MAYOOR SCHOOL, NOIDA

CLASS X
CONTROL AND COORDINATION IN ANIMALS

In lower multicellular animals, the coordination takes place through nervous system. However in
higher animals, coordination takes place through two types of control systems : nervous system and
endocrine system.
a) Nervous system:- This system is composed of specialized cells called neurons which exercise
control by sending electrical signals called nerve impulses. The nervous control is speedy.
b) Endocrine system:- This consists of specialized glands (endocrine glands) which bring about
control by sending chemical messengers termed hormones. The hormonal control is slow
acting.
Some important terms:
• Stimulus: An agent or sudden change in the external or internal environment which causes a
change in an organism or any of its body parts.
• Response: The change in organisms resulting from a stimulus.
• Nerve:- A nerve is formed of a bundle of nerve fibres (axons) enclosed in a tubular sheath
• Coordination- The working together of various organs of the body of an organism in a proper
manner to produce appropriate reaction to a stimulus is called coordination.
• Effectors: Muscles or glands which contract or secrete substances on receiving an impulse from the
brain or spinal cord.
• Receptors: Receptors are the specialized tips of the nerve fibres that collect the information to be
conducted by the nerves.
Receptors are in the sense organs of the animals.

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Neuron:-are specialised cells of Nervous system. It is an electrically excitable cell in the nervous
system that function to process and transmit information. They use electrical and chemical signals for
transferring information.
The different parts of Neuron:-

The neuron consists of the following parts:

• Cell Body: This main part has all of the necessary components of the cell, such as the nucleus,
endoplasmic reticulum, ribosome and mitochondria. If the cell body dies, the neuron dies.
• Axon: This is a long cable like projection of the cell along the length of the cell. It ends in
several hair-like structures; called axon terminals/ axon endings. The axon terminals relay
nerve impulses.
• Dendrites: These small branch-like projections of the cell make connections to other neuron
and receive the nerve impulses.
• Synapse: The point of contact between the terminal branches of axon of one neuron with the
dendrite of another neuron is called synapse.

Structure of a Neuron:

In most neurons, axon is covered by an insulating fatty sheath called Myelin sheath. Schwann cells,
or neurilemma, are cells that are responsible for the production of the myelin sheath around neuronal
axons. The fatty sheath is missing at intervals which are called Node of Ranvier. The absence of
neurilemma helps Node of Ranvier to generate electrical activity and in transmission of nerve impulse.
The end portions of the axon have swollen ends like “bulbs” which store chemicals called
neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Axon bulbs are closely placed near the dendrites of another neuron.
This junction of two neurons in called synapse and the space at the synapse separating the two
neurons called synaptic cleft. Neuron transmit messages in the form of nerve impulses. It is a self
propagated electrochemical current that travels from one neuron to another for the passage of
message.
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What is synapse?

A synapse is a junction between two neurons that allows

communication between them. There are certain chemical
messengers called neurotransmitters released by the
presynaptic neuron (neuron from which the
communication is to be sent) in case of chemical
synapses. The presynaptic neuron transmits the signal to
the postsynaptic neuron (neuron where the
communication is to reach). Thus, a synapse is neural
junctions that help in the transmission of chemical or
electrical signals known as nerve impulses. Depending on
the signal transmission via the synapse, be it chemical or electrical, the synapse is named respectively
as chemical synapse or electrical synapse.

Working of Neuron:
Neurons are responsible for transmitting message from brain to body parts and vice versa. When
receptors sense anything, a chemical reaction is triggered. This chemical reaction causes an electrical
impulse in dendrites. This impulse travels through the body of neuron to axon endings. Tiny amount
of chemical is released in synapse by axon endings when impulse reaches there. This chemical crosses
the synapse and reach to tip of dendrites where it again produces electrical impulse. And then this
impulse travels along neuron.

