two different but related issues will
be the focus of this session. Looking at the resources that are available to the group, Remember:
and keeping in mind the vision as the goal, an analysis of the strengths, weaknesses, Strengths are those “assets” which exist such as community members trained, train-
opportunities, and threats (a SWOT Analysis) will be conducted. This analysis will ers, information from assessments and studies, EMR or mangrove management
be used to develop a general set strategies to guide the development of the mangrove groups, etc. which will support the achievement of the vision. External resources
rehabilitation work plan. such as a pool of university students willing to assist, government extensionists, and
use of equipment to undertake mangrove rehabilitation are also strengths.
Goals:
• Using a SWOT Analysis existing conditions relevant to the achievement of the Information may also be a strength such as information on patterns of sedimenta-
vision of mangrove rehabilitation will be examined. tion and erosion, ecological information from a reference forest, clarity of land-
• A set of general strategies to achieve the vision will be developed. tenure, or government policy which supports community forest rehabilitation and
management.
Materials: Mural paper, colored markers, masking tape, results of the ‘vision’ exer-
cise (Activity 7.4), and results of information and resource identification exercise Weaknesses are those conditions which inhibit the achievement of the vision. Ex-
(Activity 7.5). amples may be community strife (disagreement), lack of clarity over land-tenure,
migration, or increasing instance of poverty.
Time: 90 minutes
Opportunities are conditions which exist that are potential in nature. They can be
Outcome: A general set of strategies to guide the development of the mangrove taken advantage of to achieve a vision. Examples might include supportive local
rehabilitation work plan officials, local funds that might be taken advantage of, discoveries made by local
coastal communities that could be used to enhance mangrove rehabilitation and
management, etc.

Threats are potential conditions which could inhibit the achievement of the goal.
Examples include: sea-level rise, extreme erosion, change of government policy, de-
velopment programs such as port, road or housing developments, continuing trends
of aquaculture or agriculture development, revitalization of charcoal industry, etc.

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4. Use at least four pieces of mural paper to do the SWOT Analysis. Each sheet Activity 7.7 Developing Work Plans
gets a title. On one is written “strengths”, on a second “weaknesses”, and so
forth. Ask the group to determine what should be listed below each of these Background: The last stage in this process is the preparation of work plans for both
“titles”.\ implementation of mangrove rehabilitation and monitoring. Using the results from
5. General strategies for each of the elements in the SWOT Analysis can be deter- the sessions focusing on vision, information and resources, and strategy develop-
mined by answering the following questions. ment, the work plans will be as realistic as possible. The workplans should directly
respond to the strategy statements given the context established by the vision of the
• How can we make use of our strengths? ideal.
• How can we minimize or strengthen our weaknesses?
• How can we take advantage of our opportunities? Goal: The development of detailed work plans at the project site level for both
• How can we avoid or minimize our threats? implementation of mangrove rehabilitation and monitoring.
Have the group answer these questions in simple declarative sentences. No
more than two sentences per question. These will be the strategies that the Materials: Mural paper, colored markers, masking tape, and results from previous
sessions.
group’s plans should respond to.
6. Attach the strategy statements to the wall and review with the group before Time: 90 minutes
finalization.
7. Post the strategies in public or find other ways of dissemination to make the Procedure: Give the group mural paper and markers. Provide the group 30 min-
community-at-large aware of the mangrove rehabilitation project. Press releases utes to discuss and write work plans based on the results of previous sessions. As a
and radio or television interviews, or distribution of the strategy by social net- full group a list of potential activities could be brain stormed. Then the large group
works can be very helpful. could be divided into smaller work groups of five or more members, each of them
designing a work plan for a specific activity. Work plans should be detailed includ-
Discussion Questions ing at least the following:
? In general, is your group endowed with resources, or do you still need a lot of as-
sistance? Are you easily able to find assistance? Type of Activity What is the title or description of activity?
? Are you able to distinguish between strengths and opportunities?
Schedule How much time will be needed for the activity?
? Are you able to distinguish between weaknesses and threats?
When will the activity be conducted?

Process of Will this be done by individuals or the group?

Implementation How to ensure equal representation of women and men?
How to ensure involvement of marginal, vulnerable and
poor members of the community?
How to involve community youth?
Who will be responsible?

Materials What materials will be necessary?

Needed What needs to be purchased?
What can be provided, in-kind, by the group?

Budget How much will be needed?

From what source will the budget be obtained?
How to ensure equal pay for women and men?
How to share benefit amongst the community?
How to avoid unfair/unequal benefit sharing (by powerful
community members and/or land-owners)?

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2. Have work groups present their plans. Discussion should take place concerning
each plan that focuses on the reality of the plan and its details and allows for
suggestions. The full group should come to an agreement on these plans
3. If the group is a subset of the community-at-large, a communications plan
should be developed to present the results to the community, and allow for pub-
lic consultation.
4. A simple form of the finalized plan should be drawn up and posted in a public
location.

Discussion Questions:
For your work plan, answer the following questions:
• How effective will this option be?
• How interested are you in this work plan?
• Do you and others in your group have the skills and resources needed to imple-
ment (do) this action plan?
• How much community support are you likely to have for this work plan?
• To what extent does this action plan address the cause of the problem?
• How long-lasting a solution will this action produce?
• How do the benefits of this action compare with any negative consequences?

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implementation

1. Site Preparation
2. Community Involvement
3. Hydrological Repair
4. Ecological Amendment
5. As-Built Documentation
6. Maintenance & Mid-Course Corrections
7. Examples of Projects Combining Ecological &
Hydrological Practices
8. Lessons Learned
8 EMR Manual Chapter 8 - Implementation

Implementation 8.1 Site Preparation

Implementation is the physical process of undertaking the rehabilitation project based
on designs developed in the planning stage (Chp. 7). This phase of the rehabilitation During site preparation, the project site is altered either to allow natural processes
process may be achieved solely with manual labor, with the assistance of heavy ma- to operate or to prepare it for additional human intervention. Common activities in
chinery, or a mixture of the two. In developing countries, local communities are often this stage include:
eager to be engaged in this phase of work for pay, although a degree of volunteerism • posting signage to make local communities aware of project;
is important to build into the program to ensure a higher level of ownership after the • removing undesired species (ex: Acrostichum aureum, vegetation on dike walls);
rehabilitation work. • leveling mud lobster (Thalassina spp.) mounds;
• removing trash;
Large scale projects > 100 ha, typically require the use of heavy machinery, especially • amending soil with nutrients, dolomite lime, compost or other enhancements;
if considerable earth moving is required, such as dike wall breaching, digging tidal • bringing in appropriate soils or substrates;
creeks, filling human-made drainage ditches or regrading substrate. An analysis of • fencing out grazing livestock;
the cost of rehabilitation using manual labor vs. heavy machinery may be necessary • setting up protective netting to reduce risk of eroded sediments disturbing near
to determine the best approach (see Fig. 8.1). Implementation may require a series shore ecosystems.
of steps depending on the mangrove type, your project goals and objectives, and the
extent of the degradation. Steps in implementation can be broken down to include;
site preparation, hydrological repair, ecological amendment, as-built survey, monitor-
ing, maintenance and mid-course corrections.

A B
C D

Fig 8.1: A choice needs to be made between use machinery and employment of commu-
nity labor with hand tools. At smaller scales (<50 ha) community labor may be sufficient, Fig 8.2: Some site preparation measures include: clearing Acrostichum and levelling mud lobster
while larger scales almost certainly require heavy equipment. mounds (A), fencing (B), posting signage (C) and placement of turbidity control screens (D).

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8.2 Community Involvement • The process of rehabilitation is hard work, but can be made fun as well. Make it
When engaging rural, coastal community members to work on a rehabilitation proj- a social event. Invite the media, have plenty of food and drink.
ect, there is a fine balance to pay a fair wage in an equitable manner, but also to arrange • Involve Youth! Mud = fun.
for volunteerism, in the form of labor, equipment or both. • Promote the fact that this project is more than just planting mangroves. Publi-
There will oftentimes be a prejudice to hire men for manual labour, especially heavy cize the method of EMR and also the anticipated results.
labor such as breaching dike walls, or digging tidal creeks. Women need to be given a • Take necessary safety precautions. Hold safety briefings. Have safety and first
fair opportunity to earn equal wages for involvement in the project, not only to ensure aid equipment on hand. Have medical assistance on hand.
gender equity, but also as a means of reinforcing their connection, as important future
stewards and managers, of the mangrove forest. 8.3 Hydrological Repair
A wide array of activities can occur during this phase including large earth-moving
activities, such as adding soil (fill) or re-grading. Some of the points below will be
elaborated upon with examples at the end of this chapter. The case studies at the
end of the manual (Chapter 10) also make mention of several of the techniques
below. Minimize the temporary but destructive impacts that may occur at this stage.
Limit the movement of heavy vehicles to the smallest footprint possible and use
the methods that create the least disturbance possible. Implement appropriate best
management practices.

Common Methods of Hydrological Repair may include:

• Strategically breaching dike walls and levees
• Filling artificial drainage channels
• Digging appropriate sized tidal creeks
• Mounding soils to build elevated patches
• Re-grading existing soils
• Placing and grading new soil
• Placing wave breaking apparatus

Fig 8.3: Offer equal pay for equal work to women and men. Ignore prevalent ste-
reotypes regarding women and manual labor, and engage women to participate
fully in EMR planning, implementation and monitoring!

• Based on results of prior assessments – ensure the inclusion of women, poor and
vulnerable community members.
• Hold inclusive village meetings to discuss the implementation of the project, Fig 8.4: Floating
roles, responsibilities, wages and expenditures transparent. dredge restoring a
• Engage the community-at-large to determine what type and amount of in-kind tidal creek to im-
services they will provide on the project. prove tidal exchange
• Outreach to other communities, such as university students, environmental clubs, which is causing die-
etc., to join the restoration as volunteers. off of mangroves in
Tampa Bay, Florida,
USA, (Lewis).

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8.3.1 Some Techniques Related to Hydrological Repair The expense of re-grading these dike walls may prohibit some restorations, and
complete regarding or dike wall removal may not be required.
a) Strategic Breaching
It is common for mangrove areas and other wetland types to have been diked and A breach in a dike wall, is a hole, no wider than the natural width of a tidal creek
channelized during their conversion. Dike walls clearly obstruct the natural flow of (refer to tidal creek channel width from reference forest), through which tidal wa-
tidal waters. A common and low-cost method of restoring functional wetland hy- ters may ebb and flood. These breaches may occur naturally overtime in disused or
drology to a mangrove system is to strategically breach these dike walls. Although in abandoned shrimp ponds, which, during normal operation, requiring continual dike
some instances, a single dike wall may have been constructed around the perimeter of walls maintenance.
the mangrove forest (see Fig. 8.5), in the case of aquaculture development, numerous
dike walls are constructed, commonly enclosing areas ranging from half a hectare up Fig 8.7: A natural breaches in this abandoned shrimp pond dike wall made it possible
to 10 hectares for natural revegetation of 6 species of mangroves inside a single pond over 6 years.
Gorontalo Province, Indonesia.

Fig 8.5: 500

hectares of
mangroves at
Kuala Gula,
Malaysia (a
wildlife sanc-
tuary), were Strategic breaching involves intentionally making holes in dike walls, with the inten-
diked, on the
tion of creating, over time, a natural meandering drainage channel. These breaches
coastal side,
ostensibly to are narrow at the landward side, widening as the approach the coast. The resultant
reduce im- tidal creeks should meander, i.e. do not create strategic breaches in a straight line.
pacts of ero- (see Fig 8.7)
sion, and on
the landward It is not good to make too many breaches, as this will reduce the amount of water
side where
back man- flowing through a single point, hence reducing tidal scouring. Tidal scouring is the
groves and erosive force of tidal water flowing in and out of a wetland, which maintains a tidal
hinterland forest have been converted to an oil palm plantation. Recent mangrove die-offs water-course. When tidal scouring is minimal, a tidal creek may fill with sediment
in the artificial lagoon due to flooding have been significant. Syme Darby, the owner of the and cease to function. In addition to strategic breaching, it may be necessary to fill
plantation, currently operates several pumping stations to drain spring tides from their oil in straight, human made channels, which otherwise “rob” the flow needed to create
palm. Rehabilitation here would require strategic breaching of both dike walls, but also
natural, meandering tidal creeks.
requires significant political will.

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In Florida, dredge spoils from the periodic clearance of shipping lanes raised sub-
strate levels in 500 ha of mangrove forest above intertidal levels. Resultantly, Casua-
rina pine (an invasive exotic species in Florida) grew on the supra-tidal substrate. IN
1988, an excavation project was commissioned, to remove invasive Casuarina, scrape
down and remove excessive sediment (to recreate a natural intertidal profile) and
excavate tidal creeks. Within 14 years, canopy closure of naturally regenerated man-
groves was complete (Fig 8.9)
1990

Addressing the root causes of

sedimentation is essential before
undertaking an excavation proj-
ect, but these projects are rela-
tively easier than projects requir-
ing the placement of fill material
and the removed fill may be use-
ful in local construction projects.

Fig 8.7 Connect ponds with the sea by creating well designed tidal channels.
which meander and widen as they flow toward the coast. Red X’s mark the spots 1995
where strategic breaches can be made in dike walls, in lieu of digging tidal chan-
nels, although a combined approach may work better.
Fig 8.9 West Lake,
Florida, USA.
b) Excavation The former mangrove area was
Mangrove areas may have been degraded or destroyed from addition of too much overgrown with invasive Casuarina
sediment, either naturally or due to human activity. The mangroves no longer flood pine, growing on dredged material
and drain, as they have been raised, either wholly or partially, out of the tidal range. from the adjacent shipping lanes.

