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Jü rgen Jung and Bardo Fraunholz

Masterclass Enterprise Architecture

Management
1st ed. 2021
Jü rgen Jung
Frankfurt University of Applied Sciences, Frankfurt am Main, Germany

Bardo Fraunholz
Deakin University, Burwood, VIC, Australia

ISBN 978-3-030-78494-2 e-ISBN 978-3-030-78495-9

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78495-9

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive

license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively
licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is
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absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the
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Preface
Enterprise Architecture (EA) originated as a discipline to provide a
view of an organisation in order to improve business-IT alignment.
Enterprise Architecture evolved beyond business-IT alignment to a
more holistic perspective to support organisations in meeting their
current and future objectives. Enterprise Architecture is widely
understood as visualising inherent structures of an organisation.
Enterprise Architecture Management is a management approach that
deals with planning and driving the corporate (digital) transformation.
Our personal Enterprise Architecture journey began in the year
2000 when we started to conduct university research in the field of
Enterprise Modeling. While Bardo pursued an academic career as a
professor at Deakin University (Melbourne, AU), Jü rgen was following a
career in industry as Enterprise Architect with Deutsche Post DHL in
Germany. We maintained contact and continued our joint academic
interest in Information Systems. Jü rgen returned to academia in 2017
as Professor for Enterprise Architecture Management at the Frankfurt
University of Applied Sciences. This academic reunion led to the joint
introduction of Enterprise Architecture in both universities as part of
the postgraduate Information Systems curriculum.
The textbook at hand originated from lecture notes from both
courses. Based on these experiences, lecture recordings and transcripts
as well as a script for Enterprise Architecture management, Bardo and
Jü rgen identified the need for a hands-on introduction to the topic. It is
our teaching philosophy that Enterprise Architecture Management is
best learned by sharing experiences and guiding students through the
applications of methods and tools to typical business problems. The
book is intended as a guide to conduct a Masterclass for Enterprise
Architecture Management.
The structure of the book represents the typical stages of the
journey of an Enterprise Architect. First, we address the central
question for an Enterprise Architecture initiative in Chap. 1: What do
we want to achieve with the introduction of Enterprise Architecture?
Enterprise Architecture Management is about providing value to an
organisation instead of simply applying a method or tool.
 Chapter 2 introduces concepts and visualisations for Business
Architecture that help with understanding the business. Proven
concepts like business capabilities and business objects are used as
simple but powerful tools. These concepts cover a functional
perspective on the business (business capabilities) together with a
view on static entities (business objects). These are complemented by
concepts to describe business motivation and business models.
A business capability map is used as a starting point for deriving an
application landscape (as presented in Chap. 3). Software applications
are the counterpart to business capabilities as they implement desired
functionality. In the same way, business objects reflect a high-level
picture on data objects maintained by business software. Applications
and data objects describe corporate information systems.
Business and Application Architecture are rather descriptive,
providing transparency on information systems and their business
context. They also provide the information required to analyse and
