SCIENCE.

SPRING TERM.
UNITS.
• PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS.

• THE EARTH'S
STRUCTURE.
PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS.
METALS.

• Metals are very useful materials. Materials are the substances from
which objects are made. There are many different metals. Metals are
used to do different jobs. Metals are strong and tough they do not
shatter when dropped and they do not crack easily. They can hold
large weights without breaking.
METALS.

Metals are strong and Metals are shiny when they

tough. are freshly cut or polished.

Iron is used for

Gold is used for jewelry
bridges because it
because it is shiny and
is strong.
expensive.
METALS.

Metals are malleable Metals are ductile which

which means they means they can be drawn
be hammered into out into wires.
shape.

copper is ductile.
Iron is malleable.
 METALS.

Metals make a ringing sound Most metals do not melt easily.

They have high melting points and
when they are hit. The word for
this is sonorous. high boiling points. Mercury is the
only metal that's liquid at room
temperature.

Cymbals make a ringing A lot of heat is needed

sound when hit. to melt metals.
METALS.
Metals are good conductor of Some metals are magnetic.
heat when you touch them they Iron, steel, nickel and cobalt
conduct heat energy away from are magnetic.
their hands so they feel cold.

Steel conduct heat Some metals are

well, which is useful magnetic.
for cooking pans.
METALS.

• Metals are good conductors of electricity. This means that an electric

currents can flow through them.
YOU NEED TO REMEMBER THAT:
• The surface of most metals become dull after a while.
• Big lumps of metals are hard to test for flexibility.
• Bottles and cups also make a ringing sound when hit, but they
are not made of metal.
NON-METALS.

• Non-metal are often very useful because of the chemical reactions

they have with other substances. There is a lot of variation between
non-metals.
PROPERTIES SHARED BY ALMOST ALL NON-
METALS.
• Non-metals look dull. They do not reflect light very well and the surface
is not as smooth as metals.
• Non-metals that are solids are brittle. If you drop them, they may shatter.
• Most non-metals do not conduct heat energy well. They are insulators.
This is useful because some of them can be used to make handles for
cooking pans, for example.
• Most non-metals do not conduct electricity. This is very useful because
some can be used to make coverings for electric plugs and cables, for
example. They are known as insulators because they do not conduct
heat or electricity.
PROPERTIES SHARED BY MANY NON-
METALS.

Non-metals are not as hardwearing as

metals.

Many non-metals are gases.

The non-metals that are not gases have low

melting points and low boiling points.
METALS.
ALLOYS.

• An Alloy is a mixture of two or more elements, where at least one of

the elements is a metal. Alloys are created to enhance certain
properties, such as strength, corrosion resistance, ductility, and
thermal or electrical conductivity.
COMPARING PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS AND
PURE METALS.
• Many pure metals are too soft for many uses. They can be made
harder by adding another element to the pure metal, so forming an
alloy. This explains why an alloy often has more uses than the pure
elements it is made from.
• Pure iron, for example, is very soft. Adding a small amount of
tungsten to iron makes tool steel, which is harder than pure
iron. Steels are examples of alloys. There are many types of steel.
TYPES OF STEEL.
EXPLAINING ALLOY HARDNESS.

• In the solid state, a pure metal has a giant metallic structure. The
atoms are arranged in layers. When a force is applied, the layers may
slide over each other. The greater the force needed, the harder and
stronger the metal.
• In a pure metal, the force needed to make the layers slide over each
other is small. This explains why many pure metals are soft.
• In an alloy, there are atoms of different sizes. The smaller or bigger
atoms distort the layers of atoms in the pure metal. This means that
a greater force is required for the layers to slide over each other. The
alloy is harder and stronger than the pure metal.
EXPLAINING
ALLOY HARDNESS.
WHY IS AN ALLOY STRONGER THAN A PURE
METAL.
• An alloy is stronger than a pure metal because it is made by mixing
different elements together. In a pure metal, the atoms are arranged
in a regular pattern called a lattice. When other elements are added,
they can distort this lattice structure, making it harder for the atoms
to slide past each other. This distortion helps the alloy resist
bending and breaking, making it much tougher and stronger than a
pure metal. For example, steel, which is an alloy of iron and carbon,
is much stronger than pure iron because of these changes in its
structure.
USES OF ALLOYS.
ALLOYS.