A natural example of this occurred on Simeulue Island, where tectonic uplift of 1.0 In 1995, EMR was carried out, which
– 1.5 meters on some parts of the island, lifted the mangroves completely out of the involved excavation of dredged ma-
terials and creation of a network of 2003
intertidal zone, which only exhibited a 78 cm annual tidal range.
tidal creeks, based on nearby refer-
ence forest characteristics.
Examples of anthropogenic sedimentation may be gradual or sudden. In the case of
Segara Anakan Lagoon, in Central Java, insidious erosion resulted in the near total In 2003, complete canopy closure is
sedimentation of the lagoon over a time period of 30 years. This was caused largely by evident along with a system of func-
erosive upland farm practices. Attempts to dredge the lagoon, to promote mangrove tioning tidal creeks. (all photos by
growth, failed as the root cause of drastic upland erosion was never addressed. (See R. Lewis)
Fig 5.5 from Chapter 5 on Segara Anakan, Central Java).
No mangroves were planted as
part of this project!

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c) Tidal Creek Creation d) Regarding Sites Requiring Fill:

Tidal creek creation may or may not be associated with a fill project (described below A mangrove restoration site may suffer from low substrate elevations. Where coastal
in section d). In the case of a fill project, tidal creeks can be dug, usually with the energy is high, in the form of waves or currents, it may be difficult, expensive or
use of heavy machinery. They should be sized based on measurements from a refer- impossible to raise substrate elevations. For a discussion of erosion control methods
ence creek system, which includes linear meters per hectare (measured easily from and artificial breakwaters, refer to section e below, as well as examples 8.7.7 and
remote sensing imagery), as well as the size and morphology (shape) of the channel 8.7.8 towards the end of this chapter.
itself. Undersized creeks may erode to an appropriate larger size, while over-sized
tidal channels may fill in to some degree with sediment. If an area is not experiencing significant erosion, but still suffers from low substrate
elevations, you will need to increase substrate elevations either naturally (by working
On a large project – it may be necessary to calculate the size of the tidal prism in order with natural sedimentation) or artificially by adding fill. From your understanding
to appropriately size created tidal creeks. (see Fig 8.10) of rates of sedimentation during the assessment phase, you need to predict if natural
sedimentation will be adequate to fill the site in a short enough time frame, or if you
Tidal creeks can also be dug without the use of heavy machinery. See the example in will need to add fill.
8.7.5 below, as well as the case study from Tanakeke Island in chapter 10, where com-
munities were involved in hand-digging tidal creeks, in order to facilitate drainage Fig 8.11 The time taken to restore tidal wetland area depends greatly upon the degree to
and flooding of disused shrimp ponds. which the diked wetland has subsided and the availability of mineral sediment to rebuild
intertidal mudflats to a substrate elevation that supports colonization. The curve below de-
Fig 8.10 Tidal Prisms picts the time needed for an intertidal surface to reach a target elevation (thick green line)
Strong tidal flow, depending on long channel length and deep for colonization of salt marsh vegetation, based on the amount of total suspended solids
channel depth forms strong dispersion of materials such as (TSS) measured in the nearby water column. Sea Level Rise is indicated by the slope of the
nutrients and mangrove seeds with the help of a large thick green line, which effectively increases the time needed for restoration. (Crooks et al.,
tidal prism. 2011; PWA, 2009)

The size of the tidal prism depends on

wide-flat swamp area and strong
friction depending on vegetation
density, resulting in maintenance
of mangrove colonies.
(Mazda et al., 2007)

The tidal
prism can
be measured
by calculating the
volume of water flow-
ing through the exit
tidal creek during a
falling tide.

Petaluma River, CA, USA: Tidal range = 6.1 ft, Ambient Sea Level Rise = 5.67mm/yr
Source: MARSH98 Sedimentation Model, ESA PWA.

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When natural sedimentation rates are slow, you may decide to add fill to a site. There e) Artificial breakwaters
is, of course, a significant cost associated with adding fill, which usually comes from These structures are developed in order to buffer the effects of currents and waves, to
nearby dredge material. Once fill is added, it will likely need to be re-graded, with allow for the recruitment and growth of vegetation, such as mangroves, halophytic
tidal channels initially dug to encourage proper functioning. If there is a dike wall or grasses or other salt-marsh species.
levee to breach, re-grading the fill should take place before breaching.
It should be noted, before beginning this type of activity, that experimenting with
In some instances, it may be necessary to protect coastal ecosystems from runoff of breakwaters can have unexpected negative consequences, both on site, and in adja-
sediment. This can be attempted in several ways. cent coasts. Numerous “permanent” concrete breakwaters fail, as their leeward face
gets undermined by eddying currents, and the whole investment can collapse leading
1. Halophytic grasses may be planted on the regarded substrate at appropriate sub- to disastrous results.
strate elevations, to hold sediment in place. These grasses also act to catch man-
grove propagules, and also to enhance edaphic conditions of the substrate (tem- In other instances, accumulating sediment in one portion of beach, may rob sedi-
perature, salinity, redox potential, available nutrients) to improve recruitment of ment from an adjacent section, causing problems for habitats, settlements or infra-
mangroves. structure. It is recommended to engage a multi-stakeholder team of ecologists and
2. A geofabric can be laid over the substrate to hold it down during colonization. coastal hydraulic engineers before undertaking a breakwater construction. Models
3. A geofabric or net can be set between the restoration site and the coast, to reduce should be created beforehand, and a variety of scenarios developed.
impacts of erosion/sedimentation onto other coastal systems such as seagrass beds
or coral flats. We will briefly discuss techniques which are being used to accumulate sediment
along an eroding coastline in efforts to increase mangrove and salt-water marsh
Over time, as tidal drainage evolves, mid course corrections may be called for. habitats.

The first set of techniques involves use of recycled dredge materials or rubble to cre-
ate low rock break walls. The former has been documented extensively (see down-
loads #`13, 400, 401 and 402 at www.mangroverestoration.com) while the latter is
discussed towards the end of this chapter in section 8.7.8. These techniques have
been documented to successfully increase both salt marsh and mangrove habitat in
the U.S.A.

Another technique currently being trialed along tropical coastlines the creation of
brushwood polders which have been around for centuries and are proven to work in
lower wave energy high sedimentation areas of the Dutch coast and North Sea. In
this method practitioners have created marsh areas outside of massive sea dikes by
placing brush piles on mudflats and capturing suspended soil to raise elevations.
Trials are currently underway using this technique in Thailand, Vietnam, along the
Fig 8.12 Examples of Implementation North coast of Java in Indonesia and in Guyana. Early reports show mixed success.
Measures
On a per hectare basis these are expensive projects, and have not yet been shown to
Placement of turbidity screens to address risk
be effective over the long term in tropical world.
of sediment escape to sea/smothering of coral
reefs/seagrass beds during project construc-
tion (left). These techniques are depicted in Fig 8.13.

Planting of Spartina grass to hold a re-graded

substrate in place (upper right).

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f ) Mounding
In disused aquaculture ponds, MAP Indonesia has been experimenting with creation
elevated mounds, to promote the recruitment of mangroves in areas where substrate
elevations are below MSL or the substrate is composed of fluid mud. These mounds
are created with the fill from dike walls breaches, or the spoils from the digging of
tidal channels. Sometimes the mounds are kept in place with low bamboo fences
which will biodegrade over time.

The mounds can be planted or allowed to colonize naturally. In South Sulawesi,

where this is being trialed, we have not come across halophytic grasses which grow
at lower tidal elevations. If such grasses were found, they would be ideal to help hold
together the sediments to promote mangrove colonization. Communities have been
experimenting with soil augmentation in the mounds, applying low-grade charcoal
(not marketable), beach wrack, or peat/old mangrove root material from nearby ar-
eas with an abundance of peat/old roots.

The results of these mounding trials are not yet conclusive, at the writing of this
book, but experiments of this nature are very much encourage. Creation of small
patches of mangroves, in a system, may lead to consolidation of sediment, and also
provide a propagule source for future natural revegetation.

Fig 8.13 - Types of Breakwaters

This low oyster-shell breakwater at Pelican Island (see 8.7.8 in this chapter) successfully
increased mangrove and salt marsh habitat. (Lewis, above left)

This artificial breakwater in Florida was also effective trapping sediment and increasing
mangrove habitat over time (Lewis, above right).

A floating reed marsh (bottom right) in the Netherlands (Deltares, 2010) consists of float-
ing brushwood mattresses to allow development of reed vegetation and reduce wave
impact on dike wall in foreground to restore shallow freshwater habitats. Use of brush-
wood plodding is also a common technique in the North Sea. Trials like these are being
attempted in higher wave and current energy systems in the tropics in conjunction with
mangrove restoration attempts, but results are still inconclusive.

Fig 8.14 A mounded area (elevated 20 cm above pond bottom) with temporary bamboo
fence next to a hand dug tidal channel. Tompotana, South Sulawesi, Indonesia.

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g) Creating Open Water for Fish Refugia substrate during high tide, and the gates are closed. As the tide ebbs, the water is slowly
Mangroves do not occur in dense, homogenous stand. There are a variety of ecotones allowed to escape back into the river or sea, having deposited fine silt on the surface
in any given mangrove system, such as tidal creeks, supra-tidal benches and cheniers, on the enclosure in which it had been penned. The result, over time, can be a raised
as well as areas of open water. Areas of deeper open water (sub-tidal) act as important substrate elevation, potentially more appropriate for mangrove colonization. This tech-
refugia for fish when the tide is out. Shallow water refugia and intertidal mudflats are nique may also increase the organic matter and nutrients in a site, which can improve
also important habitats for fish and shellfish as well as migratory and wading birds. recruitment and early growth.
Figure 8.15 shows open water, intentionally created in a rehabilitation project in West
Lake, Florida, USA. One issue with this technique, is that although substrate elevations may raise, sedi-
ments, dominated by fine silt, may not be consolidated enough to allow for mangrove
recruitment. See the discussion under mounding (section f above) for experiments to
augment substrate edaphic conditions and consolidate sediment.

i) Back-Basin Creation
In this technique, a large wide depression is excavated in the back of a rehabilitation
area. This depression is created in order to retain tidal water, before it returns back out
to sea via tidal channels. This increases the tidal prism, and encourages scouring of the
tidal channel, maintaining their functioning. Although this back-basin creation may
lead to standing water at the rear of the rehabilitation site, the assurance of a function-
ing tidal creek which will not fill with sediment is the priority.

Fig 8.15 The intentional design of open water refugia in a mangrove rehabilitation proj-
ect, increases fisheries habitat and can speed up the achievement of a functional fisheries
equivalent, and wading seabird feeding habitat, common objectives of mangrove resto-
ration projects.

h) Tidal Warping
Warping was the former practice of letting turbid river water flood onto agricultural
land, so that it’s suspended sediment could form a layer, before letting the water drain
away. In this way poor soils became arable with the addition of nutrient laden silt.

Warping requires the creation of sluice gates and dike walls, but these may al-
ready be present in the case of disused aquaculture pond rehabilitation. Fig 8.16 Back-basin Creation
To implement warping, tidal waters are allowed to inundate the enclosed

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8.4 Ecological Amendment

Although all mangrove species can colonize appropriate, open substrates, several man-
grove species are excellent pioneers (Avicennia spp., Sonneratia spp., Lumnitzera spp.)
and will quickly re-colonize a former mangrove site as long as the substrate elevation
is of the appropriate height and the site experiences good drainage during low tide.
Fig 8.17 Tips for restoring mangrove hydrology
Appropriate edpahic conditions also assist colonization, but are not as crucial as the
• Plan any hydrological works for minimal maintenance and allow for nature’s duration and frequency of tidal inundation, which are controlled by substrate elevation
ability to self-design. and drainage.
• Avoid over-engineering with rigid structures and channels where these do
not occur in nature. They will result in unnatural water velocities (possibly The key then, to re-establishing mangroves, is first to repair the hydrology of the site.
leading to erosion), unrealistically high and stable water levels or excessive Then, if there are sufficient sources of propagules (mangrove fruits and seeds), both lo-
amounts of open water. cally available and able to enter the rehabilitation site, colonization will likely take place
naturally over time.
• Drains should be filled with locally sourced materials (e.g., original excava-
tions). Filling entire lengths of drains may be preferable to plugging drains
at one or two locations as open, flowing water can develop considerable
erosive power during floods. The greatest maintenance issues will occur
where water flows steepen and accelerate, potentially “blowing out” any
earth plugs.
• Utilize the natural energy of water rather than fight against it. Wetlands form
in parts of the landscape where water flows naturally converge. Wetlands
adjacent to rivers or estuaries will be linked to them, and pulses of water
into and out of wetlands may be dominant natural drivers of nutrients and
sediments.
• Natural ecosystems have resilience to cope with cyclic and extreme phenom-
ena. In a hydrological context, water stored in a wetland (reflected by wet-
land water levels) will have seasonal highs and lows, and extremes associ-
ated with floods and droughts. At the extremes, plants may die, weeds may
invade, and erosion may occur. A resilient restored ecosystem should be able
to recover from these impacts given enough time. Remember that wetlands,
like other ecosystems, are always changing.