Conduction of Nerve Impulse:

Stimulus → dendrite → cell body → axon → axon terminal → passage of impulse through synapse→ dendrite of another neuron

There are three kinds of neuron:

1. Sensory neuron: These neurons receive signals from a sense organ.

2. Motor neuron: These neurons send signals to a muscle or a gland.

3. Association or relay neuron: These neurons relay the signals between sensory neuron and

motor neuron.
Response is of three types:
• Voluntary - under the control of a person (e.g. writing)
• Involuntary - not under the control of a person. (e.g. heartbeat)
• Reflex action- spontaneous, involuntary and automatic response to a stimulus to protect us
from harmful situations. E.g. On touching a hot object unknowingly we instantly withdraw our
hand

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 Reflex arc: The pathway taken by nerve impulses in a reflex action is called reflex arc.
A reflex arc can be represented as follows:

Examples of Reflex Arc

• When you touch a hot object, you withdraw your hand from it immediately.
• Shivering when it is too cold or sweating when it is too hot.
• Dilation of the pupils of the eye to look in the dark and vice versa.
• When you smell your favourite dish, your mouth waters

HOMEWORK QUESTION 1:
1) What is a neuron?
2) Draw the structure of neuron and label the following on it Dendrite, axon, cell body, nucleus.
3) What is the function of myelin sheath?
4) We suddenly withdraw our hand when a pin pricks. Name the type of response involved in this action.
5) What happens at the synapse between two neurons?

NERVOUS SYSTEM :- Consists of

(1) Central Nervous System (CNS)
(2) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

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 NERVOUS COORDINATION
The Central Nervous System : The central nervous system includes the brain and the spinal cord

Brain:- It is highest coordinating centre in the body . Brain is situated in the cranial cavity of skull
(bony box) in the head region of the body. The bones of cranium or brain box protect this delicate
organ from mechanical injury. The brain is soft, whitish organ. It is surrounded by 3 meninges
(membranes) which provide protection to it. The space between these three meninges is filled with
cerebrospinal fluid which protects the brain from mechanical shocks.

Three regions of brain

(A)Fore Brain:- Main thinking and largest part of the brain which controls the voluntary actions,
stores information, Receives sensory impulses from various body parts and integrates it. Main and
largest part of this region is cerebrum – Different part of cerebrum have different functions. It controls
the functioning of all (five) sense organs. This also has controls centres for hunger, thirst, fatigue, sleep
body temperature, sweating and emotions.

It has 3 main areas.

a. Sensory area- to receive impulses from sense organs via Receptors
b. Motor area- control voluntary movements
c. Association areas- Reasoning, learning & intelligence.
Thalamus- It relays sensory information to the cerebrum.
Hypothalamus- It forms the link between Nervous system & Endocrine system, urge of
eating and drinking.
(B) Mid-brain:- It connects fore brain and hind brain. It is the portion of the central nervous system
associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep/wake, arousal (alertness), and temperature
regulation.
It controls reflex movements of
(a) head, neck and trunk in response to visual and auditory stimuli and
(b) the eye muscles ; changes in pupil size

(C) Hind-brain:-It has three parts

a. Cerebellum- controls & coordinates muscular movements (walking/cycling), maintaining body
posture and equilibrium/body balance, precision of voluntary action e.g picking of pencil.
b. Pons- acts as a bridge between brain and spinal cord, respiration
c. Medulla Oblongata- Controls involuntary actions like blood pressure, salivation,
vomiting, peristalsis, urination, coughing etc.

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Spinal cord:- Its a cylindrical structure that begins in continuation with medulla of brain. It is
enclosed in the vertebral column or back bone which protects it. Spinal cord is surrounded by
meninges like brain. Thirty one pairs (62) of spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord. Spinal cord –
acts as a centre for the reflex actions.

Protection of the brain & the spinal cord-

(i) Bony outer covering: Skull or Cranium for the brain and Vertebral column for the spinal cord.
(ii) Cerebrospinal fluid is present in between the three membranes and acts as shock absorber.