• Brass is an alloy composed of copper and zinc. It is known for its

corrosion resistance and attractive appearance, making it ideal for
plumbing fittings, musical instruments, and decorative items.
• Nitinol, made from nickel and titanium, is famous for its unique
shape memory and superelastic properties. This makes it
particularly useful in medical devices like stents and eyeglass
frames, where flexibility and resilience are essential.
• Steel, primarily made of iron and carbon, is one of the most widely
used alloys. Its strength and durability make it indispensable in
construction, automotive manufacturing, and tool production.
ALLOYS.

• Amalgam is an alloy of mercury combined with silver and tin,

commonly used in dental fillings due to its durability and ability to
withstand the forces of chewing.
• Solder consists of tin and lead (or lead-free alternatives) and is
crucial for joining metal parts in electronics and plumbing. Its low
melting point allows for easy application and strong bonds.
• Nichrome, an alloy of nickel and chromium, is utilized in heating
elements for toasters and electric heaters due to its ability to resist
oxidation and withstand high temperatures.
ALLOYS.

• Duralumin, which combines aluminum with copper, is known for its

high strength-to-weight ratio, making it suitable for aircraft
structures and automotive components.
• Bronze, made from copper and tin, is valued for its resistance to
corrosion and strength. It is commonly used for coins, sculptures,
and marine hardware.
• Finally, aluminum alloys, which mix aluminum with other elements
such as copper or magnesium, are widely used in aerospace,
automotive, and packaging industries due to their lightweight and
strong characteristics.
SEPARATING
MIXTURES.
SEPARATING MIXTURES.
SEPARATING MIXTURES.
SEPARATING
MIXTURES.
SEPARATING
MIXTURES.
SEPARATING MIXTURES.
ACIDS AND ALKALIS.

• Acids have a sour and tangy taste– but it is much too dangerous to
taste a liquid to find out if it is an acid! So, other ways of detecting
acids need to be used. Some acids are strong. They are corrosive. If a
strong acid gets on your skin, you will get a chemical burn.
Corrosive means a substance that dissolves materials such as your
skin. Strong acids such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid and nitric
acid are laboratory acids that have been mixed with a lot of water
before putting them out for use. This is called diluting the acid. It
makes them less dangerous. Their bottles are labelled with a
warning symbol to show that they can irritate your skin or cause
some other minor harm to health.
ACIDS AND ALIKALIS.

• An Acid is a substance which contains hydrogen particles and has a

pH lower than 7.

• An Alkali is a substance which contains hydroxide particles with a

pH greater than 7.
ACIDS AND ALKALIS.

• Concentrated acids are acids mixed with very little water. They are
more dangerous than diluted acids. Concentrated acids are acids
that attack metals and destroy your skin if spilled.
WEAK ACIDS.

• Laboratory acids are far too dangerous to taste! However, you will
have swallowed some dilute, weak acids. Acids have a sour taste, like
vinegar, which contains ethanoic acid, and lemons, which contain
citric acid. These are safe to use in food, but they can still sting if
they get into a cut or into your eyes. For instance, an ant sting
contains formic acid. There is formic acid in a bee sting too.
BASES.

• A base is a something that react with an acid to form water and a

salt. An alkali is any base that is soluble in water.

• An Alkali feels soapy in the hands.

pH SCALE.

• The pH scale measures the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. The pH

of a solution can be measured using a pH probe or estimated
using universal indicator and a color chart.
NEUTRALIZATION.

• If an alkali is added to an acid, or an acid is added to an alkali they

cancel each other out. If exactly the right amount is added, a neutral
solution is formed. The reaction is called neutralisation. Heat energy
is released in this reaction, so the reaction mixture warms up.
UNIVERSAL INDICATORS AND pH SCALE.

• Universal indicator is supplied as a solution or as universal indicator paper. It

is a mixture of several different indicators. Unlike litmus, universal indicator
can show us how strongly acidic or alkaline a solution is, not just that the
solution is acidic or alkaline. This is measured using the pH scale, which runs
from pH 0 to pH 14.
• Neutral solutions have a pH of 7
• Acids have a pH less than 7
• Alkalis have a pH greater than 7
• Universal indicator has many different colour changes, from red for strongly
acidic solutions to dark purple for strongly alkaline solutions. In the middle,
neutral pH 7 is indicated by green.
WORKING SAFELY WITH ACIDS AND ALKALIS.
THE EARTH'S
STRUCTURE.
SOUNDS.

• Sounds are made when an object vibrates.

• The compression and stretching of air particles creates a sound
wave which is carried through the air to your ear.
SOUNDS.

• The impact of the collision will add them together. They spread and
move apart and come together again. This is known as rarefaction.

• Longitudinal wave is a sound wave which travels through air to your

ear.
SOUNDS.