From: “Wetland Restoration: A Handbook For NZ Freshwater Systems”: (Pe-

ters & Clarkson, 2010)

Fig 8.18 A pair of naturally vegetated intertidal flats

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8.4.1 Some Techniques Related to Ecological Repair Human assisted propagule distribution is now considered a type of planting, based on
the IPCC CDM methodology (see Fig to right). This is good news for project manag-
a) Human Assisted Propagule Distribution ers who have inherited a mangrove rehabilitation project that calls for planting. It is
When propagules of one or more important local species are not available, you can as- seldom necessary to directly hand plant mangroves at a site.
sist their re-introduction to the area. The simplest way is to collect an abundance of
ripe propagules and distribute them into the site on a rising tide. Nature will do the b) Hand Planting
rest. This form of natural recruitment is known as hydrochory. In nature, mature man- There are three types of hand planting;
groves produce an over-abundance of fruits and seeds, which fall to the forest floor (or 1. Direct planting of propagules (what terrestrial foresters would call “bare-root”)
directly into the water) to be distributed by tides, creeks and currents. Indeed, many 2. Transplanting of wildlings – or naturally occurring wild seedlings
of the propagules will not establish themselves, but they decompose and contribute to 3. Rearing propagules in a nursery and planting the resultant seedling.
the benthic food chain. There is little cost associated with human assisted propagule
distribution. It can be made into a fun, community activity, and should be run periodi- All three of the above methods can work given the right setting. Direct planting of
cally, as propagules come into ripeness, until the site has achieved an adequate density propagules has the best track record of the three, and is a nice community event, but
of seedlings. often fails due to lack of identification of appropriate substrates and elevations of
the substrate for planting (Samson and Rollon 2008). Even when an appropriate site
One activity to assist in human assisted propagule distribution is taking a phenology has been selected, care must be taken avoid planting mangroves too closely together.
survey, which was discussed during the Biophysical Assessment chapter (Chp 4). A It is common, especially in rice planting countries, to plant mangroves in straight
phenology survey provides information on the flowering and fruiting of the various lines at very close spacing – 25 cm – 100 cm apart. This can result in stunting of the
mangrove species that occur in the rehab site, reference forest, or general region. Asking mangroves, and also create a very unnatural hydrology and should be avoided. (see
field staff and interested community volunteers to keep a running phenology log book Fig 8.20)
or journal is an excellent way of obtaining this information.
Planting clusters of mangroves with some areas with space in between may be pref-
The UNFCCC defines “planting” activities erable. Another option is to plant mangroves in a random pattern (no straight lines)
as the following (UNFCCC, 2012); spaced plantings of 1.25 – 2 meters. Large spacing allows room for natural seedlings
to establish themselves over time. (see Fig 8.20)
“Planting. means propagation of mangroves
or other tree species on land subject to proj- Raising seedlings in polybags for planting is not difficult for most species, but plant-
ect activity, and includes propagation using ing out the resulting seedling can be tricky. Seedlings tend to go into shock when
any of the following: transplanted and can experience stunted growth. Some communities leave polybags
on, while others take the polybags off. There are also, on the market, biodegradable
i. Nursery raised seedlings or saplings;
polybags. MAP seldom attempts to rear seedlings in polybag, as most mangroves
ii. Propagules;
iii. Direct sowing of seeds;
fair better distributed or directly planted. At the very least, we caution that before
iv. Human induced promotion of natural spending the time and money to rear seedlings in a nursery at large scale, conduct
regeneration.” some trials and compare the growth rates and costs of seedlings raised in polybags,
with direct plantings of propagules and natural recruits (see Figure 8.9).

Allowing Mother Nature to do most of the mangrove planting work makes sense
and can save a lot of money.

Fig 8.19 Human

Assisted Propagule
Distribution

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and also to improve edaphic conditions of the substrate (decreasing soil temperature,
buffering pH and salinity, oxygenating soils [improved redox potential], improving soil
structure, enhancing nutrient availability, and promoting growth of beneficial micro-
organisms) all of which allow for improved conditions for mangrove recruitment and
early growth.

In New World mangrove systems, halophytic grasses which live all the way down to
Mean Sea Level, such as Spartina spp, have been used for decades in mangrove reha-
bilitation and coastal erosion control projects (see Figures 8.2, 8.23 and 8.29). In Old
World mangroves (SE Asia) species such as Porteresia provide the same function.

U
Fig. 8.20 Spacing M L
Planting in a random pattern, with
spacing to allow water flow in
Balang Datu Pesisir, Sulawesi.

This 6 year old project was planted

at less than 1 meter spacing, the
resultant dense forest is purport-
edly good crab habitat, but high
risk of poor drainage. makes this
Fig 8.21 A typical cross-sectional profile, showing halophytic grasses growing in the upper
system vulnerable to extended
intertidal (U) the middle intertidal (M) and the lower intertidal (L). (Lewis, 2005)
flooding and potential mortality.
Pambala, Sri Lanka.
In Indonesia, we are just starting to find halophytic grasses that grow down to MSL,
while working in Indonesian Papua (Fig. 8.22). Prior to work in Papua, the majority
of grasses that we came across in Indonesia occurred in the upper end of the intertidal,
which is not as useful to rehabilitation practitioners. We urge people to learn more
about marine tolerant grasses native to their area, and to experiment with planting
c) Planting Marine Tolerant (Halophytic) Grasses them in mangrove rehabilitation sites to assist colonization of mangroves.
There are a number of marine tolerant grasses that inhabit the intertid-
al zone. Some of these may form the basis of an entire tidal marsh ecosys- d) Placement of Large Woody Debris
tem, while others appear sporadically in a mangrove system. These grass- Large woody debris (LWD) is a common feature in a natural mangrove system. The
es can be excellent colonizers of open mudflats or other substrate types in the wood breaks down over time, enhancing soil structure. Large woody debris, however,
intertidal zone. The grasses function to both physically capture mangrove seedlings, in a degraded, unvegetated system can be a danger, as the movement of the LWD with
the tides can destroy mangrove seedlings.

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Fig 8.22 Halophytic Grasses

Photos A-D depict a variety of Photo E shows a close-up of

grasses growing in the lower one of the grasses of Mimika,
mangrove zone, down to Mean found lowest in the tidal profile,
Sea Level. These photos were around Mean Sea Level.
taken along an eroding shoreline in
Mimika, Papua, where mangrove The aerenchyma cells of their
species tolerant to higher inun- spongy rhizomes hold oxygen,
dation frequencies are replacing an adaptation to frequent and
large, dying Lumnitzera littorea. long-lasting tidal inundation.

Photos F & G from an abandoned

shrimp farm in South Sulawesi
show common halophytic grasses
in the upper tidal profile, also
capturing a variety of mangrove
seedlings (Rhizophora apicu-
lata, Sonneratia alba, Brugueira
gymnnorhiza and Lumnitzera
racemosa)

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Therefore, if placing large woody debris, anchoring should be considered. Maintenance may require:
• Removal of trash, debris, especially trash that is impacting negatively on man-
Permanent LWD can act to sort out sediment, leaving coarse sediments on one side grove growth,
of the wood with finer sediments on the other, and promoting more diverse micro- • Controlling herbivores (goats, sheep, camels, water buffalo), and potentially pro-
habitats. The LWD also acts to stimulate decomposing communities, enhancing the viding fencing or repairing fencing
natural diversity of mangrove fauna. • Continued distribution of propagules into the site
• Reducing or preventing human intrusion; and
• Minor hydrological repair – such as connecting tidal flows, re-opening dike
walls breaches that were improperly excavated, etc.
To review, some methods of ecological enhancement may include:
• Human assisted propagule distribution If, during the course of a project, it is apparent that rehabilitation goals are not being
• Direct planting of; propagules, wildlings & nursery-reared seedlings met, an assessment to determine the cause of the problem followed by “mid-course
• Planting marine tolerant grasses corrections” is required. Common reasons necessitating mid-course corrections are
• Placement of Large Woody Debris (LWD) poor drainage, inappropriate elevation, or an issue with the source of propagules
(unable to enter the site, poor natural colonization, bad planting material). It may
also be determined that although original project goals are not being met, the re-
8.5 As-Built Documentation sultant situation is adequate (has some degree of improved ecological value), or will
After the project is installed, conduct an “as-built” survey, which is a detailed de- self-repair given more time.
scription of the site conditions, including topography, as determined by a professional
survey crew or trained local villagers, done immediately after the construction is com- Mid-Course Corrections may require:
pleted. If you and your volunteers constructed the site, document whether everything • Re-digging/clearing main tidal channels
was built as expected. If the work was done by a contractor, the as-built survey should • Adding branches to tidal channels
be conducted by a site inspector who is not employed by the contractor to document • Adding fill to low/poorly draining sites
whether the project plans and specifications were followed by the contractor. This also • Re-grading and stabilizing eroding banks
ensures that the site complies with any regulatory (e.g., permit) requirements and • Planting only after it is determined that natural colonization of mangrove
your plans for the site. It is likely that there will be some deviations from the site plan propagules is not occurring over a period of several seasons of propagule pro-
caused by human error or unanticipated characteristics of the site. Use adaptive man- duction in the area
agement: any deviations should be documented and discussed with your technical
team to determine whether they need to be corrected to ensure that the project meets 8.7 Examples of Projects Combining Different Hydrological and
its goals. If the final project deviates in important ways from the plans, have the con- Ecological Rehabilitation Practices
struction crew correct the problem--but only if the benefits of corrections outweigh
the impacts of potential further disturbance. If corrections are needed, they should be Below we offer brief snapshots of some representative projects that have been un-
made as soon as possible. The as-built assessment also provides a “baseline,” or starting dertaken to demonstrate the use of different techniques for mangrove rehabilita-
point, for measuring change during subsequent monitoring. tion. More detailed examples are provided in Chapter 10 under “International Case
Studies.” The examples below include;
8.6 Maintenance and Mid-Course Corrections
Implementation does not end with installation. Maintenance of a site includes the • Hydrological Rehabilitation Requiring Excavation, No Planting
on-going control and care provided to ensure healthy mangrove growth. • Hydrological Rehabilitation Requiring Fill, No Planting of Mangroves
• Strategic Breaching and Tidal Creek Excavation, No Planting
• Strategic Breaching, Mixed Planting/Natural Re-vegetation
• Coastal Re-grading with Planting of Marine Tolerant Grass
• No Hydrological Rehabilitation, Direct Replanting

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8.7.1 Hydrological Rehabilitation Requiring Excavation, No Planting Paper available on-line: Download #13 Lewis, R.R. 1990. “Creation and Restora-
Site: West Lake, Florida, USA – 500 ha tion of Coastal Plain Wetlands in Florida.” Pages 73-101 In Wetland Creation and
Lead Practitioner: Roy R. Lewis III, Lewis Environmental Services Restoration, The Status of the Science. Eds. Kusler & Kentula. Island Press.

Overview: The original mangroves in an 80 ha section of this overall 500 ha resto-

ration had died off as the section was filled with dredge spoils, raising the substrate
elevation and prohibiting tidal exchange. Before rehabilitation, this section was over-
grown with Casuarina pine, which is an invasive, non-native species to Florida. Re-
habilitation required;

• clear-felling of the Casuarina,

• excavation of the dredge spoils,
• grading (excavation) to an appropriate sloping substrate elevation which supports
mangrove growth and
• digging sinuous tidal creeks mimicking reference tidal creeks nearby in terms of
morphology (shape) and channel depth.
• The additional 420 ha at the site underwent hydrological restoration with some
excavation and culvert placement after hydrological modeling.

for photos - refer to the time series from section b) “excavation” earlier in this chapter.
(Figure 8.2)

8.7.2 Hydrological Rehabilitation Requiring Fill, No Planting of Mangroves

Site: Sunken Island, Mouth of Alafia River, Hillsborough Bay,
Florida, USA – 1.7 ha
Lead Practitioner: Roy Robin Lewis, Lewis Environmental Services

Overview: Most sites which require fill, but are not planted with mangroves, are still
at least planted with marsh grass to stabilize the sediments (typically dredged mate-
rial forming islands).

The Sunken Island site was an attempt to stabilize dredge spoils, and create nesting
and foraging habitat for bird species utilizing this island managed by the National
Audubon Society. Smooth cordgrass completely covered this planting area within Fig. 8.23 Time sequence photographs of a planted smooth cordgrass marsh on a dredged
three years, followed by mangrove colonization (principally Avicennia germinans and material island (Sunken Island extension) in Tampa Bay, Florida. A - Time Zero; B - T0+ 12
months; C - T0+ 24 months; D - T0+ 84 months showing mangrove invasion of marsh.
Laguncularia racemosa) which have dominated the area. The site’s insular character-
istics moderated freeze damage as suffered by mainland mangroves. Also, foot traffic
was minimized due to protection by the Audubon Society. This project was an actual
enhancement without mitigation requirements.

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8.7.3 Hydrological Rehabilitation Requiring Fill, No Planting

Site: 40 Dredged Material Islands, East and West Florida Coasts
Lead Investigators: R.R. Lewis and Carolyn S. Lewis
(see Downloads #400, 401 and 402 at www.mangroverestoration.com)

Overview: A study was commissioned to characterize pioneering plant communities

on 40 small islands created with dredge material by the US Army Corps of Engineers
as colonial seabird habitat. No plantings were undertaken in these projects, which Fig: 8.24 Generalized habitat succession
noted substantial mangrove colonization of the leeward side of dredged islands, pro- on dredged materials islands in Florida.
tected from waves and human/boat traffic. This protection is necessary in order to Lewis & Lewis, 1978. (Mangroves and
allow waterborne propagules time to establish root systems on the unstable, and often marsh grass occur left of the dashed line
eroding shorelines, of dredged material islands. indicated by the arrow).

Red mangroves (Rhizophora mangle) have historically been considered the pioneer
species, but as Carlson (1972) noted, black mangroves (Avicennia germinans) and
white mangroves (Laguncularia racemosa) are the true pioneers in disturbed natural
areas and on new dredged material deposits.

Along the central coasts of Florida, the intertidal pioneer is more commonly smooth
cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) (Lewis and Dunstan, 1975). Mangroves gradually
invade and replace the shade intolerant cordgrass (see also Figures 8.23 and 8.24),
which persists on older dredged material islands only as a fringe in the front of the
outer band of red mangroves.

In northern Florida, very few mangroves can survive the periodic freezes, and the
pioneering cordgrass may persist or be replaced by black needlerush (Juncus roemeri-
anus) at higher elevations as sediments
accumulate.

The vegetative analyses of islands is this study confirm the basic pattern as outlined
for the central coasts of Florida. Showing that smooth cordgrass and black mangroves
have approximately the same relative frequency on the younger island. In contrast,
on the older island, mangroves are very abundant with no smooth cordgrass present
in any of the quadrats sampled. It is known to be present on the island, but only as a
fringe in front of the mangrove forest where it can apparently withstand more inun-
dation time than any of the mangrove species.

