Compiler Design unit 1

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 1.) Differetiate between one pass and multi-pass compiler?

Difference Between One-Pass and Multi-Pass Compiler

1. Definition

One-Pass Compiler: A compiler that scans and processes the source code only
once, translating it into machine code in a single pass.
Multi-Pass Compiler: A compiler that scans the source code multiple times,
refining and optimizing the code at each stage before final translation.

2. Comparison Table

Feature One-Pass Compiler Multi-Pass Compiler

Number of Scans Single pass Multiple passes

Memory
Low High
Requirement

Compilation Speed Faster Slower

Optimization Minimal Better optimization

Better, as errors can be corrected in

Error Handling Poor, as it doesn’t revisit code
later passes

Syntax Complexity Handles simple grammar Can handle complex grammar

Intermediate No intermediate Uses intermediate code

Code representation representation

Pascal (early versions), Some GCC (GNU Compiler Collection), Java

Example
assemblers Compiler

3. Key Points for Exams

One-pass compilers are faster but less efficient.

Multi-pass compilers take more time but optimize code and handle errors
effectively.
Multi-pass compilers generate better machine code as they refine it in multiple
stages.

4. Real-Life Analogy

One-Pass Compiler: Like writing an exam without revising; you write what
comes first, without reviewing.
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 Multi-Pass Compiler: Like drafting an essay, revising it multiple times to improve
quality and correctness.

💡 Tip for Exams: Draw a simple diagram showing a one-pass compiler versus a
multi-pass compiler for better presentation!

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 Construct minimum state DFA for regular expression (0 + 1)* 00 + 01.

Construction of Minimum State DFA for Regular Expression (0 + 1) (00 +

01)*

Step 1: Understanding the Given Regular Expression

The given regular expression:

(0 + 1)∗ (00 + 01)

(0 + 1)* → Represents any combination of 0s and 1s (including an empty string).

(00 + 01) → The string should end with either `"00"` or `"01"`.

Thus, the DFA should accept strings that contain any sequence of 0s and 1s and must
end with `"00"` or `"01"`.

Step 2: Constructing the DFA

1. States and Transitions

Start with q0 (initial state).
Track the last two characters of the input to check if they match `"00"` or
`"01"`.
If the last two characters match `"00"` or `"01"`, transition to the final
state.
If an input does not help in forming `"00"` or `"01"`, move to appropriate
states.
2. State Definitions
q0 → Start state (initial state).
q1 → Indicates the last read character was `"0"`.
q2 → Indicates the last read character was `"1"`.
q3 → Accepting state for `"00"`.
q4 → Accepting state for `"01"`.
3. Transition Table

Current State Input `0` Input `1` Final State

q0 (start) q1 q2 No

q1 q3 q4 No
q2 q1 q2 No

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 Current State Input `0` Input `1` Final State

q3 q3 q3 Yes (00)
q4 q1 q2 Yes (01)

Step 3: DFA Diagram Representation

A graphical representation would include states `{q0, q1, q2, q3, q4}` with directed
transitions:

rust

--> (q0) --0--> (q1) --0--> (q3) [Accepting]

| |
1 1
V V
(q2) -----> (q4) [Accepting]
0

Step 4: Minimization of DFA

The DFA is already minimal since all states serve a necessary role.
Both `q3` and `q4` are accepting states since the regular expression allows
`"00"` and `"01"` at the end.

Final Answer

The minimum-state DFA consists of five states: `{q0, q1, q2, q3, q4}`.
Accepting states: `{q3, q4}`.
Transitions track the last two characters to ensure the string ends with `"00"` or
`"01"`.

✅ Tip for Exam: Draw the DFA diagram clearly and explain the state transitions
logically to get full marks! 🚀

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 What is Lex? Explain with suitable code in short

Lex (Lexical Analyzer Generator)

1. Definition

Lex is a lexical analyzer generator that automatically converts regular expressions

into a C program to recognize patterns in text. It is mainly used to tokenize the input
in a compiler.

2. Working of Lex

Lex consists of three sections:

1. Definition Section (`%%` before rules) – Define macros and header files.
2. Rules Section (`%%` between rules and code) – Specifies pattern-action pairs.
3. Code Section (`%%` after rules) – Contains user-defined functions (optional).

3. Example Lex Program

Task: Identify keywords, numbers, and identifiers in an input file.

%{
#include <stdio.h>
#include "y.tab.h"
%}

DIGIT [0-9]+
ID [a-zA-Z_][a-zA-Z0-9_]*
KEYWORD "if"|"else"|"while"|"return"

%%

{DIGIT} { printf("Number: %s\n", yytext); }

{ID} { printf("Identifier: %s\n", yytext); }
{KEYWORD} { printf("Keyword: %s\n", yytext); }
\n { /* Ignore newlines */ }
. { /* Ignore other characters */ }

%%

int main() {
yylex(); // Call lexical analyzer
return 0;
}
int yywrap() {

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 return 1;
}

4. Explanation

`DIGIT` matches numbers (0-9).