• Sound travels fastest through solids. This is because molecules in a

solid medium are much closer together than those in a liquid or gas,
allowing sound waves to travel more quickly through it. In fact,
sound waves travel over 17 times faster through steel than through
air.
EXAMPLES OF LONGITUDINAL WAVES.

• ULTRASOUND.

• SOUND WAVES.

• P TYPE EARTHQUAKE WAVES.

OSCILLOSCOPE.

• An oscilloscope displays sound as a waveform by converting sound

energy into electrical signals, which are then shown on the screen,
allowing visualization of amplitude and frequency changes.
SOUNDS.

• Sound cannot travel through a vacuum; it needs a medium to pass

through.
• It produces signals over a range of frequencies and of ranging
amplitudes. Signal generator
• Converts signals into sound waves. Loudspeaker
• It is used to study the frequency and loudness of a sound.
oscilloscope
SOUND.
• The unit of sound in in decibels(dB).
• Sounds are measured on the scale known
as the decibel scale. The higher the
number, the greater the sound level.
• The frequency of sound in measured in
Hertze (Hz).

• The range of human hearing is 20Hz to

20000Hz.
ULTRASOUND WAVES.

• Ultrasound waves are sound waves with frequencies higher than the
upper limit of human hearing (above 20 kilohertz) and are used in
various applications, including medical imaging, cleaning, and
material testing.
ECHOES.

• Sound waves can reflect off surfaces.

• We hear reflected sound waves as echoes.
• Hard smooth and flat surfaces are particularly good at reflecting
sounds. This is why empty rooms produce a lot of echoes.
• Soft round surfaces are good at absorbing sounds. This is why
rooms with carpets and curtains do nit usually produce lots of
echoes.
• Sound waves travel at a constant speed in a medium.
ECHOES.

• If we know the speed of sound and the time it takes for the echo to
be detected, we can use the equation:
Speed= distance
Time
Distance= speed*time.
The time taken to hear an echo, the sound has travelled to the object
and back again.
STRCTURE OF THE EARTH.
1.The inner core is in the centre and is
the hottest part of the Earth. It is solid
and made up of iron and nickel with
temperatures of up to 5,500°C.
2.The outer core is the layer surrounding
the inner core. It is a liquid layer, also
made up of iron and nickel.
3.The mantle is the thickest section of
the Earth at approximately 2,900 km. The
mantle is made up of semi-molten rock
called magma.
4.The crust is the outer layer of the
Earth. It is a thin layer between 0 - 60 km
thick. The crust is the solid rock layer
upon which we live. It is
either continental or oceanic.
STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH.

• The Earth's crust is broken into tectonic plates. It was once believed
that convection currents in the mantle caused the plates to move.
However, it is now recognised to be more complicated than this.
Mechanisms called slab pull and ridge push are believed to move the
tectonic plates. Ridge push is where the new crust formed at
divergent plate margins is less dense than the surrounding crust and
so it rises to form oceanic ridges. The older seafloor either side of
the ridge slides away and this moves the seafloor apart – moving the
tectonic plates.
STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH.

• Therefore, instead of tectonic plates moving because of the

convection currents, evidence suggests it is the plates that drive the
convection. Slab pull occurs where older, denser tectonic plates sink
into the mantle at subduction zones. As these older sections of
plates sink, newer and less dense sections of plate are pulled along
behind. Sinking in one place leads to plates moving apart in other
places.
• The movement of the plates and the activity inside the Earth, is
called the theory of plate tectonics.
STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH.

• Just over 300 years later, in 1912, the German geologist Alfred Wegener proposed
a theory called continental drift. This was a was a revolutionary theory suggesting
that continents shift position on the Earth's surface. The shapes of the continent
fit together like a jigsaw puzzle. The fossils from different continents match up
where they fit together.
• Wegener also proposed that all the continents were once part of a super continent
called Pangaea. Wegener could not correctly explain what caused the continents to
move but his ideas eventually led to modern theories of plate tectonics.
• In modern times, equipment like seismometers (which measure earthquakes) have
been used to give evidence about the Earth’s structure. Scientists now agree on the
theory of plate tectonics.
STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH.

• What are they?

• Tectonic plates, also known as lithospheric plates, are large,
irregularly shaped pieces of the Earth's lithosphere (the crust and
upper mantle).
• A plate boundary is the location where two or more of Earth's
tectonic plates meet
TECTONIC
PLATES.
CHANGES IN THE EARTH.