The most dominant mangrove species on older islands is the black mangrove. This
may is part be due to differences in elevation since this is known to greatly effect the
distribution of mangrove species (Davis, 1940; Detweiler et al., 1975).

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8.7.4 Strategic Breaching and Tidal Creek Excavation, 8.7.5 Strategic Breaching and Tidal Creek Excavation,
Mostly Natural Revegetation Mostly Natural Revegetation
Site: Tiwoho, North Sulawesi, 20 ha Site: Tanakeke Island, South Sulawesi, 400 ha
Lead Practitioner: Rignolda Djamaluddin, University of Sam Ratulangi Lead Practitioner: Ben Brown, MAP Indonesia

Overview: This site comprised around 20 ha of abandoned shrimp ponds. They were Overview: 400 ha of disused shrimp ponds were rehabilitated using the following
clear-felled in 1990, but only approximately 8 hectares were constructed into brackish methods; strategic breaching of dike walls, hand-digging of tidal creeks, distribu-
water ponds and operated for a period of 6 months before abandonment. A set of tion of mangrove propagules, limited hand-planting. Mid-course corrections con-
5 ponds near the natural forest grew back healthy due to natural breach erosion and sisted of creating branches on tidal creeks, connecting waterways, and trials with soil
recruitment. The rest of the site still experienced disturbed hydrology. It was planted mounds, to artificially raise elevations (using spoils from tidal creek creation).
5 times completely unsuccessfully by local government agencies. Hydrological reha-
bilitation included strategic breaching of dike walls, in-filling of un-natural aquacul- This full case study appears in Chapter 10.
ture drainage channels, and limited construction of tidal channels to connect flows to
larger tidal outflows. The site was planted, coincidentally, a 6th time by government
directly prior to hydrological amendment. The site was also experienced some degree
of planting by local students, who reared 12 species in a nursery. The majority of the
20 ha experienced natural revegetation.

Fig: 8.25: Natural revegetation ranging from

6000 - 14,000 seedlings/ha 8-10 years since EMR.

Fig: 8.26: Hydrological rehabilitation leading to significant

recruitment in less than 3 years on Tanakeke Island.

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8.7.6 Strategic Breaching, Mixed Planting/Natural Revegetation

Time 0 + 5 months Time 0 + 24 months
Site: NE Langkat Wildlife Sanctuary, North Sumatera, Indonesia – 12 ha
3a-3c 3a-3c
Lead Practitioner: Ben Brown, MAP Indonesia

Overview: This 12 ha shrimp pond complex was made of 10, one hectare ponds in
a row, with a pair of outlier 1 ha ponds across an artificial channel. Minimum funds
for this project necessitated reliance on strategic breaching alone. Substrate eleva-
tions were not measured in pond bottoms, yet all ponds exhibited some degree of
naturally occurring mangroves inside. Pond walls were breached ranging from 3 to
7 meter widths, from upstream to downstream. After breaching, half of each pond
was planted with one of 6 species by the local community (R. mucronata, R. apicu-
lata, B. gymnorhizza, B. sexangula, S. caseolaris, and X. granatum). The other halves of
the ponds were allowed to regenerate naturally. This was done in a zig-zag pattern.
After 18 months, significant growth of remnant Avicennia alba inside the ponds was Time 0 + 5 months Time 0 + 24 months
noted, with many growing 6-8 meters tall over that time period.. All planted species 5a-5c 5a-5c
grew well, with Rhizophora mucronata most notable.

Fig: 8.28: A pair of time series. The top photo pair shows pond 3, shooting from corner “a” to cor-
ner “c.” The red arrow indicates a remnant Nypa fruticans which was in the pond before breach-
ing. The bottom photo pair shows the same for pond 5 (see key, Fig 8.27).

Ponds were half planted, and half allowed to undergo natural revegetation.
Pre-existing Avicennia marina in the ponds grew from small, stunted seedlings (under 1 meter tall)
up to 7 meters in two years once dike walls were breached.

Fig: 8.27: Schematic of 10 ponds rehabilitated by Planted Rhizophora mucronata and R. apiculata performed well.
strategic breaching in Jaring Halus, North Sumatera.

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8.7.7 Coastal Re-grading with Planting of Marine Tolerant Grass C) 1990 D) 1990
Site: Hillsborough Bay, Tampa, FL, USA. Cargill Fertilizer, Inc.,
Bayside Shoreline – 5 ha
Lead Practitioner: Lewis

Overview: This five hectare site was experiencing severe erosion. A perpendicular
erosion bluff was evident across much of the coast, which would continue to erode
without intervention. The intervention in this case, was to re-grade the buff, by cut-
ting back into the hillside, using the erosion bluff as a midpoint. A slope, between
Mean Sea Level was created, up to a supratidal area beyond the point of the original
erosion bluff.
E) 1990 F) 1991
This site was planted with grass a pair of times. The initial planting was supra-tidal
to hold the upper elevations in place. Afterwards, smooth cordgrass was used to fix
intertidal substrates, and allow for natural colonization of mangrove propagules.

A) 1980

G) 1992 H) 2003

B) 1990

Fig: 8.29: Vertical erosion bluffs at the site indicated severe erosion (A - opposite page). The erosion
bluff was cut back and re-graded to create a stabilized slope (B-C). Terrestrial grass was planted to
hold the upper slope, followed by marine tolerant smooth cord-grass which stabilized the intertidal
substrate (D-G). Thirteen years after the intervention, mangroves are shown, having succeeded the
marine tolerant grass. Shoreline erosion at this site is no longer an issue.

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8.7.8 Erosion Control - Low Shell Breakwater

Site: Pelican Island, Sebastian, Florida, USA

Overview: Pelican Island shrank by 50% over the past century and a half (2 ha to 1
ha), due to a mangrove die-off of the natural oyster bed protecting the island, and
subsequent erosion, leading to lowered elevations. Capture of sediment was required,
in order to re-establish mangroves.

A pair of activities took place in phases to rehabilitate mangroves. The first step in-
cluded planting of smooth cordgrass and Rhizophora mangle at appropriate eleva-
tions, and the anchoring of oyster bags around stressing mangroves as an attempt to
increase substrate elevation.

A second stage involved “cresting” a natural wave break off the NW (windward) side
of the island. This was achieved by airlifting 250 cubic meters of oyster shell (weigh-
ing 450,000 lbs) with a helicopter and enhancing the natural “sand-bar, oyster reef.”
The resultant low-relief shell breakwater was permeable in nature, but reduced wave
energy allowing for sediment deposition over time on the leeward side of the wall.
(Figure 8.30).

Expansion to 1.3 ha of salt marsh and mangrove forest took place within 2 years after
the intervention and totaled 1.5 ha within 4 years.

Fig: 8.30: Loss of mangrove and salt marsh coverage over time on Pelican Island (a). A
low rock break-wall was constructed (airlifted by helicopter) in 2001 (b-d), resulting in the
deposition of sediment on the lee side of the breakwall (e), and subsequent increase of
mangrove and salt-marsh coverage (f-g).

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8.7.9 No Hydrological Rehabilitation, Direct Planting 8.8 Lessons Learned

Site: St. Croix, Virgin Islands – 10 ha Although in some ways, the science or art of mangrove rehabilitation has progressed
Lead Practitioner: R.R. Lewis in a number of important ways since the 1960s, there are some older documented
projects that should be re-visited. Mangroves are en vogue nowadays for a variety of
Overview: Mangroves at this site were destroyed due to an oil spill. Although sedi- factors, but the majority of rehabilitation projects are largely oversimplified, poorly
ments were cleaned and could once again support mangrove growth – biologically, and planned and implemented. Lessons need to be learned from both past and present
substrate elevations were not altered significantly, the lack of nearby propagules limited projects, requiring practitioners to openly share their data and reports.
colonization of this site. Ten (10) ha of Rhizophora mangle were planted at appropriate
substrate elevations and grew well. Canopy closure was achieved five (5) years after this Below are some lessons learned leading towards better practice regarding the imple-
planting. mentation of mangrove rehabilitation.

• Key stakeholders, including the local community, need to be engaged from the
inception of the project, all the way through implementation, monitoring and
adaptive management.
• Women need to be equally considered in all phases of mangrove rehabilitation
and management.
• The key to successful restoration is insuring that physical processes are restored.
• The best way to ensure natural mangrove recruitment, is to focus on re-estab-
lishing appropriate substrate elevations, and functional tidal flows in the reha-
bilitation site.
• Natural recruitment can take time, even when conditions are right.
• Mangrove propagules only require “planting” when the site is propagule limited.
To plant mangroves where sufficient natural propagules will colonize a site is a
waste of resources, including time and money.
• A broader definition of planting is now understood to include human assisted
propagule distribution or broadcasting.
• Planting mangroves on mudflats below mean sea level almost never works, and
is never a good practice.
• In some cases, planting of marine tolerant grasses helps prepare a site, maintain-
ing substrate elevation, physically capturing mangrove propagules and enhanc-
ing edaphic conditions for mangrove recruitment and early growth.
• It is very important that rehabilitation projects have clear statements of measur-
able, achievable ecological objectives agreed upon by all relevant stakeholders.
• Manipulated systems do not work well as long term sustainable wetland ecosys-
tems: natural tidal rhythms are not maintained, plants and invertebrates cannot
tolerate the extreme conditions that occur and consistent operation is rarely
maintained over time.
• Both Rehabilitation and Restoration are best viewed as re-establishment of an
immature system that evolves towards maturity over time.
• Monitoring of projects is mandatory if lessons are to be learned for future proj-
Fig: 8.31: Before and after planting at an appropriate substrate eleva- ects.
tion in a propagule limited site. (Lewis - St Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands)

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9
Monitoring

1. Why Monitor?
2. Quality Assurance
3. Creating a Monitoring Plan
4. Academic Monitoring (Higher QA)
• Hydrological Parameters
• Ecological Parameters
• Analysis
5. Participatory Monitoring (Lower QA)
9 EMR Manual Chapter 9 - Monitoring

This chapter is closely linked to Chapter 5, “Biophysical Assessments.” Many of the 9.2 Quality Assurance – Higher and Lower
activities initiated during assessments will be continued as routine monitoring after
implementation of EMR. This chapter also introduces a method of participatory Quality assurance/quality control measures are those activities you undertake to
monitoring useful for working with rural fisherfolk communities (section 9.4). demonstrate the accuracy (how close to the real result you are) and precision (how
reproducible your results are) of your monitoring. Quality Assurance (QA) general-
9.1 W hy monitor? ly refers to a broad plan for maintaining quality in all aspects of a program. This plan
Why monitor? There are several reasons why it is important to monitor a rehabilita- should describe how you will undertake your monitoring effort including: proper
tion site following implementation: documentation of all procedures, training of volunteers, study design, data manage-
• To record how the actual rehabilitation compares to earlier designs. This is ac- ment and analysis, and specific quality control measures. A monitoring program will
complished through an as-built survey and a Time Zero Monitoring Report, have a varying degree of QA, from high to low, which will specify how the results
which is provides a benchmark to assess change over time. can be used in the future.
• To quantify the recruitment, establishment and early growth of mangroves in
an initial period after restoration (usually 3-5 years) Higher QA– usually quantitative in nature. Either measured to a particular con-
fidence level or accurate GPS positioning. Data is presented scientifically, based
• To identify, early on, potential issues inhibiting establishment of mangrove
on predetermined mangrove rehabilitation success criteria. Useful for influencing
seedlings, and to inform mid-course corrections.
policy.
• To increase community involvement, knowledge and understanding of the en-
tire rehabilitation process.
Lower QA – is more qualitative in nature, not necessarily involving direct counts.
• To inform future management strategies of mangrove area. Data can be presented visually or verbally. It is more difficult to reproduce accurate
• To contribute to international knowledge bank of rehabilitation projects suc- data when using low QA methods. Useful for building community awareness.
cesses, failures and lessons learned.
EMR monitoring methodologies and events should have some degree of commu-
It is important to ensure monitoring is planned and budgeted for at the onset of nity participation if possible, in nature – however we distinguish between academic
the project, is in line with project goals, and that success criteria are clearly estab- and participatory monitoring as these discrete activities have different purposes and
lished to determine what aspects of a site must be measured. Ideally a monitoring need to be planned for individually.
protocol should be developed prior to the initial assessments specified in Chapter 5
(Biophysical Assessments), but is adaptable to local conditions and unforeseen field Academic monitoring – – uses higher QA methods, implemented in smaller groups
constraints. us- ing trained field personnel and/or volunteers. Data collected for academic moni-
tor- ing is compiled into technical monitoring reports. MAP Indonesia has devel-
Elzinga et. al. (1998) identified several important points to keep in mind while de-
oped a monitoring method in consultation with mangrove scientists from around
veloping a site-specific monitoring method;
the world. Even at the level of academic monitoring, we often have to choose be-
o What are the parameters of interest? tween levels of QA. Very high QA methods are appropriate for academic studies,
o What is an appropriate sampling unit size and shape? while slightly lower QA methods are used for project reporting (due to time and
o How should sampling units be positioned? human resource constraints). Activities 9.3 delineates a process of undertaking aca-
o Should sampling units be permanent or temporary? demic monitoring.
o How many sampling units should be sampled?
MAP Indonesia does not recommend routine quantitative sampling of biota such as
o How will data be presented? fish, invertebrates or birds. Proper sampling to generate scientifically accurate data
The challenges of successful monitoring involve efficient and specific design, and a sets is very time consuming and expensive. For example, proper scientific collection
commitment to implementation of the monitoring project, from data collection and and analyses of benthic infauna like polycheate worms requires a minimum of ten
analyses, to reporting and using results. cores per site per month and these then need to be transported to a proper lab, sorted