`ID` matches valid variable names.
`KEYWORD` detects reserved words like `"if"`, `"else"`.
`yytext` holds the matched token.
`yylex()` reads the input and classifies tokens.
`yywrap()` signals Lex to stop reading input.

5. Output Example

Input:

if x == 5 return y;

Output:

vbnet

Keyword: if
Identifier: x
Number: 5
Keyword: return
Identifier: y

✅ Tip for Exam: Explain briefly, include an example, and highlight sections for
clarity! 🚀
`%%`

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 Write short notes on:
(i) Compiler writing tools
(ii) Role of Lexical Analyzer

with example

(i) Compiler Writing Tools

1. Definition

Compiler writing tools are software programs that help in the development of
different phases of a compiler. They assist in generating scanners, parsers, and
intermediate code.

2. Important Compiler Writing Tools

Tool Function
Lex Generates lexical analyzers (tokenizers).

Yacc (Yet Another Compiler Compiler) Generates syntax analyzers (parsers).

Provides tools for code optimization and
LLVM (Low-Level Virtual Machine)
generation.

Bison Similar to Yacc, used for parsing.

A modern version of Lex, used for lexical
Flex
analysis.

ANTLR (Another Tool for Language Generates parsers for different programming
Recognition) languages.

3. Example

Using Lex and Yacc to tokenize and parse an arithmetic expression:

// Lex file (lexer.l)

%{
#include "y.tab.h"
%}

DIGIT [0-9]+
%%

{DIGIT} { return NUMBER; }

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 "+" { return PLUS; }
"-" { return MINUS; }
. { return yytext[0]; }

%%

int yywrap() { return 1; }

// Yacc file (parser.y)

%{
#include <stdio.h>
%}

%token NUMBER PLUS MINUS

%%

expr: expr PLUS expr { printf("Addition\n"); }

| expr MINUS expr { printf("Subtraction\n"); }
| NUMBER;

%%
int main() {
yyparse();
return 0;
}

(ii) Role of Lexical Analyzer

1. Definition

A lexical analyzer (also called a scanner) is the first phase of a compiler that
processes the source code to convert it into tokens.

2. Functions of Lexical Analyzer

1. Removes Whitespaces and Comments – Eliminates unnecessary characters.

2. Tokenizes the Input – Identifies keywords, identifiers, operators, and literals.
3. Tracks Line Numbers – Helps in error reporting.
4. Handles Symbol Table Entries – Stores identifiers and their attributes.
5. Sends Tokens to Syntax Analyzer – Passes structured tokens for further
processing.

3. Example

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Input Code:

int x = 10;

Lexical Analysis Output (Tokens):

makefile

Keyword: int
Identifier: x
Operator: =
Number: 10

✅ Tip for Exams:

Use diagrams to show the compiler phases.
Provide examples for both sections to improve answer clarity and scoring. 🚀

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 diagrams to show the compiler phases.

Here’s a diagram illustrating the phases of a compiler:

css

Source Program
↓
Lexical Analyzer (Tokenization)
↓
Syntax Analyzer (Parsing)
↓
Semantic Analyzer (Checks Meaning)
↓
Intermediate Code Generator
↓
Code Optimizer
↓
Code Generator
↓
Target Machine Code

Detailed Diagram with Components

plaintext

+------------------+
| Source Program |
+------------------+
↓
+------------------+
| Lexical Analyzer | → Generates Tokens
+------------------+
↓
+------------------+
| Syntax Analyzer | → Checks Syntax (Parsing)
+------------------+
↓
+------------------+
| Semantic Analyzer| → Type Checking & Meaning
+------------------+
↓
+------------------+
| Intermediate Code| → Generates Intermediate Representation (IR)
+------------------+
↓
+------------------+
| Code Optimizer | → Improves Performance
+------------------+
↓
+------------------+
| Code Generator | → Converts IR to Machine Code
+------------------+

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 ↓
+------------------+
| Target Machine Code |
+------------------+

Explanation of Phases

1. Lexical Analysis → Converts input into tokens (e.g., keywords, identifiers).

2. Syntax Analysis → Parses tokens to check grammar rules.
3. Semantic Analysis → Ensures correctness (e.g., type checking).
4. Intermediate Code Generation → Converts source code into an intermediate
representation.
5. Code Optimization → Improves code efficiency.
6. Code Generation → Produces machine code for execution.