Peripheral Nervous System

The Peripheral Nervous System consists of nerves which carry impulses to and from the central nervous
system. The Somatic Nervous System is made up of 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal
nerves. Cranial nerves emerge from the brain and spinal nerves originate from the dorsal and ventral roots of
the spinal cord.

HOMEWORK QUESTIONS - 2
1) Name the fluid that is present in spaces between the meninges that protect the brain.
2) Explain the mechanism of reflex action with a suitable example.
3) Which part of brain is the seat of intelligence and memory?
4) What is the difference between a reflex action and walking?
5) What happens at the synapse between two neurons?
6) Which part of the brain maintains posture and equilibrium of the body?
7) How do we detect the smell of an agarbatti (incense stick)?
8 )What is the role of the brain in reflex action?
9) How are involuntary actions and reflex actions different from each other
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 Chemical coordination in Animals

Hormones:- These are chemical substances secreted by ductless glands (endocrine glands) in specific
part of the body in response to changes in external or internal environment.
Features of hormones:
(a) These act as chemical messengers.
(b) These are secreted by endocrine glands in small amounts.
(c) These act on specific organs called target organs.
(d) Hormonal action is slow.

Types of Glands:
Gland:- This is cell, a tissue, or an organ which secretes certain useful chemical compounds required
for particular function.
(1) Exocrine Glands:- These have ducts to pour their secretions on to the body surface or into the
cavities in the body. Eg. Sweat glands, Salivary glands, gastric glands in stomach etc.
(2) Endocrine Glands:- These are ductless glands that pour their secretions (hormones) directly into
the blood stream. Eg. Pituitary glands, thyroid glands etc.
(3) Heterocrine Glands:- These glands consist of both exocrine tissue and endocrine tissue. Eg.
Pancreas- its endocrine portion secretes insulin and glucagon hormones. On the other hand, its
exocrine portion secretes pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes into the pancreatic duct that
leads to the alimentary canal.

ENDOCRINE GLANDS ARE:-

(A) Hypothalamus:- It is situated at the base of brain. Its cells secretes Releasing Hormones and
Inhibiting Hormones. These hormones are carried to the pituitary gland to stimulate and inhibit the
secretion of anterior pituitary hormones.

(B) Pituitary Gland:- It is present just below the brain. It is a small, red grey, pea shaped gland
attached to the hypothalamus of brain by a stalk. It secretes Growth Hormone. It stimulates growth
and development of all tissues by accelerating protein synthesis and cell division and by retaining
calcium in the body.
Disorders: (i) Dwarfism:- It is due the deficiency of growth hormone from early age.
(ii) Gigantism : It is caused due to excess secretion of growth hormone from childhood.

(C) Thyroid Gland:- It is the largest endocrine gland. It is situated in neck region. It secretes Thyroxin
hormone. This hormone need iodine for its synthesis.

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Its functions: (i) It regulates the rates of oxidation of carbohydrates, fats and proteins and production of
energy in our body. (ii) It controls the working of kidneys. Disorders: Iodine deficiency causes goitre:- its
common in hilly areas. It causes enlargement of thyroid gland.
Iodised salt is necessary because: Iodine mineral is essential part of thyronine hormone so it is
important that we must consume iodised salt as in turn it is essential for thyroid gland as it controls
carbohydrate, proteins and fat metabolism for best balance of growth deficiency of iodine might cause
disease called goitre.

(D) Parathyroid Gland:- These are four small, flat and oval glands situated on
the posterior surface of the thyroid gland, two in each lobe of thyroid hormone secreted by this gland
is Parathormone – It regulates calcium – phosphorus balance in the blood.