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and all organisms identified to species. Fish sampling requires similar intensive sug- gested in order to quickly detect and correct any problems with the project,
work. We believe that sampling too infrequently and generating worthless data is such as domestic animal grazing (sheep, cattle, goats, camels, etc.) which may require
just a waste of time and money. Observations and reporting of obvious fish seen and quick intervention with fencing to prevent loss of colonizing or planted mangroves.
epibenthic (living on the surface) invertebrates seen is about all we recommend un- You can find a typical Time Zero report as download #301 (Lewis 1999), and a
less a well funded research project is underway. typical Time Zero Plus 60 months report (Lewis 2004) as Download #302 at www.
mangroverestoration.com.
Similarly, detailed water quality sampling is also expensive and labor intensive. Even
taking salinity readings to generate real data sets reflecting real salinity regimes on a
site are difficult to justify as even a passing rainstorm can lower salinities in a matter 9.4 Academic monitoring (Higher QA)
of minutes. If changes in water quality is a research subject of interest, and funding
is provided for in situ recording meters, and someone is going to place, retrieve, read 9.4.1 Hydrological Parameters
and analyze the data from the meters, then looking in detail at water quality changes
may be appropriate, We would only caution that vandalism of such expensive equip- A) Constructed tidal channels (recommended for each monitoring event)
ment is likely in most remote locations.
Purpose: The creation of tidal creeks is used in EMR to correct problems flooding
Participatory monitoring – uses lower QA methods, designed to be inclusive, or us- and drainage of water from the restoration site. Tidal creek design and construction
able by individuals and groups without rigorous scientific training. The parameters to is modelled on nearby reference creeks. Monitoring the development of tidal creeks
be monitored are decided by the group, and data is usually presented visually. Activ- allows the practitioner to prescribe mid-course corrections, to re-establish natural
ity 9.4 discusses a participatory EMR monitoring method used on Tanakeke Island, patterns of flooding and drainage.
South Sulawesi with rural fisherfolk from 6 villages.
Objective
9.3 Creating a monitoring plan • Track changes in channel shape (morphology) and path over time.
• Identify areas of excessive sedimentation/erosion within channels which may
Monitoring of a rehabilitation site occurs directly following rehabilitation imple- inhibit channel functioning over time.
mentation and continues usually for six months to a year or two – or the duration
of a project depending on allocated resources. If mangroves are planted at a site, Materials
monitoring for successful survival of those plants needs to occur over a minimum of • Current remote sensing image of rehabilitation site.
three years (five preferred). Planted mangroves under stress may appear healthy for a • GPS coordinates of cross section measurements.
year or two as they deplete there stored carbohydrate reserves and struggle to survive, • Original rehabilitation design.
and a project may be called successful only to see most of the planted mangroves die • GPS unit
within 3-5 years. Unfortunately, longer term monitoring is rare, and actually report- • Meter stick
ing of the monitoring as a report available at least on the web is rarer still. Finally, • Measuring tape (fibreglass)
publication in a journal of these data are almost non-existent (see Lewis et al. 2005 • Bamboo stakes
– download #34 at www.mangroverestoration.com as one of the few) • Auto level/laser level

A recommended sampling regime consists of ten events starting with a Time Zero Time 1 – 2 low tides, depending on number of new tidal creeks.
(T0) report and progressing and on a regular schedule with sampling events at T0,
T0+3, 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48 and 60 months. The frequency of sampling is not as Procedure
important as the actual completion of SOME quantitative sampling and report- 1. Recording channel path
ing program. A minimum of four reports are likely needed: T0, T0+12, 24 and a. Record channel code on data sheet
36 months. The proposed more frequent sampling during years one and two are

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b. Locate the seaward mouth of the constructed water channel in the field. 4. Channel cross sections can be drawn on transparent paper – and overlayed to
c. Using the GPS tracking function, walk the entire length of the new channel track changes in morphology over time.
2. Sedimentation and erosion
a. Note any areas of significant sedimentation or erosion along the channel Discussion questions
path on map or sketch map. • How are both natural and constructed channel dimensions changing over time?
b. Note general comments on water flow as observed on outgoing tide. • How are the paths of both natural and constructed channels changing over time?
3. Channel Cross Sections (Channel Width and Depth) • How are previous, straight canals or ditches changing over time?
a. Relocate GPS coordinates for previous channel cross section measure-
ments. These should be evenly dispersed along the channel – one close to B) Monitoring Major Water Flows and Standing Water (recommended for each
the seaward mouth (approximately 5 meters from the mouth), one in the monitoring event)
middle and one toward the landward end.
b. Place bamboo stakes on either side of the channel, where the bank meets Background
the verge. (Diagram) In a natural mangrove system, continuous tidal flushing and adequate water circula-
c. Measure channel width. tion ensures mangrove health not only in part by regulating physiochemical prop-
d. Extend this measurement either side of the channel and place bamboo erties of the soil, but also by acting as a vehicle for propagule distribution. In a
stakes. For example, if the channel width is 1 meter, extend 1 meter on ei- healthy system, water enters and exits through naturally created and reinforced tidal
ther side. This will make the total width of the cross section 3 meters. channels. If water is not draining from a site correctly, standing water accumulates
e. To measure channel depth creating anoxic areas within the mangroves, preventing recruitment in these areas.
• With auto level; sight back to a bench mark tied to tidal datum, measure Monitoring drainage and any persistent ponding in the rehabilitation area allows
height of substrate at 20 - 50 cm intervals along the entire length of for identification of hydrological issues that could be hindering recruitment early on
the cross section. Take measurements at the bamboo stakes in the creek and allows for quick remediation.
bank as well. Subtract measurements from tidal datum to get substrate
heights. Objective
• Without auto-level; return to the bamboo stakes placed at high tide. Identify and monitor all current major water flows, and map areas of standing water
Note time and predicted tide height. Take measurements from water to determine if hydrology is conducive to natural recruitment.
surface to substrate at 20 – 50 cm intervals. Subtract measurements from
Materials
predicted tide height to get substrate heights.
• Current aerial photograph of rehabilitation site and any site hydrology maps
4. Note channel type, weather, last precipitation, recent weather, air temperature,
created in past surveys.
water temperature and channel bottom on date sheet as described in Chapter
5.1.2 Channel Cross Section, Flow and Total Discharge – Reference Forest and • Markers
Rehab Area • GPS
5. Input all data and GPS location into database.
Time 1 – 2 tides from high to low, depending on site area.
Data Analysis
Procedure
1. Input GPS track of tidal channel into GPS program and record on map. Indi-
1. A major water flow is classified as a water channel that is critical to assist in the
cate new tidal channel paths with a different colored line on map.
flooding and drainage of the mangrove wetland. A properly functioning tidal
2. Mark locations of erosion and/or deposition on map. channel is self-maintained, due to the scouring effect of flowing water on the
3. Mark permanent cross section measuring stations on map. substrate during flood and ebb tides. As a results, sediment is not able to build

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up and eventually clog in a properly functioning tidal channel. Objectives

2. Observe site during ebb tide to gain the best view of major water flows. Using • Review and reclassify all relative dike wall conditions.
• Review location of human made and major natural breaches in dike walls.
the tracking function of the GPS to walk the length of each major tidal channel,
• Establish if sedimentation is occurring at the position of the breach.
taking note of instance of excessive sedimentation. Also observe areas of exces-
sive channel erosion. A properly functioning tidal channel will find a dynamic
Materials
equilibrium between sedimentation and erosion.
• Laminated current remote sensing images with current marked breaches and
3. Look into the interior of the mangrove rehabilitation site for incidence of sig- waterways.
nificant standing water at low tide. Standing water at low tide inhibits man- • Pen
grove recruitment and growth. Some areas of standing water may be appro- • GPS
priate for fish refugia, but the forest floor should not have significant ponding • Data sheet with key for categorizing condition of breaches
during low tide. • Markers (different colours)
4. Record observations on map .
Time – one day for field work (up to 25 ha) and half day for data entry on map
Discussion questions
Procedure
• Is there evidence of sedimentation in tidal creeks? Is it occurring on the ebb or
flood tide? 1. Relocate major breaches identified in activity 5.1.3. Mapping dike walls/breach-
• How do you recommend correcting sedimenting tidal creeks? es and instance of sedimentation and location of all planned breaches in reha-
bilitation plan. Record GPS location and code.
• Is there evidence of extreme erosion due to tidal channels? Is this part of the
2. Two independent observers are required to classify each dike wall to reduce bias.
natural change taking place in the rehabilitation site, or might this be problem-
If possible, use same observers each monitoring event.
atic?
3. Follow procedure and use key specified in activity 5.1.3 Mapping dike walls/
• Is there evidence of significant standing water in the site? Is it a problem? If so, breaches and instances of sedimentation.
what do you suggest as a mid-course correction to remedy this problem?
Analysis
C) Monitoring Dike Wall Conditions and Functioning of Constructed
Add information from this activity as a map layer to the above maps created for hy-
Breaches. (recommended at T0 and annually for disused shrimp ponds)
drological parameters for an entire view of current hydrological patterns to be used
in mid-course corrections.
Background
One goal of rehabilitation within shrimp ponds is the eventual degradation of Discussion questions
dike walls through weathering and tidal force. Monitoring the changes of dike • How are the conditions of dike walls and breaches changing over time?
wall conditions annually will identify if there are any areas in need of further as- • Is it better to have many or fewer dike wall breaches in the initial stages of res-
sistance in degradation. Monitoring also allows us to analyze patterns of degrada- toration? Explain.
tion, for example, is there rapid degradation of walls closer to the ocean in com- • What is the relationship between tidal creek formation and breaches in dike
parison to walls closer to land or water channels? The construction of breaches walls?
within dike walls helps this degradation process as well as strategically channels
water to assist tidal flushing. Functioning of these breaches should be monitored
to identify any sedimentation occurring, indicating a lack of flow at the breach.

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9.4.2 Monitoring Ecological Parameters

On Sample Size
Globally, mangrove deforestation rates are above 100,000 ha per year. Forgetting for
a moment of the need for conservation, reforestation projects, and by default moni-
toring needs to take place at large scales to even attempt to keep up with these losses.

This places a lot of pressure on development of a monitoring methodology which

provides scientifically significant data, while at the same time being efficient in terms
of use of human resources and ultimately the cost.

If resources are adequate, we recommend two permanent plots (25 – 100 m2 in size)
for each hectare of restoration. These plots should be monitored for percent cover
by species. Fixed photos stations are also requisite.

If resources are extremely limited, we recommend 5 permanent quadrats per eco-

tone (for instance seaward, mesozone and landward mangrove area) for up to 50
ha of restoration. With a reduction in sample size, comes a reduction in statistical
accuracy. Consult with a statistician to determine appropriate and bare minimum
sample plots for your restoration area.

On Ecological Success
The survival of planted seeds or seedlings has little to do with final overall ecological
success of a restoration effort. A little known fact is that when you look at data about
the density of mangroves in both planted and natural forests over time, the number
of mangrove trees per hectare declines over time as plants compete with one another
Fig 9.1 Natural thinning of stem density over time.
for nutrients, sunlight, etc. (See Fig 9.1.) Thus if plants or propagules are planted on
one meter centers you are putting in 10,000 planting units per ha. Natural forests or The table below depicts the natural thinning of stem density in a logged over
recovering forests typically have around 1,000 trees per ha. Thus a successful natural area of a mangrove concession in Bintuni Bay, Papua, Indonesia over a 21 year
restoration project usually results from a 90% death rate for installed plants! No one period. (Inoue, 2013)
would consider that a success, but it is how Mother Nature defines success. For this
reason, percent cover by species as reported by Lewis (1999 and 2004) and Lewis et Time after logging (yrs.) 5 10 15 21
al. (2005) is one of the preferred parameters to be measured to define success. Stem density per hectare 57,500 17,600 1,875 1705

Basal area is another important quantitative characteristic of forests in general, and

the methods described in Cintron and Novelli (1984) should be followed to ensure are likely to meet the criteria of having a height of at least 1.3 m, and a Diameter at
high quality assurance but recheck the suggested methods of calculating BA as there Breast Height (DBH) of 2.5 cm to qualify as a “sapling” or “tree” that would then
are typos in the paper. (See also download #306 at www.mangroverestoration.com be used to calculate basal area. Thus, in the early stages of a mangrove restoration
for the corrections) We would note that these methods were developed to describe project, the basal area will be 0. As time progresses, and the volunteer or planted
mature mangrove forests, not newly restored forests. Thus with large numbers of seedlings grow, some will eventually first reach a height of 1.3m but many of those
small volunteer or planted seedlings in the early stages of a restoration project, none will not have a DBH of 2.5 cm or greater. We would suggest that all mangroves that

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reach a height of 1.3 m should have a DBH taken, and those with a DBH of less B) Monitoring Autecology and Community Associations
than 2.5 cm should be categorized within a “DBH less than 2.5 cm” category in
order not to compromise data comparisons with older basal area data collections. It Background information
is not unusual to have the dominant plant cover in the first few months or years of a Baseline information for individual species of vegetation and community associa-
project made up of just such sapling mangroves, or even marsh grasses. tions was established within a reference forest and the rehabilitation site in activity
5.2.1 “Vegetation Survey” Permanent quadrats were established which should be in-
Once data has been collected over multiple monitoring events, data can be analyzed spected and data collected periodically based on your monitoring schedule. Reassess
over time and statistical tests of significance can be applied. the number of quadrats if necessary, to increase robustness of the data set.