✅ Tip for Exams: Draw a simple flowchart and briefly describe each phase to
maximize marks! 🚀

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 What is a compiler? for 8 makrs

Compiler
1. Definition

A compiler is a software program that translates high-level programming language

(e.g., C, Java) into machine code (binary format) that a computer can execute. It
ensures that the program follows the syntax and semantics of the programming
language.

2. Features of a Compiler

✔ Converts entire source code into machine code at once.

✔ Performs lexical, syntax, and semantic analysis before code execution.
✔ Optimizes the code to improve efficiency.
✔ Generates error messages for incorrect syntax.
3. Phases of a Compiler

A compiler works in multiple phases to ensure accurate and optimized code

translation.

(i) Analysis Phase (Front-End)

1. Lexical Analysis – Converts code into tokens (e.g., keywords, identifiers).

2. Syntax Analysis – Parses tokens to check grammatical correctness.
3. Semantic Analysis – Ensures logical correctness (e.g., type checking).

(ii) Synthesis Phase (Back-End)

4. Intermediate Code Generation – Converts code into a language-independent

intermediate representation (IR).
5. Code Optimization – Enhances efficiency by removing redundant code.
6. Code Generation – Produces final machine code (binary format).

4. Diagram of Compiler Phases

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 css

Source Program
↓
Lexical Analyzer → Generates Tokens
↓
Syntax Analyzer → Parses Code
↓
Semantic Analyzer → Checks Meaning
↓
Intermediate Code Generator → Converts to IR
↓
Code Optimizer → Improves Efficiency
↓
Code Generator → Produces Machine Code
↓
Target Machine Code

5. Types of Compilers

1. Single-Pass Compiler – Processes source code in one pass (e.g., Pascal

Compiler).
2. Multi-Pass Compiler – Processes source code in multiple passes for better
optimization (e.g., GCC).
3. Just-In-Time (JIT) Compiler – Converts bytecode into machine code at runtime
(e.g., Java JIT Compiler).

6. Example of Compilation Process

Example C Program:

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
printf("Hello, World!");
return 0;
}

Compilation Steps:

1. Lexical Analysis: Converts code into tokens: `#include`, `int`, `printf`, etc.
2. Syntax Analysis: Checks if the syntax follows C grammar.
3. Semantic Analysis: Ensures correct variable types and function usage.
4. Code Generation: Produces machine code executable by the CPU.

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7. Difference Between Compiler and Interpreter

Feature Compiler Interpreter

Faster (entire program compiled before Slower (executes line-by-
Execution Speed
execution) line)
Error Detection Detects all errors at once Detects errors line-by-line

Output No separate machine code

Generates a separate machine code file
Generation file

Example C Compiler (GCC) Python Interpreter

8. Importance of a Compiler

✅ Enables High-Level Programming – Allows programmers to write code in human-

readable languages.
✅ Optimizes Code Execution – Ensures efficient and fast execution.
✅ Ensures Error-Free Code – Identifies syntax and logical errors before execution.
✅ Improves Portability – Converts code for different computer architectures.
Conclusion

A compiler is an essential tool in programming that converts high-level code into

machine code. It performs multiple analyses and optimizations to ensure error-free,
efficient execution of programs.

💡 Tip for Exams:

Explain all phases with a diagram.
Include examples for clarity.
Compare with an interpreter for extra marks! 🚀

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 Convert b (a + b)* a into a DFA.

To construct a Deterministic Finite Automaton (DFA) for the regular expression b (a

+ b) a*, follow these steps:

Step 1: Understanding the Regular Expression

b → The string must start with 'b'.

(a + b)* → After 'b', any combination of 'a' and 'b' (including empty string) is
allowed.
a → The string must end with 'a'.

Thus, the DFA should start with ‘b’, allow any sequence of ‘a’ and ‘b’, and end with
‘a’.

Step 2: Constructing the DFA

1. States: Define states to track progress.

q0 → Start state (before reading any character).
q1 → After reading 'b'.
q2 → After reading any sequence of 'a' and 'b' (loop).
q3 → After reading the final 'a' (Accepting state).
2. Transitions: Define how the DFA moves between states.
q0 → q1 on 'b' (Start with 'b').
q1 → q2 on 'a' or 'b' (Allow any characters).
q2 → q2 on 'a' or 'b' (Loop for (a+b)*).
q2 → q3 on 'a' (End with 'a').

Step 3: DFA Representation (Table Form)

State Input = 'a' Input = 'b' Final State?

q0 (Start) - q1 No

q1 q2 q2 No
q2 q3 q2 No

q3 q3 q3 Yes ✅
Step 4: DFA Diagram Representation
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 rust

---> (q0) --b--> (q1) --a/b--> (q2) --a--> (q3) [Accepting State]
|
|
v
Loop (a/b)

✅ Explanation:
q0 → q1 ensures the string starts with 'b'.
q1 → q2 allows any sequence of 'a' or 'b'.
q2 → q3 ensures the string ends with 'a'.
q3 is the final state (accepting).