improve the application landscape. Enterprise architects are using
several visual tools to identify optimisation potential as depicted in
Chap. 4. We introduce the business support matrix that is used to
identify typical concerns in the application landscape.
A company is subject to frequent changes driven by changing
business requirements and objectives. Such changes must be managed
properly and require a corresponding organisational unit. Traditional
organisational forms follow a top-down approach—i.e. Enterprise
Architecture Management is driven by top management. Recent
experiences show that a more collaborative Enterprise Architecture
Management approach is required. This discussion is presented in
Chap. 5.
We do not want to publish a textbook on Enterprise Architecture
frameworks. However, frameworks are still relevant for any enterprise
architect. Established frameworks are introduced in Chap. 6. Common
frameworks provide best practice methods and tools for documenting
and improving an EA. The textbook concludes with a summary and an
outlook on future research potential in Chap. 7.
We hope that you enjoy the Enterprise Architecture journey with us!
Jürgen Jung
Bardo Fraunholz
 Frankfurt, Germany
Burwood, VIC, Australia
April 2021
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge The Open Group for permission to include
text/figures derived from its copyrighted source
https://​pubs.​opengroup.​org/​architecture/​togaf92-doc/​arch/​.
TOGAF®is a registered trademark of The Open Group in the United
States and other countries.
The authors acknowledge John A. Zachman and Zachman
International®, Inc. for permission to include text/figures derived from
their copyrighted source. The Zachman Framework for Enterprise
Architecture™ is a registered trademark of John A. Zachman and
Zachman International®, Inc.—www.​zachman.​com.
Acronyms
AA Application Architecture
AsPac Asia/Pacific
ADM Architecture Development Method
APM Application Portfolio Management
BA Business Architecture
BO Business Object
BPMN Business Process Modelling and Notation
BSM Business Support Matrix
CEO Chief Executive Officer
CIMOSA Computer Integrated Manufacturing Open System
Architecture
CIO Chief Information Officer
CRM Customer Relationship Management
DBMS Database Management System
DoDAF Department of Defense Architecture Framework
E2AF Extended Enterprise Architecture Framework
E2E End-to-End
EA Enterprise Architecture
EAM Enterprise Architecture Management
EAO Enterprise Architecture Organisation
EM Event Management
ERP Enterprise Resource Planning
HQ Head Quarter
HR Human Resources
HTML HyperText Markup Language
IAF Integrated Architecture Framework
IT Information Technology
KPI
Key Performance Indicator
O2C Order-to-Cash
OM Order Management
OMS Order Management System
PCF Process Classification Framework
PDF Portable Document Format
PEAF Pragmatic Enterprise Architecture Framework
PERA Purdue Enterprise Reference Architecture
SMACIT Social, Mobile, Cloud, Analytics, Internet-of-Things
SMART Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-bound
T&T Track & Trace
TM Transport Management
TMS Transport Management System
TOGAF The Open Group Architecture Framework
UML Unified Modelling Language
Contents
1 Introduction
1.​1 Motivation
1.​1.​1 Enterprise Architecture and Town Planning
1.​1.​2 Examples
1.​2 Purpose of Enterprise Architecture
1.​2.​1 Text Book View
1.​2.​2 Practictioners’ Perspective
1.2.3 Relevance of purpose
1.​3 Enterprise Architecture and Visualisation
1.​3.​1 Three Schools
1.​3.​2 Definition of Enterprise Architecture
1.​3.​3 Example Visualisations for Enterprise Architecture
1.​4 Enterprise Architecture Management (EAM)
1.​4.​1 Definition of EAM
1.​4.​2 Roadmaps for Visualising Transformations
1.​4.​3 EAM and Related Disciplines
1.​4.​4 Architectural Layers
1.​5 Further Reading
1.​6 Summary
1.​7 Exercises
References
2 Understanding Business Architecture
2.​1 Business Process
2.​1.​1 Business Process Maps
2.​1.​2 End-to-End Business Process
 2.​1.​3 Business Processes and EAM