• Plate Boundaries: The places where tectonic plates meet are called plate
boundaries. These boundaries are crucial in understanding geological
changes and phenomena, such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
• Geological Change: Geological change occurs frequently at these
boundaries, as the tectonic plates are constantly moving. This movement
can result in various geological events over millions of years, some of
which can be quite violent.
• Pacific Ring of Fire: The illustration often highlights the Pacific Ocean's
edge, known as the Pacific Ring of Fire, where many geological changes
occur. This area is characterized by numerous volcanoes and earthquake
activity due to the interactions of the tectonic plates.
CHANGES IN THE EARTH.

• Movement of Plates
• The movement of tectonic plates results in three main types of plate
boundaries:
• Divergent Boundaries: Plates move apart from each other, creating
new crust as magma rises to the surface.
• Convergent Boundaries: Plates move toward each other, leading to
one plate being forced beneath another, often resulting in mountain
formation or volcanic activity.
• Transform Boundaries: Plates slide past each other horizontally,
causing friction and leading to earthquakes along faults.
CHANGES IN THE EARTH.

• Plates moving apart

• As tectonic plates drift away from each other, magma rises to the
surface. When they become too hot, lava (liquid rock) erupts from the
crust and hardens to form a volcano.
• Plates sliding past each other
• Because the plates are very large and heavy, there is a lot of friction
between them. As the plates stick together, there is pressure building up
on the tectonic plates, so the pressure builds and eventually there is an
earthquake.
FOLD MOUNTAINS.

• Fold mountains
• Sometimes, when tectonic plates move together, the rocks crunch and
fold upwards. The mountains that this produces are called fold
mountains. This can happen under the ocean or on land.
• The fold mountains in Asia are between 10 and 25 million years old.
These include the Himalayas and the Rocky Mountains in North
America. The oldest fold mountains are more than 200 million years old.
These include the Ural Mountains in Russia.
VOLCANOES.

• Volcanoes
• Volcanoes are usually formed at the plate boundaries when magma
from the mantle rises up through cracks in the Earth's crust.
• At the Earth's surface, magma erupts to form lava flows and ash
deposits. Magma is the name for liquid rock when it is underground.
Lava is the name for liquid rock when it is above the surface. The
lava and ash harden as they cool to form new rocks. So each time
the volcano erupts, it gets bigger.
VOLCANOES.

• Sometimes, if the magma is really thick and contains dissolved gas,

pressure builds up and the eruption is violent. Gasses and rock
shoot up through the opening. Violent eruptions can even cause
avalanches and earthquakes and tsunamis if the volcano is close to
the sea.
• Some volcanoes are active and may erupt at any time. Some
volcanoes are inactive or dormant, which means they have not
erupted for a very long time. Other volcanoes are extinct, which
means they will not erupt again.
EARTHQUAKES.

• Earthquakes
• Some earthquakes are extremely violent and cause a lot of damage.
Some are so slight that they only register on scientific instruments.
• The size or magnitude of the earthquake depends on the size of the
earthquake at the plate boundaries and how far the rocks move
when the earthquake happens. In the largest earthquakes, the rocks
can move tens of metres in seconds.
SHADOWS.

• An opaque object is an object that will not allow light to pass

through. When an opaque object passes in front of a source of light,
a shadow will form.
SOLAR ECLIPSE.

• Solar eclipse happens when the Moon comes between the Sun and the
Earth.
• The Moon is made from rock, so it is an opaque object. The Moon blocks
the rays of light coming from the Sun.
• The shadow of the Moon forms on the Earth.

• The diagram shows how the shadow of the Moon is formed on the Earth. In
the middle of the shadow, all the rays from the Sun are blocked. Total
solar eclipse.
• Left from the picture shows what a total solar eclipse looks like.

• The right picture shows how a solar eclipse looks from the middle of the
shadow where the rays from the Sun can reach the Earth.
SOLAR
ECLIPSE.
LUNAR ECLIPSE.

• A lunar eclipse happens when the Earth comes between the Sun and
the Moon.
• The Earth is also an opaque object, so the Earth blocks the light
from the Sun. The shadow of the Earth is formed on the Moon.
• The diagram below shows how the shadow of the Earth forms on the
Moon.
• The picture on the next page shows a series of three photographs of
the shadow of the Earth passing across the Moon.
LUNAR ECLIPSE.

• You might think that solar and lunar eclipses should happen
together. A lunar eclipse takes 27 days to orbit the Moon, but the
Moon is still moving slightly. The orbit of the Moon is not exactly in
line with the orbit of the Earth around the Sun.
• It is only when the Sun, Earth, and Moon are in the same straight line
that eclipses can happen.
LUNAR ECLIPSE.
ECLIPSES.

SOLAR ECLIPSE. LUNAR ECLIPSE.