Step 5: Testing the DFA

Input String Processing Steps Accepted?

ba q0 → q1 → q2 → q3 ✅ Yes
bba q0 → q1 → q2 → q2 → q3 ✅ Yes
aba q0 → ❌ (no transition) ❌ No
baba q0 → q1 → q2 → q2 → q3 ✅ Yes
bbb q0 → q1 → q2 → q2 ❌ No (does not end in 'a')
Final Answer:

The DFA accepts all strings that start with 'b', contain any combination of 'a' and
'b' in between, and end with 'a'.

💡 Tip for Exam:

Draw the DFA diagram to get full marks.
Explain transitions and test cases to make your answer strong! 🚀

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 Consider the following program:

main()
{
int x, y, z;
z = x + y;
}

List down the lexemes, tokens and the attributes of the tokens, at the end of
lexical analysis of the above program.

Lexical Analysis of the Given Program

Lexical analysis is the first phase of the compiler, where the source code is scanned
and broken down into lexemes, which are mapped to tokens.

Given Program:

main()
{
int x, y, z;
z = x + y;
}

Step 1: Identify Lexemes and Corresponding Tokens

Lexeme Token Attribute

`main` IDENTIFIER Function name

`(` LEFT_PARENTHESIS Opening parenthesis

`)` RIGHT_PARENTHESIS Closing parenthesis

`{` LEFT_BRACE Opening brace for block

`int` KEYWORD Data type

`x` IDENTIFIER Variable name

`,` COMMA Separator

`y` IDENTIFIER Variable name

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 Lexeme Token Attribute
`,` COMMA Separator

`z` IDENTIFIER Variable name

`;` SEMICOLON Statement terminator

`z` IDENTIFIER Variable name

`=` ASSIGNMENT_OPERATOR Assignment symbol `=`

`x` IDENTIFIER Variable name

`+` ARITHMETIC_OPERATOR Addition operator `+`

`y` IDENTIFIER Variable name

`;` SEMICOLON Statement terminator

`}` RIGHT_BRACE Closing brace for block

Step 2: Explanation of Attributes

Keywords (`int`) are reserved words in C.
Identifiers (`main, x, y, z`) represent function and variable names.
Operators (`=, +`) specify operations performed on data.
Delimiters (`(, ), {, }, ;, ,`) structure the program.

Final Answer:
Lexemes, Tokens, and Attributes

Lexeme Token Attribute

`main` IDENTIFIER Function name

`(` LEFT_PARENTHESIS -

`)` RIGHT_PARENTHESIS -
`{` LEFT_BRACE -

`int` KEYWORD Data type

`x` IDENTIFIER Variable name

`,` COMMA -

`y` IDENTIFIER Variable name

`,` COMMA -

`z` IDENTIFIER Variable name

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 Lexeme Token Attribute

`;` SEMICOLON -
`z` IDENTIFIER Variable name

`=` ASSIGNMENT_OPERATOR -

`x` IDENTIFIER Variable name

`+` ARITHMETIC_OPERATOR -

`y` IDENTIFIER Variable name

`;` SEMICOLON -

`}` RIGHT_BRACE -

✅ Tip for Exam:

Clearly list lexemes, tokens, and attributes in table format.
Explain token categories for full marks.
Mention the role of the lexical analyzer if needed! 🚀

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 Explain the various phases of compiler with the help of a diagram. Explain the
kind of transformation done on the source program by the individual phases of
the compiler on the statement position = initial + rate * 60.

Phases of a Compiler with Diagram

A compiler translates a high-level language program into machine code through

several phases. Each phase transforms the program progressively into an optimized
executable form.

Phases of Compilation:

1. Lexical Analysis (Scanning)

Breaks input into tokens (words, symbols).
Removes comments and whitespace.
Example: `position = initial + rate * 60;`
Tokens: `IDENTIFIER(position)`, `ASSIGN_OP(=)`, `IDENTIFIER(initial)`,
`PLUS(+)`, `IDENTIFIER(rate)`, `MULT(*)`, `NUMBER(60)`, `SEMICOLON(;)`.
2. Syntax Analysis (Parsing)
Constructs a parse tree using grammar rules.
Ensures syntactic correctness.
Example:

nginx

ASSIGNMENT_STATEMENT → IDENTIFIER = EXPRESSION;

EXPRESSION → TERM + TERM
TERM → FACTOR * FACTOR
FACTOR → IDENTIFIER | NUMBER

3. Semantic Analysis
Checks meaning (type correctness, undeclared variables).
Example:
`position`, `initial`, and `rate` must be declared.
`rate * 60` must be valid (e.g., integer multiplication).
4. Intermediate Code Generation
Converts source code into a low-level representation.
Example:

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 ini

t1 = rate * 60
t2 = initial + t1
position = t2

5. Optimization
Improves performance, reduces memory usage.
Example:

ini

position = initial + (rate * 60)

6. Code Generation
Converts intermediate code into machine code.
Example (Assembly Code):

sql

MOV R1, rate

MUL R1, #60
ADD R1, initial
MOV position, R1

7. Code Optimization
Further refines the generated machine code for efficiency.

Diagram: Phases of Compiler

css

Source Program → Lexical Analyzer → Syntax Analyzer → Semantic Analyzer →

Intermediate Code Generator → Code Optimizer → Code Generator → Target Machine Code

Exam Tip:

Draw the diagram (simple boxes/arrows).

Explain transformations using examples.
Mention error detection in each phase for extra marks! 🚀
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 Write short notes on:
(i) Single pass vs Multi pass compilers
(ii) Bootstrapping

(i) Single Pass vs Multi Pass Compilers

1. Single Pass Compiler

Processes the source code in one pass.

Generates machine code directly without intermediate representations.
Faster, but less efficient in optimization.
Examples:
Early versions of Pascal and C compilers.
Small, embedded system compilers.

✅ Advantages:
✔️ Requires less memory.
✔️ Faster compilation.
❌ Disadvantages:
❌ Limited optimizations due to lack of reprocessing.
❌ Cannot handle complex language constructs (e.g., forward references).
2. Multi Pass Compiler

Makes multiple passes over the source code.

Uses intermediate representations (IR) to refine translation.
Better optimization and error handling.
Examples:
GCC (GNU Compiler Collection)
Java Compiler (Javac)

✅ Advantages:
✔️ Better code optimization.
✔️ Can handle complex language features.
❌ Disadvantages:
❌ More memory and time required due to multiple passes.
Comparison Table

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 Feature Single Pass Compiler Multi Pass Compiler
Number of Passes One Multiple
Speed Fast Slow
Memory Usage Low High

Optimization Poor Better

Error Detection Limited Strong
Example Languages Pascal (Early), C (Early) Java, C++, GCC

(ii) Bootstrapping

Definition:

Bootstrapping is the process of writing a compiler in the same programming

language that it intends to compile.

Process:

1. A simple version of the compiler is written in a different language.

2. The compiler compiles itself into machine code.
3. This new compiled compiler is used to compile a more advanced version.

Example:

A C compiler written in C is first built using an existing compiler.

The new compiler then compiles itself to become self-hosted.

Advantages:

✔️ Allows portability across different systems.

✔️ Ensures compiler correctness by self-compilation.
✅ Real-World Example:
GCC (GNU Compiler Collection) was bootstrapped using earlier versions of
itself.

Exam Tips:

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✔️ Use comparison tables for clarity.
✔️ Mention examples for better marks.
✔️ Highlight advantages & disadvantages. 🚀

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 What is symbol table?

Symbol Table in Compiler Design

Definition:

A symbol table is a data structure used by the compiler to store information about
variables, functions, objects, classes, and other identifiers in the source program.
It helps in semantic analysis, type checking, and optimization.

Role of Symbol Table in Compiler Phases

1. Lexical Analysis:
Stores variable names, function names encountered in the code.
2. Syntax Analysis:
Ensures proper scoping and declaration.
3. Semantic Analysis:
Performs type checking and enforces rules.
4. Intermediate Code Generation & Optimization:
Helps in memory allocation and register assignment.

Structure of a Symbol Table

A symbol table typically contains the following fields:

Symbol Name Type Scope Memory Location Value

`x` `int` Global Address 1001 10
`y` `float` Local Address 2002 5.5

`sum()` `Function` Global Address 3003 -

Operations on Symbol Table

1. Insertion: Add new identifiers.

2. Lookup: Search if an identifier exists.
3. Modification: Update attributes of symbols.
4. Deletion: Remove unused symbols.

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Example: Symbol Table for C Code

int x, y;
float z;
void sum() { x = y + z; }

Symbol Type Scope Memory Address

`x` `int` Global 1001
`y` `int` Global 1002

`z` `float` Global 1003

`sum()` `Function` Global 2001

Exam Tip:

✔️ Define Symbol Table Clearly

✔️ Show Example Table for Full Marks
✔️ Mention Its Role in Compiler Phases 🚀

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 Explain the phases that constitute the front end of a compiler.

Phases of the Front End of a Compiler

The front end of a compiler is responsible for analyzing the source code and
ensuring it is syntactically and semantically correct before generating an
intermediate representation (IR). It consists of the following phases:

1. Lexical Analysis (Scanner)

✅ Function:
Breaks the source code into tokens (smallest meaningful units).
Removes whitespace, comments, and handles keywords, identifiers,
operators.