(E) Adrenal Gland:- These are a pair of glands situated on upper side of each kidney. It secretes
adrenaline hormone- This is also called emergency hormone/stress hormone. However, when a
person faces stress or danger, this is secreted in large amounts to prepare the body to face emergency
situations. These increase the rate of heart beat to supply more oxygen to muscles. Also, blood supply
to the digestive system and skin is reduced due to contraction of muscles around small arteries in
these organs to direct more blood to our muscles. The breathing rate also increases due to contraction
of the diaphragm and rib muscles. Also, blood pressure, basal metabolic rate and sugar level in blood
is increased. Because of the above roles of these hormones in fight- flight reaction. The adrenals are
known as the glands of emergency.
In case of flight or fight reaction to an emergency situation, Adrenal glands → release adrenaline
into blood → which acts on heart and other tissues → causes faster heart beat → more oxygen to
muscles → reduced blood supply to digestive system and skin → diversion of blood to skeletal muscles
→ increase in breathing rate.

(F) Pancreas:- It lies below the stomach in the loop of duodenum part of small intestine. It is
elongated, yellowish heterocrine gland.
Endocrine part of pancreas secretes two hormones (Insulin-lowers sugar level & Glucagon- raises
sugar level).
Insulin helps to regulate the blood glucose level. Deficiency of insulin hormone in the body cause a
disease called diabetes mellitus. In this disease, a patient excretes sugar in urine.

Diabetes: Cause : It is due to deficiency of insulin hormone secreted by pancreas that is responsible to
lower/control the blood sugar levels. Treatment : Patients have to internally administer injections of
insulin hormone which helps in regulating blood-sugar level.

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(G) Thymus Gland:-it is situated in the upper chest near the front side of heart. It is soft, pinkish,
bilobed structure and is prominent gland in young child. It secretes thymosin hormone which
stimulates development of lymphocytes and thereby increases resistance to infection, however, it
gradually atrophies in adult .

(H) Pineal Gland:- It is small, reddish grey, solid body lying between the two cerebral hemispheres of
brain. It secretes melatonin hormone. It regulates the working of glands (reproductive organs i.e.,
testes in male and ovaries in female) sleep/wake cycle.

Testes in males: It is male reproductive organ. It secretes hormone Testosterone.

Functions of this hormone:
(a) It stimulates formation of sperms.
(b) It stimulates the development of secondary sexual characters in boys.

Ovaries in females:- It is female reproductive organ. It secretes (a) Estrogen (b) progesterone
Estrogen:- Its function (a) help in formation of ova (eggs)
(b) It stimulates the development of secondary sexual characters in girls.
Progesterone:- Maintenance of pregnancy.

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Homeostasis and feed back : It is the tendency of an organism or cell to regulates its internal environment
and maintain equilibrium, usually by a system of feedback controls, so as to stabilize health and functioning.
Feed back mechanisms have evolved in living things as a mechanism by which they maintain homeostasis.
A feed back mechanism occurs when the level of one substance influences the level of another substance or
activity of another organ.

Homework Questions - 3:-

1) Which organ secretes a hormone when the blood sugar rises? Name a digestive enzyme released by this
organ.
2) Give reasons for the following
a) Pituitary is often termed as master endocrine gland.
b) Pancreas is often categorized as heterocrine gland.
c) Adrenals are known as glands of emergency.
3) How does our body respond when adrenaline is secreted into the blood?
4) Explain male sex hormone and its functions
5) Why are some patients of diabetes treated by giving injections of insulin?
6) Name the chemical that transmits nerve impulse across the neuron.
7) Name the control system which is quick and fast acting in human beings.
8) Why is the use of iodised salt advisable?
9) Human brain can be broadly divided into three regions. Name them
10) What is homoeostasis? Also define negative feedback control.
11) What is the function of a) insulin b) oestrogen c) adrenaline
12) Which gland secretes digestive enzymes as well as hormones?
13) Which endocrine gland is present in males but not in females?
14) What is the function of hormone secreted by the endocrine gland, pituitary?
15) Why are endocrine glands also called ductless glands?

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