Objective
A) Monitoring Vegetational Profiles To track changes in vegetation over time and to measure against success criteria.
A baseline cross sectional profile of substrate height and associated vegetation was
surveyed as part of Biophysical Assessments (Chap. 5). These profiles should be Materials
updated at each monitoring event. • Extendible height stick
• Dress makers tape measure or dbh measuring tape
Objective • Scientific calculator
Continue taking measurements along permanently established transects from activ- • Pre-assembled 1m x 1m quadrats (from PVC)
ity 5.2.5 (Vegetation profile). • Data sheets
• Canopy reader
Materials and Procedure • Field guide for mangroves, associates and halophytic grasses
Refer to materials and procedure outlined in activity 5.2.5 (Vegetation profile). • Rope/string
• Stakes (for corners of quadrat)

Time
15 – 30 minutes per quadrat

Procedure
• Locate GPS coordinates of quadrats in the rehabilitation area
• Follow procedure 5.2.7 “Vegetation Survey.”
• Store data in database.

9.4.3 Data Analysis

Once ecological data has been collected, there are several ways in which it can be
analyzed –either per monitoring event or cumulatively over time. Data should be
analyzed to a specified confidence interval to depict the reliability of your data and
analyses. Ideally this should be specified when developing the monitoring protocol

Fig 9.2 Presentation of vegetational profiles in Kuala Gula, Malay-

sia as part of an EMR training.

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as it will influence the number of sample quadrats required – the more samples taken Ideally it would be best to calculate the fluctuating rate of natural recruitment since
the higher the confidence of our data. The most widely used level of confidence is the time of disturbance. This can be achieved by measuring recruitment rates each
95% (alpha = .05). Other common confidence levels are 90% and 80%. Confidence quarter or 6 months from the time of disturbance and plotting on a time series
levels are used to construct confidence intervals. A confidence interval gives an esti- graph. This is mostly unfeasible in rehabilitation programs as data collection would
mated range of values which is likely to include an unknown population parameter, need to have been carried out from the very onset of disturbance. Therefore we must
the estimated range being calculated from a given set of sample data. A common measure the ‘constant rate of natural recruitment’ and compare change in recruit-
statement would be: We are 95% sure that the true population mean lies within 250 ment rate following human interventions. Generally within a degraded site we could
plant/hectare of the sample mean. expect the following recruitment patterns:

There are many numerous scientific analyses that can be calculated from a single set
of data. Here we have outlined basic analysis that can be calculated on data collected
in individual monitoring surveys and then compared over time. Additional to this
an explanation of Statistical tests are outlined that compare data collected over time
within the same rehabilitation area. Statistical tests answer the questions: Has there
been any real change in our data or is exhibited change due to sampling variability?

A) Types of Analysis

1. Density
Calculating the density of vegetation in each monitoring event is the most basic of
analysis to be made and helps to both see if a project is reaching specified project
Fig 9.3 Average Recruitment Rate
success criteria as well as inform the need for mid-course corrections. Densities are
calculated as stems/m² which can then be converted to stems/hectare by multiplying • Scenario a: Low rate of natural recruitment immediately following distur-
by 10,000 (m² in 1 hectare). bance which then increases over time (eg. A propagule limited site)
• Scenario b: High rate of natural recruitment immediately following dis-
Density(stems/ha) =Total number of stems/Total area sampled X 10,000 turbance which then tails out overtime (Areas where disturbance has left
fruiting trees intact but die over time, creating a lull in recruitment until
Pre-rehabilitation stem densities are used to create a baseline to which all ensuing new plants reach fruiting age – (eg. Areas of tectonic uplift where man-
survey densities are compared. grove habitat is lifted out of the intertidal zone).
2. Average Rate of Recruitment • Scenario c: No natural recruitment (areas which have no or very low sup-
Average recruitment rate is the average no. of plants that enter and establish the ply of propagules and/or the site has been so modified that it does not
rehabilitation area over a given time period. This analysis is more telling of a site and support growth and establishment of seedlings).
rehabilitation effort than density calculations alone as it indicates if there is a change
in recruitment due to human interventions.
Average rate of recruitment should be graphed to clearly depict change in recruit-
Recruitment rate is not constant, but rather fluctuating - both seasonally with fruit- ment rates.
ing events, and in the longer term. The equation for average recruitment rate is:
3. Relative Dominance
Average Recruitment Rate = average number of plants per hectare Relative dominance gives an indication of which species are most dominant within
/time since disturbance (months/years) the rehabilitation site. This is calculated from Basal Area of a species – therefore as

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explained above, relative dominance might not be calculable from early monitoring A test then allows us to either reject the null hypothesis in favour of the alternative
events, until plants reach tree maturity with a DBH above 2.5 cm, which could take ie. There is a real change in the population parameter, or accept the null hypothesis
3 – 5 years at the earliest depending on site growth. that there is no real change in the population parameter ie. There is no real change
to the true population parameter and changes seen are due to sampling variability.
Total Dominance = Total Basal Area (m²)/Total area sampled (m²)
Both the paired-sample t-test and One-way repeated measure ANOVA are appro-
priate for comparing scores in pre-implementation and post-implementation sur-
Relative dominance (species A) = Dominance (species A)/ Total Dominance veys IF the same permanent quadrats are sampled in each survey. Experience has
led us to use paired sample t-tests.
To convert dominance to hectares, multiply relative dominance by 10,000
It is important to decide which test is to be conducted on data during the develop-
In the early stages of monitoring, before Basal Area is a significant measure, relative ment of monitoring protocol as it will influence the amount of samples needed to
densities can be calculated of both plant maturity and species to give an indication conduct tests with accuracy.
of plant species and maturity compositions.
Note: If test conducted conclude one cannot reject the null hypothesis in favour of
the alternative, this does not necessarily mean there has not been a real change to the
4. Average Height
true population parameter, only that data collected has not managed to demonstrate
Average height of trees, saplings and seedlings is a simple way to communicate plant this change at the given level of significance through monitoring. An increase in
growth within monitoring reports: sample size, or decrease in level of significance could show a different result.

Average height = total height/no. of plants sampled. 9.5 Participatory Monitoring (Lower QA)
5. Canopy Closure Background
Canopy closure is a point estimate of the coverage of a forest canopy, and is mea- Neither mangrove rehabilitation nor mangrove planting are traditional practices.
sured in the field with a spherical densiometer (also called a mirror optometer) or by Traditionally, there was no need for this activity, and therefore communities have
analyzing upward-looking hemispherical photographs. not built a great store of practices, skills, knowledge or experience around mangrove
restoration. Coastal communities have, however, spent their entire lives living and
Although not previously discussed in biophysical assessments or as a monitoring working in mangrove habitats, and quickly become astute mangrove rehabilitation
practice, canopy closure is a useful form of success criteria, that should be considered practitioners. In recent decades, coastal communities have also witnessed and par-
more for mangrove rehabilitation projects. Canopy closure of 75% or more can be ticipated in a number of failed mangrove planting projects, and are usually eager to
considered a rough target 7-10 years after a rehabilitation effort. learn what went wrong.
B) Statistical Testing
One set of activities essential to encourage continued coastal community involve-
Once data has been collected and basic analysis has be carried out, we can begin ment in mangrove restoration and mangrove forest management is monitoring fol-
to ask the question: Is the change seen in a particular sample parameter due to an
lowed by reflection. Monitoring mangroves does not need to be difficult. Qualita-
actual change in the population parameter, or is the change seen due to sampling
variation? Statistical tests of significance compare critical values with calculated val- tive measurements of mangrove recruitment and early growth, the development of a
ues which answers this question. functional hydrology, and the return of mangrove fauna to a restoration site can be
achieved with simple observation and data keeping techniques.
Statistical tests almost always test hypotheses, which usually follow the following
format: Here we present a participatory monitoring method, using a simple, illustrated, two-
sided data sheet (see Fig. 9.4), that coastal community members can use to record
• Null Hypothesis: There is no real change in the population parameter. their observations for reflection and analysis. The results of these surveys are largely
• Alternative hypothesis: This is a real change.

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Fig. 9.4

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used to inform mid-course corrections, but also used to increase general community Objectives
awareness of a mangrove restoration effort, and also in presentations to other stake- The objectives of this activity are similar to the participatory biodiversity survey ob-
holders, primarily government to advocate for community involvement in mangrove jectives from Chapter 5. Participatory mangrove monitoring has the following aims;
management. 99 Increasing the awareness of local community members in responding to chang-
ing environments.
The indicators for this monitoring activity were chosen in close consultation with 99 Building skills, knowledge and confidence in mangrove management practices.
the communities themselves. Use of local terminology is essential. Monitoring 99 Encouraging observation and research skills and trial and error.
schedules and methods are also developed in close partnership. An emphasis is 99 Comparing typical mangrove planting practices with EMR.
placed on involvement of women and also youth, enabling more equitable mangrove 99 Building community and stakeholder awareness over the mangrove restoration
management for the future. This exercise is similar to the participatory biodiversity and subsequent management.
survey presented in Chapter 5.
Time: 1.5 days:
Community Organizing/Participant Selection • ½ day for briefing,
Form a restoration monitoring group with between 12-25 members. Women, men • ½ day for mapping, collecting data
and youth should be involved equally. Monitoring as a school activity, expressly • ½ day for data analyzing.
for youth is also a good way to ensure skills and knowledge around mangroves will
persist over time. Make sure that participants understand the objectives of forming Materials
a monitoring group. Developing a learning contract is recommended. • Flipchart • Cameras (Cell phone cameras)
• Maps • Field guide
Emphasis should be placed on educational approaches, rather than technical, sci- • Stationery (data analyzing) • Note book
entific approaches, although the monitoring method should be scientifically sound. • Pens/pencils • Calculator
Engagement in monitoring, and reflection will increase participants confidence, • Data sheets
awareness and responsibility to conserve a mangrove restoration area . • Previous data (baseline and previous monitoring data)

Monitoring Schedule Method

Once success criteria have been established, and the site restored through applica- 1. Before rehabilitation, form a monitoring group, with 12-25 women, men and
tion of EMR principles, monitoring, and reporting should begin. A typical monitor- children. Hold a discussion on why monitoring is important. Develop learning
ing schedule would consist of the following 10 reports: contracts.
2. Before rehabilitation, the community group must be facilitated to make a moni-
• Time Zero (T0)
toring workplan and timeline. and establishment of success criteria is essential.
• T0 + 3 months, T0 + 6 months, T0 + 9 months, T0 + 12 months
The monitoring schedule above can be used as a guide for monitoring events,
• T0 + 18 months, T0 + 24 months
but development of a locally appropriate schedule is necessary, taking into ac-
• T0 + 36 months, T0 +48 months
count seasonal cultural, economic events and also environmental factors such as
• T0 +60 months
tides or weather.
A Time Zero report is prepared after all the site restoration changes have been ac- 3. After rehabilitation, facilitate the community group to develop and explain indi-
complished and any proposed planting completed. It should include photographs cators that will be monitor as the data. Steer the selection towards a few key spe-
taken from fixed stations where future photography will also be taken. The shorter cies of flora and fauna as well as several hydrological (and potentially edaphic)
intervals in the early years of monitoring are designed to insure that any corrective factors. Develop a scoring system for each indicator. Simple scoring systems,
actions necessary due to problems encountered during monitoring are quickly from 1 to 3, 1 to 5 or -1 to +1 are common. Summing up the score from each
corrected. These are termed “mid-course corrections.” Lewis (2009). monitoring event will provide a rough index for rehabilitation success.

•
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Examples of indicators;
• Vegetation; diversity, density, rate of recruitment
• Fauna; diversity, abundance
• Hydrology: tidal creek formation, dike wall condition, ponding/standing water
4. Draw sketch maps of the rehabilitation area, open base maps or provide poster
size remote sensing images for reference. Randomly place six monitoring/obser-
vation stations for each restoration area (ranging from approx 10 – 50 hectares).
A numbered grid, overlayed on the map, and a random number generator func-
tion on a calculator is a good way to generate random sampling points.
5. The group can be divided to monitor 2-3 stations each, or all members can visit
all six stations.
7. Ask the participants to take on clear roles and responsibilities before going into
the field. Identify all tools that will be needed to conduct the survey. Aim for all
field work to take place at low-tide.
8. Collect data at the six selected site. Create permanent photo stations at each site,
using a PVC pipe cemented into a hole. This can act as the transect or quadrat
starting point. Photos should be taken at all four major compass directions (N,
E, S, W).
9. Back in the village, collect all the data from the group. Tally the scores of each
indicator and average them across the sites.
10. Analyze the data together. Refer to older data sheets and compare results across
time. Pay special attention to practical determinations of whether or not more
hydrological or ecological repair is necessary, or whether the restoration can be
considered a success.
11. Show pictures taken from the monitoring event to stimulate discussion. Print
and post some of the photos in a public space. Have the group develop appro-
priate captions.

6.0 Discussion Question

• Why is monitoring after EMR necessary?
• Why is biodiversity important to the mangrove ecosystem? To the community?
• Is the data collected during monitoring useful to inform mid-term corrections
and future management?
• When will success at your site be reached?
• What information from the monitoring activity do you need to pass on to gov-
ernment and other stakeholders?

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INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDIES

1. Introduction
2. West Lake Park, Florida, USA
3. Barnabe Island, São Paulo, Brazil
4. Muthupet &Pichavaram,Tamil Nadu, India
5. Tanakeke Island, South Sulawesi, Indonesia
6. additional case studies needed
10 EMR Manual Chapter 10 - Case Studies

7.1 Introduction - International Case Studies .7.2 West Lake Park, USA Time Zero - 1989
The following case studies come from across the globe, and represent trials of both
Ecological Mangrove Rehabilitation and other mangrove restoration attempts. Location: West Lake Park, Hollywood,
These case studies currently differ in length, detail and focus, but all are meant sim- Florida, USA. 26º 02’ 2.49” N, 80º 07’
ply as learning tools. Indeed, the only wrong practice in mangrove restoration, are 25.67” W
those which are hidden. Without monitoring, open sharing and communication,
the art of mangrove restoration will not progress.
Size of Project: 500 ha
Note to authors - We are still accepting international case studies of all types of eco-
logical mangrove rehabilitation projects. Case studies should be chosen which il-
lustrate both success and failure due to site selection, due to planting practice, and Methods of Restoration: 80 ha of dredged
the application of EMR principles. Case studies should also include examples of spoil excavation back to historical grade,
volunteer colonization of mangroves, 420 A
stakeholder engagement and community based management, examples of education
and training projects and examples of particular restored wetlands which achieve ha of hydrologic restoration of stressed
Time Zero + 28 Months - Nov. 1991
various objectives including biodiversity enhancement, coastal protection, wastewa- and damaged mangroves.
ter treatment, and carbon sequestration.