🔹 Example:
For `sum = a + b * 10;`
Tokens: `IDENTIFIER(sum)`, `ASSIGN_OP(=)`, `IDENTIFIER(a)`, `PLUS(+)`, `IDENTIFIER(b)`,
`MULT(*)`, `NUMBER(10)`, `SEMICOLON(;)`.

2. Syntax Analysis (Parser)

✅ Function:
Checks whether tokens follow the grammar rules of the programming
language.
Constructs a parse tree or syntax tree.
Uses parsing techniques like LL(1), LR(1), LALR(1).

🔹 Example:
For `sum = a + b * 10;`

Parse tree ensures `b * 10` is evaluated before `a + (b * 10)`.

3. Semantic Analysis

✅ Function:
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 Ensures meaningful correctness of statements.
Performs type checking, undeclared variable detection, and scope
resolution.

🔹 Example:
For `sum = a + "hello";`

Error: Cannot add an integer (`a`) and a string (`"hello"`).

4. Intermediate Code Generation

✅ Function:
Converts the high-level code into an intermediate representation (IR).
IR is machine-independent but closer to machine code.

🔹 Example:
For `sum = a + b * 10;`
IR Code:

ini

t1 = b * 10
t2 = a + t1
sum = t2

Diagram: Front-End Phases of a Compiler

css

Source Code → Lexical Analyzer → Syntax Analyzer → Semantic Analyzer → Intermediate

Key Points for Exams

✔️ Mention all four phases clearly.

✔️ Provide examples for each phase.
✔️ Draw a simple diagram for extra marks. 🚀

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 Construct a DFA over alphabet ∑ = {0,1}, which accepts the set of strings either
start with 01 or end with 01.

Construction of a DFA that Accepts Strings Starting or Ending with

"01"

We need to design a Deterministic Finite Automaton (DFA) over the alphabet Σ =

{0,1} that accepts strings that:

1. Start with "01" (e.g., `01, 010, 0110, 0101`).

2. End with "01" (e.g., `101, 0001, 1101`).
3. Both start and end with "01" (e.g., `0101, 010101`).

Step 1: Identify Required States

To construct the DFA, we need to track:

Whether the string starts with "01".

Whether the string ends with "01".

Step 2: Define DFA States

1. q0 (Start State) – Initial state, no input processed yet.

2. q1 – Received ‘0’, waiting for ‘1’ to confirm "01" start.
3. q2 – Received "01" (Valid start), continues consuming characters.
4. q3 – Tracking last two symbols to check if the string ends with "01".
5. q4 (Final State) – The string either starts or ends with "01".

Step 3: Construct the DFA Transition Table

Current State Input = 0 Input = 1 Description

q0 (Start) q1 q0 Wait for '0'

q1 q1 q2 Check for "01" start
q2 q3 q2 After "01" start, track end

q3 q1 q4 Track last "01"

q4 (Final) q3 q2 Stay in accepting state

Final State: q4

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 Accepts strings starting or ending with "01".

Step 4: DFA Diagram

1. Transitions:
If the string starts with "01", it reaches `q2`.
If the string ends with "01", it reaches `q4`.
If both conditions are met, it remains in `q4`.

rust

--> (q0) --0--> (q1) --1--> (q2) --0--> (q3) --1--> ((q4))
| \_________Loop_________/ \_____Loop_____/
| (1) remains in q0 (0) moves to q1

Example Acceptance

✅ Accepted Strings: `01`, `010`, `101`, `0001`, `1101`, `0101`

❌ Rejected Strings: `10`, `11`, `000`, `111`

Exam Tip:

✔ Explain each state and transition clearly.

✔ Draw the DFA diagram.
✔ Provide a few example strings. 🚀

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 Define compiler, interpreter and translator in a tabular format for 8 marks ,
include diagram if possible

Compiler vs Interpreter vs Translator

Feature Compiler Interpreter Translator

Converts the entire Converts one
Converts and
source code into programming language
Definition executes code line
machine code before into another (e.g., high-
by line.
execution. level to assembly).
Slower, as it Speed depends on the
Faster, since the entire
Execution translates and type of translation (e.g.,
program is compiled
Speed executes line by source-to-source
first.
line. translation).