2.​2 Business Capabilities
2.​3 Business Objects
2.​4 Business Architecture Concepts
2.​5 Further Reading
2.​6 Summary
2.​7 Exercises
References
3 Developing Application Architecture
3.​1 Application Architecture
3.​2 Deriving the Application Landscape from Capabilities
3.​2.​1 Method Overview
3.​2.​2 Standardisation
3.​2.​3 Make-or-Buy
3.​2.​4 Clustering
3.​2.​5 Resulting Application Landscape
3.​3 Application Details
3.​3.​1 Relationships
3.​3.​2 Properties
3.​3.​3 Further Application Concepts
3.​4 Data Architecture
3.​5 Further Reading
3.​6 Summary
3.​7 Exercises
References
4 Analysing Enterprise Architecture
 4.​1 Objectives of Enterprise Architecture Analysis
4.​2 Enterprise Architecture Visualisation
4.​2.​1 Types of Maps
4.​2.​2 Example Maps
4.​2.​3 Software Cartography
4.​3 Business Support
4.​3.​1 Business Support Matrix
4.​3.​2 Analysis Using the Business Support Matrix
4.​3.​3 Implications from the Business Support Matrix
4.​3.​4 Dimensions in Business Support
4.​3.​5 Summary of Business Support Matrix
4.​4 Further Reading
4.​5 Summary
4.​6 Exercises
References
5 Managing Enterprise Architecture
5.​1 Managing Changes
5.​1.​1 Example Change
5.​1.​2 Managing Enterprise Architecture Changes
5.​1.​3 Managed Evolution
5.​1.​4 Application Roadmap
5.​2 Enterprise Architect Role and Organisation
5.​2.​1 Enterprise Architect Role
5.​2.​2 Enterprise Architecture Organisation
5.​3 Collaborative Enterprise Architecture
5.​3.​1 Enterprise Architecture Service Centre
 5.​3.​2 Chess and the Art of Enterprise Architecture
5.​3.​3 EAM 2.​0
5.​4 Further Reading
5.​5 Summary
5.​6 Exercises
References
6 Applying Frameworks
6.​1 Frameworks Overview
6.​1.​1 Zachman Framework
6.​1.​2 Integrated Architecture Framework (IAF)
6.​1.​3 ArchiMate
6.​1.​4 Historical Overview
6.​2 EA Frameworks
6.​3 TOGAF
6.​3.​1 Structure and Concepts
6.​3.​2 Method for Applying Enterprise Architecture
6.​3.​3 Complementary Standards by The Open Group
6.​4 The Framework Provided by This Book
6.​4.​1 Structure
6.​4.​2 Meta-model
6.​4.​3 Procedure
6.​4.​4 Organisation
6.​4.​5 Tools
6.​4.​6 Best Practices
6.​5 Further Reading
6.​6 Summary
 6.​7 Exercises
References
7 Summary and Outlook
7.​1 Summary
7.​2 Topics for Future Research
7.​3 Digital Transformation
References
Index
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
States, extending from South Carolina to Hudson’s Bay, and
stretching right across the continent, from ocean to ocean.
The most striking characteristic of this animal, which constitutes
the genus Condylura, is the presence at the extremity of its
elongated nose of a sort of fringe of about twenty long fleshy
processes, forming a regular star, having the nostrils towards its
centre. The names Rhinaster and Astromycter, both meaning “Star-
nose,” have been given to the genus by different writers. The name
Condylura is founded on a mistake, the tail having been supposed to
have a knob or knot. The tail is nearly as long as the body, the
general appearance of which is mole-like, but the shoulders are
stouter and heavier in proportion to the hind-quarters than in our
Common Mole, although the digging hands are hardly so powerful.
The last phalanges of the fingers are not cleft, as in the Mole. The
skull is elongated, and the jaws contain in all forty-four teeth—
namely, besides canines, three incisors, four premolars, and three
true molars on each side in each jaw. The arrangement of the teeth
in the long jaws is rather peculiar. In the upper jaw the two middle
and the two outer incisors are of large size, and the latter are quite
like canines; between them is a third minute tooth on each side. The
true canine is very small; the first three premolars are thin and
sharp, and the fourth much larger than the rest. In the lower jaw we
find four projecting incisors, and behind the outer ones on each side
a much smaller one, followed at an interval by a small canine with
two roots. The eyes are very minute, and there are no external ears.
 SIDE VIEW OF SNOUT OF FRONT VIEW OF SNOUT
STAR-NOSED MOLE. OF STAR-NOSED MOLE.