The following template can be used to guide contributing authors. Project Description: Privately owned
lands were purchases or donated to the
Case studies should have less than 3000 words with an abstract and short “facts and Broward County Parks and Recreation
figures” section featuring: location; ecosystems; size of the community (number of Department (BCPRD) totally approxi-
inhabitants); size (volume) of restored area; budget; duration; institutional, technical mately 600 ha, and mitigation required for
and scientific partners; main objectives and benefits; five keywords. development of approximately 100 ha was
undertaken by the BCPRD over a period
Each case study article should consider addressing: of ten years starting in 1985 (Phase 1).
• presentation of the challenges; Phase 2 was completed in 2011 with an B
• description of the pool of expertise; additional excavation of 20 ha. No plant-
• funding resources and mechanisms; ing of mangroves took place. See images Time Zero + 78 Months - Jan. 1996
• regulatory context: facilitating actions or constraints; to the right of a typical part of the restora-
• details of restoration plans and results; tion.
• methods used for monitoring;
• governance: forms of cooperation, innovations etc; Web Sources of Information: www.man-
• analysis of the key factors for success/failure (context-based or general); groverestoration.com, download docu-
• knowledge gaps; and ments #13, 24 and 42.
• main challenges and innovations.
R. Lewis ([email protected]) provided this
description.
Send case studies to;
Roy Robin Lewis: <[email protected]>
Fig 10.1 Time series of natural recruit- C
Ben Brown: <[email protected]>
ment at West Lake Park over 6.5 years.

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7.3 Barnabe Island - Brazil 2. it exposed the root ball, loosing up the seedlings which were then carried away
by the tides and;
Location: Barnabé Island, Santos, São Paulo, Brazil. 3. with the lowered substrata level, seedlings experienced higher and longer sub-
23º 55’ 25.35” S, 46º 19’ 30.04” W mersion periods, what made them suitable habitat for barnacle infestation, rot-
ting the seedling due to excessive moisture.
Size of Project: 0,1 ha
Others facts that proved the methods inadequate were: (1) the composition of spe-
Methods of Restoration: Riley Encased Methodology (Riley and Kent 1999). cies prior to the impact, and (2) the secondary successional processes undergoing
in the area. Formerly, the area was dominated by Laguncularia racemosa, followed
Project Description: On September 3, 1998, the mangrove stand surrounding the by Avicennia schaueriana (Fig. 7.4). Also, natural regeneration was being primarily
Barnabé Island was affected by a fire due to the accidental spillage of a flammable represented by L. racemosa and A. schaueriana while R. mangle seedlings, from both
chemical substance called dicyclopentadiene - DCPD (Fig. 7.2). The State environ- the strategies Figs. 7.4 and 7.5).
mental agency requested from the responsible for the accident a restoration project
based strictly on planting of Rhizophora mangle propagules using the REM (Riley &
Kent 1999). The project completely failed to restore mangrove coverage.

The loss of the vegetation cover severely altered the sediment dynamics. Topographic
surveys carried out between 2004 and 2008 demonstrated the increased sediment
loss where the mangrove used to fringe before the damage (Figure 7.3). Erosion
condemned natural and PVC planted propagules/seedlings mainly in three different
ways:
1. with the loss of the mudflat in front of the mangrove stand, wave energy was
increased and together with floating debris it struck many of the seedlings;

Figure 10.3 Micro-topographic 3D survey from the restoration site in two different
moments: (A) in 2004 and (B) in 2008 showing the sediment loss during this period.
The green line denotes the remaining stand (trees that survived the fire and natu-
ral regeneration patches) and the red line the area occupied by mangroves before
the accident. The spatial difference between then in the fringe represents the area
planted with R. mangle inside PVC encasements. Survival rates of (C) naturally re-
generated stands (assessed from 2 forest structure plots, according to Cintrón and
Fig 10.2 Study area location (right). A black arrow indicates the Barnabé Island. Schaeffer Novelly 1984) and (D) planted mangroves in the restoration site. Lr = L.
Mangrove stand at the moment of the accident in 1998 (left; image by Edison racemosa, As = A. schaueriana, Rm = R. mangle. Adapted from Coelho-Jr (2007,
Baraçal, reproduced from A Tribuna Newspaper from September 4th, 1998). unpublished report); Menghini (2008) and Menghini et al. (2011).

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Figure 10.4 Photo sequence - Barnabe Island Mangrove Restoration After nearly a decade (2001-2010) the project turned into a complete failure (Fig-
Images from the restoration site between 2001 (A) and 2010 (I). A and B show the ures 2C, 2D and 3). The planting and redundant replanting (n=477, without consid-
remaining stems and the early stages of secondary succession with L. racemosa ering replantings), at a total cost of US$105,000, resulted at only 1.26% of survival
and A. schaueriana. C illustrates the beginning of the plantings using REM. In D it (Coelho-Jr 2007, unpublished report).
is still possible to see the “white” of the PVC pipes while in E – G (2004-2006) the
pipes were already infested by barnacles and algae. After the manual removal of
Fig 10.5 Species composition and dominance in the restoration area before the im-
PVC encasements out of the few left over saplings (H) the lost mangrove fringe
pact. Plots were established inside the restoration site (remaining trees) and con-
remained the same as if no planting had ever been carried out (I). The only patches
tiguous to it aiming to provide a good representation of the site before the damage.
of vegetation that still thrive in the restoration site is composed by volunteer man-
Lr = L. racemosa, As = A. schaueriana, Rm = R. mangle. Adapted from Coelho-Jr
groves. Red arrows indicate a mountain as a landmark.
(2007, unpublished report); Menghini et al. (2011).

Plots Alive Basal Area (m2/ha) Dead Basal Area (m2/ha)

Rm Lr As Total Rm Lr As Total
1 - 27,3 13,5 40,8 - 58,9 0,3 59,2
2 11,5 60,0 - 71,5 0,5 28,0 - 28,7
3 6,1 27,6 5,0 38,7 - 60,7 0,6 61,3

Citations:
Cintron and Novelli, 1984
Coelho, 2007
Menghini, 2008
Menghini, et al., 2008
Riley and Kent, 1999

This case study description was provided by

Andre Rovai ([email protected])

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7.4 F ishbone Canal Bank Mangrove Planting Projects in India and density of mangroves increased because of the natural establishment of propa-
gules flushed into the site by tidal waters
Location: The Muthupet (10°20’21”N-79°29’58”E) and Pichavaram mangroves
(11°25’47”N- 79°47’29”E) of Tamil Nadu, India; the Krishna and Godavari (15°2’ Status of the rehabilitation design/projects:
15°55’N - 80°42’81°01’E) mangroves of Andhra Pradesh, India; the Devi and The planted mangroves along the canal banks of the fish bone model sites were in-
Mahanadi mangroves 19ºN- 22º N 85º E 87º E of Orissa; and the Sundarbans spected on December 15-18, 2012 to understand the status of mangrove replenish-
89°00’89°55’E -21°30’22°30’N of West Bengal, India ment happened during the years between 1996 and 2012 (16 years).

Size of Project: 1,447 ha of degraded mangroves. The healthy Suaeda swamp eco- • The design of the feeder and distribution canals did not match with the natural
systems (termed as degraded mangroves/saline blanks by the project team) were sinuous pattern of tidal water circulation.
converted to develop fish bone canal bank planting models.

Methods of Restoration: Fishbone design: A feeder canal leads to distribution canals

on either side, angled at 30° in the direction of water flow. Width of feeder canal is
3 m (top), 1 m (bottom) and 1 m (depth). Width of distribution canal is 2 m (top),
75 cm (bottom) and 75 cm (depth). Distribution canals are linked to avoid blind end
points. Feeder canals are at 50-m distance and distribution canals are at 20-m dis-
tance. The distribution canals are angled at 30°, not perpendicular to the feeder canal.

Project Description:
Joint Mangrove Management
( JMM): Between 1996 and 2004,
a total of 33 villages in the four
states and about 5,200 families
participated. Planted about 6.8
million mangrove saplings in the
restored areas, of which 75–80%
survived. A substantial increase
in plant density due to natural
regeneration was noted after one
or two years in the restored areas.
About 12,000 ha of mangrove
forests were brought under JMM.
Mangrove plants Rhizophora apic-
ulata, Rhizophora mucronata and
Avicennia marina) were planted
along the main and feeder canals
at 1-m intervals. In the first year,
the survival rate was about 80%;
thereafter, the total number of Fig 10.7 Time Zero + 16 years after fish bone canal construction and canal bank
plants in the demonstration area, planting.
Fig 10.6 Fishbone Canal Design

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Fig 10.8 Snapshots of developments over time of fishbone canals (This page and
next) Initially, canals supported adequate mangrove growth at appropriate sub-
strate elevations. Over time, however, siltation of tidal channels caused mangrove
stunting and mortality.

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• The depth and width of both feeder and distribution canals are extremely nar- 7.5 Community Based EMR in 400 hectares of Disused Tambak,
row for long term existence and the directions of canals dug were also against Tanakeke Island, South Sulawesi.
the natural water circulation pattern.
• Out of the entire feeder canals checked for water depth, the maximum depth of A) Location
water measured was 30 cm; virtually, at present all the distribution canals have Tanakeke Island is located just off the mainland of South Sulawesi Province, Indo-
vanished showing few remnant dry patches of planted mangroves. nesia (see Fig A). A coral atoll, the island exhibits coral reef, seagrass and overwash
• The lagoons and estuaries are tidally dynamic and the silt deposited in these mangrove forest ecosystems, with little terrestrial area. The main livelihood of most
narrow fish bone canals are not flushed off due to the inappropriate canal design islanders is seaweed farming which takes place in expansive sub-tidal areas lagoons.
with limited tidal prism. The feeder and distribution canals were found silted Fishing along the reefs and out to sea is undertaken by the entire community of
and in several places tidal flows were blocked by the both planted and volunteer 10,073 inhabitants. During the 1990’s, 1200 ha of the island’s 1776 ha of mangrove
mangrove pneumatophores and prop root systems. forest were converted to shrimp/milkfish aquaculture ponds (Ukkas, 2011). Of this
• The mouths of all the feeder canals from the water front/river are fully blocked total, 800 ha are community owned – yet largely disused – as Tanakeke Islanders
by roots, debris and silt. The evidence for a successful ‘fish bone canal mangrove have difficulty purchasing external inputs, maintaining dike walls and productivity,
planting project’ itself is not visible in several locations. and have largely converted to seaweed mariculture.
• Canals become silted in the very next year after the withdrawal of the project
from sites (perhaps 3-6 years project duration), as the most expensive propor-
tion of the project’s activity called ‘canals de-silting’ rarely happens thereafter
to regulate water for the planted seedlings, or only happens for a few years as
money is available.
• Mangroves along these fish bone canals muddled through to survive as long as
they were wet and at present these planted as well as the naturally established
ones recorded during the project duration have vanished as the canals are no
more in existence to flush the plants with tide water.
• The ecosystem is turning to its original Suaeda spp swamp in several places and
in areas where the water is still reaching was marshy and in a verge of returning
to its former natural conditions.

Web Sources of Information: www.mssrf.org

Citations
MSSRF, 2002. The Mangrove: Decade and Beyond. Activities, Lessons and Chal-
lenges in Mangrove Conservation and Management 1990–2001. Chennai: M. S.
Swaminathan Research Foundation, 41 pp Fig 10.9 The landsat photos above (A) was taken in
1976, depicting 1776 ha of in-tact mangrove forest.
Selvam V., Ramasubramanian R. and K. K. Ravichandran, 2012. Genesis and pres- This 2013 Google Earth image (B) shows 1200 ha of
ent status of restoration practices in saline blanks in India,pp 133, Sharing Lessons tambak development.
on Mangrove Restoration, Proceedings and a Call for Action from an MFF Re-
gional Colloquium 30–31 August 2012, Mamallapuram, India Tanakeke Island occurs 12 km from the mainland of
South Sulawesi, a difficult crossing in rough seas for
This case study description was provided by; the local community.
Oswin Stanley ([email protected])

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Tenure over 400 ha of converted mangrove forests has been granted to the Ministry • Re-establishment of the natural biodiversity of mangrove fauna (species and-
of Transmigration, and as such have not yet been considered for mangrove reha- community associations) – based on previous surveys and interviews with elders.
bilitation (ibid). The remaining 576 ha of mangroves is frequently clear-felled, for • Development of community based mangrove management regulations; primar-
charcoal production, fuelwood, construction poles, fishing equipment and structural ily delineating sustainable timber harvest practices and zones, as well as village
supports for seaweed mariculture. conservation forests (hutan pangandriang).
• Improved community awareness and vigilance through formation of forest
management learning groups (FMLG’s) and “Womangrove” groups, develop-
Of the 800 ha of community owned ponds, 400 ha were made available for Ecologi- ment of sustainable livelihood alternatives and support of environmental educa-
cal Mangrove Rehabilitation (EMR) over a 4 year period, the process and results of tion for school children.
which are discussed below. CAD 440,000 was made available for both the social- • Formation of a multi-stakeholder mangrove management working group
organizing processes, as well as physical restoration of the site. An additional CAD (KKMD) at the district level with a long-term mandate to guide conservation
150,000 was required for project management and technical assistance, bringing the and sustainable utilization of Tanakeke Island’s mangrove ecosystem.
total investment to CAD 590,000. • Legitimization of village community management plans by the KKMD.