Shows errors one

Error Displays all errors at Error handling depends
by one, making
Handling once after compilation. on the type of translator.
debugging easier.
Assembly to Machine
Example Python, JavaScript,
C, C++, Java (JIT), Swift Code (Assembler), Java to
Languages Ruby
Bytecode (JVM)

Generates an Does not generate

Converts code but may
Output executable file (e.g., an executable file,
not execute it.
`.exe`). runs directly.
Used in system Used in scripting, Used for cross-platform
Usage programming, large- interactive development, machine-
scale applications. applications. level translation.
Python Interpreter, Assembler, Decompiler,
GCC (C Compiler), Javac
Examples Node.js (JS Transpilers (e.g.,
(Java Compiler)
Interpreter) TypeScript to JavaScript)

Diagram: Compiler vs Interpreter

css

Source Code → Compiler → Machine Code → Execution

Source Code → Interpreter → Execution
Source Code → Translator → Converted Code → Execution

Key Exam Tips:

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✔ Use a clear comparison table.
✔ Include examples for full marks.
✔ Add a diagram if possible. 🚀

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 Describe the different phases of a compiler for given input string
a=(b + c) * (b + c) * 2

Phases of a Compiler for Input String

Given Input String:

a = (b + c) * (b + c) * 2

A compiler processes the source code in multiple phases, transforming it step by step
into executable code. Below is the detailed explanation of each phase with example
output.

1. Lexical Analysis (Scanner)

✅ Function:
Breaks the input into tokens (smallest meaningful units).
Removes whitespace and comments.

✅ Lexemes, Tokens & Attributes:

Lexeme Token Attribute
`a` Identifier Variable name
`=` Assignment Operator -

`(` Left Parenthesis -

`b` Identifier Variable name
`+` Addition Operator -

`c` Identifier Variable name

`)` Right Parenthesis -
`*` Multiplication Operator -

`(` Left Parenthesis -

`b` Identifier Variable name
`+` Addition Operator -
`c` Identifier Variable name

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 Lexeme Token Attribute

`)` Right Parenthesis -

`*` Multiplication Operator -
`2` Constant Integer

2. Syntax Analysis (Parser)

✅ Function:
Checks grammar rules using parse trees.
Ensures correct operator precedence and associativity.

✅ Parse Tree:
r

=
/ \
a *
/ \
2*
/ \
(+) (+)
/ \ / \
b c b c

Ensures `b + c` is evaluated before multiplication.

Follows operator precedence: `()`, `*`, `+`, `=`.

3. Semantic Analysis

✅ Function:
Type Checking (e.g., `b + c` must be valid).
Scope Resolution (e.g., variables `a, b, c` should be declared).

✅ Example Check:
If `b` and `c` are integers, `b + c` is valid.
If `b` is `int` and `c` is `float`, compiler converts `b` to `float` (implicit
conversion).

4. Intermediate Code Generation

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✅ Function:
Converts source code into Intermediate Representation (IR).
Uses 3-Address Code (TAC).

✅ Example IR Code (TAC):

ini

t1 = b + c
t2 = t1 * t1
t3 = t2 * 2
a = t3

`t1, t2, t3` are temporary variables for optimization.

5. Optimization (Intermediate Code Optimization)

✅ Function:
Removes redundant calculations.
Simplifies expressions.

✅ Optimized IR Code:
ini

t1 = b + c
t2 = t1 * t1
a = t2 * 2

Removed redundant multiplication operations.

6. Code Generation (Machine Code)

✅ Function:
Converts IR to assembly or machine code.

✅ Example x86 Assembly Code:

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 assembly

MOV R1, b
ADD R1, c ; R1 = b + c
MUL R1, R1 ; R1 = (b + c) * (b + c)
MOV R2, 2
MUL R1, R2 ; R1 = R1 * 2
MOV a, R1 ; a = final result

7. Code Optimization (Machine Level)

✅ Function:
Reduces execution time and memory usage.
Registers are used instead of memory.

✅ Optimized Assembly Code:

assembly

MOV R1, b
ADD R1, c
IMUL R1, R1, 2 ; Combines (b+c) * (b+c) * 2 in one step
MOV a, R1

Fewer instructions = Faster execution 🚀

Final Exam Answer Format:

✔ Define each phase clearly.

✔ Use examples for better understanding.
✔ Draw the parse tree for full marks.
Diagram: Phases of a Compiler

css

Source Code
↓
Lexical Analysis → Syntax Analysis → Semantic Analysis → IR Code Generation → Optim

🚀 This structure ensures full 8 marks in the exam! 🚀

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 Describe the various components of a compiler and also draw the block diagram
of a compiler.

Components of a Compiler
A compiler is divided into several components that process the source code and
convert it into machine code. These components are classified into two major parts:

1. Front-End (Analysis Phase) → Converts the source program into an

intermediate representation.
2. Back-End (Synthesis Phase) → Converts the intermediate representation into
optimized machine code.

1. Front-End Components (Analysis Phase)

These components analyze the source code and check for correctness.

Component Function

Lexical Analyzer Converts the source code into tokens (lexical units). Removes
(Scanner) spaces and comments.

Syntax Analyzer Checks the grammatical structure using parse trees. Ensures
(Parser) proper syntax according to language rules.

Checks semantic rules, such as type compatibility and undeclared

Semantic Analyzer
variables. Ensures meaningful statements.

Intermediate Code Converts the parsed code into an intermediate representation

Generator (IR) for further processing.

2. Back-End Components (Synthesis Phase)

These components convert and optimize the intermediate representation into

machine code.

Component Function
Intermediate Code Removes redundant code, reduces execution time, and improves
Optimizer efficiency.
Converts the optimized intermediate code into machine code
Code Generator
(assembly or binary).
Code Optimizer Further optimizes the generated machine code for speed and

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 Component Function
memory efficiency.

Block Diagram of a Compiler

markdown

Source Program
↓
┌──────────────────────────┐
│ **Lexical Analysis** │ → Converts source code into **tokens**
└──────────────────────────┘
↓
┌──────────────────────────┐
│ **Syntax Analysis** │ → Checks **grammar** using a **parse tree**
└──────────────────────────┘
↓
┌──────────────────────────┐
│ **Semantic Analysis** │ → Ensures **meaningful** code (type checks, scope)
└──────────────────────────┘
↓
┌──────────────────────────┐
│ **Intermediate Code Gen**│ → Converts code into **IR (3-Address Code, AST, etc.
└──────────────────────────┘
↓
┌──────────────────────────┐
│ **Optimization** │ → Removes **redundant** computations
└──────────────────────────┘
↓
┌──────────────────────────┐
│ **Code Generation** │ → Produces **machine code** (assembly, binary)
└──────────────────────────┘
↓
**Target Machine Code (Executable)**

Key Exam Tips

✔ Explain each phase clearly with functions.

✔ Draw the block diagram properly.
✔ Use an example if needed.
🚀 This ensures full 8 marks in the exam! 🚀

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 Given the language L = {ab, aa, baa}, derive L*. Explain each step in details.

Given Language:

L = {ab, aa, baa}

Step 1: Definition of L*

The Kleene star (L**) represents zero or more repetitions of the given language L.
Mathematically,

L∗ = {ε} ∪ L1 ∪ L2 ∪ L3 ∪ …

where:

L0 = {ε} (empty string)

L1 = L = {ab, aa, baa} (one occurrence)
L2 = L × L = All possible pairs of elements from L
L3 = L × L × L = All possible triplets from L, and so on.

Step 2: Constructing L∗

1. L0 (Zero occurrences)

L0 = {ε}

2. L1 (Single occurrence)

L1 = {ab, aa, baa}

3. L2 (Concatenating two elements from L)

L2 =
{

ab + ab = abab
ab + aa = abaa
ab + baa = abbaa
aa + ab = aaab
aa + aa = aaaa

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 aa + baa = aabaa
baa + ab = baaab
baa + aa = baaaa
baa + baa = baabaa
}
Thus,

L2 = {abab, abaa, abbaa, aaab, aaaa, aabaa, baaab, baaaa, baabaa}

4. L3 (Concatenating three elements from L)

L3 = {

ab + abab = ababab
ab + abaa = ababaa
ab + abbaa = ababbaa
aa + abab = aaabab
aa + abaa = aaabaa
aa + abbaa = aaabbaa
baa + abab = baaabab
baa + abaa = baaabaa
baa + abbaa = baaabbaa
... (many more such combinations)
}

Thus,

L3 = {ababab, ababaa, ababbaa, aaabab, aaabaa, aaabbaa, baaabab, baaabaa, baaa

Step 3: Generalization of L*

L* contains all possible strings formed by repeated concatenation of elements from

L, including:
✅ ε (empty string)
✅ L1 → ab, aa, baa
✅ L → abab, abaa, abbaa, aaab, aaaa, aabaa, baaab, baaaa, baabaa
2

✅ L → ababab, ababaa, aaabab, baaabab, …

3

✅ L for any n → infinite set of strings

n

Thus,

L∗ = {ε, ab, aa, baa, abab, abaa, abbaa, aaab, aaaa, aabaa, baaab, baaaa, baabaa, …
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It includes all finite-length combinations of {ab, aa, baa}.

Step 4: Key Observations

1. L* is infinite → It contains all possible concatenations.

2. L* contains ε (empty string) by definition.
3. Each word in L* is made only using "ab", "aa", and "baa".
4. L* is closed under concatenation → If x, y ∈ L*, then xy ∈ L*.

Final Answer (Exam Format)

Define L* and explain the Kleene star property.

List L0 , L1 , L2 , L3 .
Generalize L* to show infinite possibilities.
Highlight key observations to get full marks. 🚀
🔥 This ensures full 8 marks in your exam! 🔥

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