Social organizing and physical work were initiated and implemented by Mangrove C) Benefits to Community:
Action Project – Indonesia as part of the 4.5 year, CAD 7.7 million Restoring • Storm protection. Villages on the Western edge of the island have experienced
extreme flooding events and erosion of landforms after conversion of mangroves
Coastal Livelihood (RCL) project funded by the Canadian International Develop-
to aquaculture
ment Agency (CIDA) and OXFAM-GB. Yayasan Konservasi Laut, a local NGO • Enhanced fisheries. Although not scientifically monitored, communities are
partner based in Makassar, provided community organizing and policy assistance. currently monitor crab, shrimp and fish populations in tidal creeks twice a year
Numerous government agencies were involved in terms of coordination, training, through participatory monitoring. Fisheries studies will be built into future
and policy development at three levels; projects, with the intent of re-establishing 75% of a functional fisheries equiva-
lent to the mangrove area within 7 years of restoration.
• Village level: Village Leaders (4) Community Representative Board (BPD) • Improved growth of tree biomass. Current clear-felling practices (on 6-8 year
• Sub-district/District level: Fisheries Dept., Forestry Dept., Planning Dept., So- cycles) and dense re-growth have resulted in low overall biomass production.
cial Agency, Technical Outreach and Extension Agency • Increased resilience of the mangrove system due to enhanced biodiversity; espe-
• Provincial level: Fisheries Dept, Forestry Dept, Planning, Technical Outreach cially re-establishment of mangrove species at lower intertidal elevations (Son-
neratia alba, Avicennia marina and A. alba).
and Extension Agency
• Development of non-timber forest products for subsistence use and local mar-
kets.
The University of Hasanuddin provided technical support, background studies,
guidance and eight (8) university undergraduate and graduate volunteers. D) Presentation of the Challenges
Four challenges were identified by local communities and other stakeholders during
Additional, on-going technical support is being provided by National University of this project, which are described below.
Singapore – Geography Department (modeling, substrate elevation measurements)
and Charles Darwin University – Research Institute for Environment and Liveli- 1. Resolving land tenure/utilization rights
hoods (carbon stock assessment, livelihood monitoring guidance). 2. Challenge to normative, project-oriented, over-simplified planting practices
3. Developing near term sustainable livelihood assistance while communities wait
B) Main Objectives: for mangrove recovery.
• Improved hydrology and promotion of natural revegetation in 400 ha of disused 4. Building gender awareness, ensuring equal female participation throughout
aquaculture ponds. process,
• 1250 – 3750 seedlings established and growing healthy (compared to bench-
mark) 3 years after initial hydrological rehabilitation.

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Figure 10.10 Clear felling for charcoal production puts villages at risk F) Policy Context
of increased impacts from waves, wind and flooding. Villages Forest coverage on Tanakeke was never under the jurisdiction of the Forestry Depart-
along the Western (windward) side of the island have all ment. Individual forest ownership and use rights (both legally titled and traditional)
experienced increased flooding due to clear felling of were the most common form of tenure, with small areas designated by the villages as
coastal mangroves for charcoal production conservation commons (hutan pangandrian).
and pond development.
Both a bottom-up and top-down approach was used simeltaneously leading towards
collaborative management. Bottom-up approaches included mangrove rehabilitation,
livelihoods work and preparation of community groups to present management plans
to government leadership. The top-down approach involved formation of the Provin-
cial and then Distirct level multi-stakeholder mangrove working group - mandated by
national law. Preparation of government representatives on the working group took
place through seminars, meetings and field exposure.

E) Funding Resources and Mechanisms

The Restoring Coastal Livelihoods (RCL) project totals CAD 7.7 million, funded
90% by the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) and 10% by OX-
FAM-GB who also facilitate the project out of Makassar, South Sulawesi. The proj-
ect works in four (4) districts in South Sulawesi; Takalar, Maros, Pangkep and Barru.
Amongst its goals are 400 hectares of mangrove rehabilitation and 2000 hectares of
improved management of intertidal resources. Mangrove rehabilitation at Tanakeke
Island totals 400 hectares with an additional 25 hectares are being implemented on
the mainland in the district of Maros. The total cost of 425 ha of mangrove reha-
bilitation is $440,000 (including physical rehabilitation, community organizing and
governance work) plus $150,000 to support MAP staff assigned to EMR over a 4
year period. This works out to a project total of 425 ha of restoration at a cost of
$590,000 or $1388/ha Fig. 10.11 A fuel-efficient cookstove building and comparison activity was one
method employed to build the capacity of communities to become engaged in
The value of mangroves, once restored, has not yet been determined. A participatory collaborative management with government stakeholders.
Total Economic Valuation is being carried out at a reference forest in the province.
A multi-stakeholder mangrove working group (KKMD) is being formed at the dis-
trict level in Takalar, enabled by Presidential Decree 73, 2012 and described in the G) Details of Restoration Plans and Results
National Mangrove Strategy. The KKMD will be able to access short and medium An expanded 10 step EMR process was used to facilitate communities in learning
term government budgets in order to continue support of rehabilitation, monitoring about, planning for, implementing and monitoring mangrove rehabilitation activi-
and management activities, being termed Adaptive Collaborative Management. No ties.
form of carbon finance has yet been considered for this site.

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1. Rapid Assessments. Establishing land tenure, community interest, and ecologi- The long term objectives of FMLG’s are (Margostovich, 2002);
cal feasibility of mangrove rehabilitation. • Identifying, generating and testing locally appropriate forest management prac-
2. Social Assessments. More in depth understanding of community structure and tices to ensure local users’ needs are being met.
activities. Included stakeholder analysis, gender analysis and development of a • Improving the capacities, knowledge and confidence of users to more actively
seasonal calendar. Land tenure issues were further clarified. manage local forest area to satisfy local needs.
• Strengthening the capacities, knowledge, analytical skills and confidence of fa-
3. EMR Technical Training. 5 day training of trainers on the entire EMR process
cilitators in working with local forest users.
for select community participants. Three such trainings were held over 4 years.
• Improving the relations between users and forest department staff.
4. Baseline Biophysical Surveys. See chapter 5 of this manual.
5. Stakeholder Meetings and EMR Design. Numerous meetings with commu-
nity, government agents and university researchers. Very detailed community
based design process, including technical design, biophysical work planning, eq-
uitable labor contracting.
6. Implementation. All six mangrove rehabilitation projects on Tanakeke Island
involved;
• Local community labor with hand tools
• Strategic Breaching of Dike Walls
• Creation of tidal channels
• Periodic hand distribution of all native propagules into the rehabilitation
area A B
• Planting trials C D
• Mounding trials (increasing substrate height with fill from dike walls. Oc-
casional inclusion of beach wrack, charcoal or bamboo into the substrate.

No substantial addition of fill, or erosion control measures were attempted in the

Tanakeke project. Some amount of hand planting is taking place in certain villages,
up to 10% of any given village site.

Heavy machinery was not used on Tanakeke Island, due to distance from the main-
land and lack of excavated ponds to repair. The 25 hectare trial in Maros District,
scheduled for 2014, will use heavy machinery to breach dike walls, dig tidal channels
and created mounded areas, in combination with local labor and hand tools.
7. As-built Surveys. See chapter 5 of this manual.
Fig 10.12 A) Members of the Womangrove group hand-dig a 1.2 km tidal chan-
8. Development of Forest Management Learning Groups. MAP-Indonesia nel, to facilitate drainage of disused shrimp ponds at Lantang Peo village as part of
translated a pair of training manuals from the Regional Community Forestry mid-course corrections 12 months after initial rehabilitation (above left). B) The
Training Center (RECOFTC) on development of Forest Management Learn- resultant, meandering tidal channel. Material on the side of the channel was even-
ing Groups (Margostovich, 2002). These curricula use the field school method- tually moved away into island-like mounds in the middle of ponds (above right).
ology, which was already familiar to community participants and extensionists C) Natural recruitment of Sonneratia alba and Rhizophora apiculata 32 months
in South Sulawesi, who took part in the RCL Coastal Field School program, as after initial rehabilitation (bottom left). D) The middles of some ponds are being
well as prior farmer field school programs in the region. recruited as well, again by Sonneratia alba and Rhizophora apiculata (bottom left).

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• Gradually improving existing management plans to ensure that they are ad- H) Findings
dressing the changing needs of local people. A representative pair of charts depicting recruitment are presented for two of the six
• Generating locally developed information and create opportunities for network- sites; Lantang Peo - Time Zero +32 months and Balang Datu Pesisir – Time Zero
ing and the spread of locally appropriate information. + 10 months (Figures 5 and 6).
9. Mid-course Corrections. Informed by analysis of data collected during both
participatory and academic monitoring activities (see section 2.6). Commu-
nities and mangrove rehabilitation practitioners determine appropriate mid-
course corrections during community meetings. Common mid-course correc-
tions on Lantang Peo included;
• Hand-digging perpendicular branches on tidal channels,
• Connecting tidal channels,
• Closing off select dike wall breaches to increase flows and (scouring effect)
through primary channels,
• Continued propagule dispersal,
• Augmentational planting,
• Creating mounded areas above MSL.
A search for halophytic grass species growing near mean sea level was under- Figure 10.14: Density of mangrove plants per hectare over time - Lantang Peo (T0 + 32
taken but unsuccessful. In other projects, planting of halophytic grasses is used months) There is an increase in species present within the site, from 2 prior to rehabilitation
to stabilize substrates, capture mangrove propagules, and enhance edaphic con- to 5 species established and growing after 32 months. The additional 3 species are the same
ditions for mangrove colonization (Friess, 2012; Lewis and Dunstan, 1975) as species that have been dispersed within the site during rehabilitation. A linear analysis has
indicated there is a strong positive relationship between average site density and months
10. Monitoring. Academic & Participatory (See Fig 10.13 below and Chapter 9 on
since initial rehabilitation (R2 is close to 1.00). An independent two tailed-tailed t- test shows
monitoring) there is a real change in the average density of the population, i.e. the change seen is not due
to sampling variability (t Stat = 2.44 > t Critical two–tail = 2.07)
Fig 10.13 MAP EMR team during a long-plot survey at Balaang Datu Pesisir
(below left). Community members tally scores to create an index of reha- The oldest site of the six villages, Lantang Peo, has already exceeded success criteria
bilitation success from participatory monitoring (below right). for mangrove recruitment and early growth, averaging 2171 plants per hectare, and
showing a natural biodiversity for the site based on comparison with references (his-
torical and Panikiang Island reference forest). Note, there is no upper mangrove or
terrestrial area at this site, which explains the relatively low species diversity.

A pair of sites rehabilitated between 2 years ago will be monitored in February, 2013,
and the data is not presented here.

Three relatively new sites which were monitored in November, 2013 along with Lan-
tang Peo included Balang Datu Pesisir (T0+10 months), Bangko Tinggia (T0+10
months) and Dande Dandere (T0+7 months), and were already exhibiting densities
of 1450, 900 and 767 mangroves per hectare. All sites showed a strong positive
linear correlation between average mangrove density and time after rehabilitation
except for the Bangko Tinggia site which showed weak positive linear correlation.
This data is summarized in figure 10.16.

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G) Lessons Learned and Knowledge Gaps

The apparent success of the low-cost method of strategically breaching dike walls
is clear to villagers from Tanakeke Island. The method seems feasible for similar
large areas of disused aquaculture ponds that have not been excavated with heavy
equipment. Deeper ponds, with stronger dike walls, may or may not require the use
of heavy equipment and fill material. At a certain scale, greater than 100 hectares,
heavy equipment may also be required, even in non-excavated ponds.

Certainly at larger scales, landscapes requiring thousands of hectares of repair, use of

heavy equipment will be required, but the same use of strategic breaching and tidal
creek creation may be feasible. Projects have already been identified in Indonesia
of up to 7500 ha (Tanjung Panjang, Gorontalo) and up to 60,000 ha (Mahakam
Delta, East Kalimantan). Political will of local stakeholders to rehabilitate a portion
Fig 10.15: Density of mangrove plants per hectare over time - Balang Datu Pesisir of disused ponds is already established, and Ecological Mangrove Rehabilitation -
(T0 + 10 months) An increase in species present within the site is not yet evident in with a high degree of genuine community involvement - is recommended as a best
our monitoring results however a linear analysis has indicated there is a strong posi- practice approach.
tive relationship between average site density and months since initial rehabilitation
(R2 is close to 1.00). A paired two tailed-tailed t- test shows we cannot yet conclude Knowledge Gaps
there is a real change in the average density of the population, i.e. the change seen • Low cost methods for substrate elevation measurement at large-scale,
is possibly due to sampling variability (t Stat = 1.81 < t Critical two–tail = 2.45) • Sizing tidal channels during restoration,
• Solutions for enhancing recruitment in fluid substrates,
• Calculating rates of sedimentation with low-cost methods,
Figure 10.16: Recruitment at Four Sites on Tanakeke Island Monitored in Nov. • Developing benthic macroinvertebrate indicators,
2013 • How to convince government, aid projects, to abandoned simple planting prac-
Site Size Months After Mangrove Species tices,
(ha) Rehabilitation Density Recruiting • Clear cost benefit analysis of mangrove vs. aquaculture.
Stems/Hectare
Lantang Peo 64 32 2171 6
Balang Datu Pesisir 54 10 1450 3
Bangko Tinggia 39 10 900 4
Dande Dandere 33 7 767 2
Average 47.5 14.75 908 3.75

A full monitoring summary for this data is available upon request from the author.
In terms of analysis, mangroves are significantly recruiting into rehabilitated ponds,
reaching target densities between 2-3 years after ecological and hydrological reha-
bilitation. Nearby chronoseres 6-8 years of age show that mangrove densities can
reach upwards of 6000-8000 plants per hectare, currently dominated by Rhizophora
apiculata, which was anthropogenically selected for by local fisherfolk over time.

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262
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