This curious little animal, which measures about five inches in

length, and has a tail about three inches long, is of a brownish-black
colour, a little paler beneath, but appearing in certain lights perfectly
black throughout. The naked, or nearly naked parts, such as the
nose, with its singular appendages, and the feet, are generally of a
flesh-colour, the tips of the fringes and of the claws being, in fact,
quite rosy. The tail is well covered with hair.
The Star-nosed Mole, like the other members of its family, lives
beneath the surface of the ground, where it is able to burrow rapidly
in soft earth. It prefers the vicinity of brooks or swampy places. The
galleries do not run so near the surface as those of the Common
Shrew Mole of America. The nest is composed of dried grass, and
placed in an excavation made under some protective object, such as
a stump or the root of a tree. The young show scarcely any trace of
the nasal appendages. The precise use of these curious organs in
the adult does not seem to be ascertained; probably they aid as
sensory organs in the discovery of the worms and larvæ of insects
on which the creature feeds.

THE COMMON SHREW MOLE.[276]

The Shrew Mole, which is often called simply the Mole in the
United States, is another very widely-distributed species in North
America, throughout the whole eastern part of which it is found
abundantly. Like the other species of its genus, which inhabit the
territories farther west, the Common Shrew Mole has an elongated,
slender snout, which is cut off obliquely at the end, so that the
nostrils, which are situated in this sloping surface, are turned
forwards and upwards, and are not visible from below; a short and
nearly naked tail; and only thirty-six teeth, which present the
following characters:—In the upper jaw there are on each side three
incisors, of which the foremost is very large and pyramidal, whilst
the other two are very small; then four compressed teeth, gradually
increasing in size, of which the first may be regarded as a canine
and the rest as premolars; and beyond these three large, true
molars, each having the crown furnished with strong cusps, and
distinctly divided into two parts. The lower jaw has only four instead
of six incisors, and these are nearly horizontal, and the two inner
ones are much smaller than the outer; these are followed
immediately by three simple, gradually increasing teeth, regarded as
premolars; and these again by three large true molars. According to
this interpretation there are no lower canines. The feet are like those
of the Mole, but the toes of the hind feet are webbed.
Two other species of Scalops are found in the western parts of
the United States. One of them, the Prairie Mole, or the Silvery
Shrew Mole (S. argentatus), which is about seven inches long, and
has the hairs annulated with white and lead colour, giving it a silvery
appearance, inhabits the western prairies, advancing as far to the
eastward as Ohio and Michigan; the other, the Texan Shrew Mole (S.
latimanus), which is still larger, and has the fore feet broader than in
any other species, and the black hair longer, thinner, and slightly
crisped, is a native of Mexico and Texas.
Two other Shrew Moles have been formed into a distinct genus
(Scapanus) by M. Pomel. They resemble the preceding in general
characters, but agree with the Star-nosed Mole in having forty-four
teeth. These are Brewer’s Shrew Mole (Scapanus Brewerii), a black
species, about six inches long, which inhabits the eastern United
States, and is supposed to have given the foundation for the reports
of the existence of the Common Mole in North America; and the
Oregon Mole (Scapanus Townsendii), a considerably larger species,
which is said to extend all along the Pacific coast, from California to
47° 10′ N. lat. In their habits these animals seem to agree closely
with the Star-nosed Mole. The western species occurs abundantly in
the banks of rivers.

FAMILY IX.—MYOGALIDÆ.—THE DESMANS.

Some very curious and interesting animals, placed with the

Shrews by some zoologists, and with the Moles by others, may,
perhaps, for our purpose, be best placed as a distinct family. The
Desmans are, in fact, Shrew-like animals, with some important
points of resemblance to the Moles. Thus, the teeth in the true
Desmans are forty-four in number, and the large upper front incisor
is pyramidal, and rather resembles that of some Moles than that of
the Shrews; the general character of the skull is Mole-like, especially
the presence of a slender zygomatic arch, which does not exist in
the Shrews; the shoulder-blade is long, narrow, and strong, the
collar-bone short and stout, and the front portion of the sternum is
slightly keeled. Many other slight osteological peculiarities point to
an alliance with the Moles; but on the other hand, Shrew-like
characters are not wanting, and the general structure of the body
and limbs is that of the Shrews, the tail being well developed, and
the limbs all formed for walking. In the true Desmans the hind limbs
are considerably larger than the fore-limbs, and all the feet are
palmated, or have their toes united by webs.

THE DESMAN.[277]

The Desman in general form resembles a big Rat, but with a long
snout formed by the nostrils, which are produced in a tubular form,
and united in the middle, producing a regular trunk, provided with
muscles which enable it to be turned in various directions, and
employed as an organ of touch. The tail is compressed, scaly, and
nearly naked.
In the arrangement of the teeth we see a considerable
resemblance to the Shrew Moles. Thus, in the upper jaw we have
the same gigantic front incisors, larger here than in any other
species, and these are followed on each side by a series of seven
teeth, gradually increasing in size, the first of which is an incisor, the
second a canine, and the remaining five premolars. In the lower jaw,
there are four projecting incisors, the outer much larger than the
inner ones, as in the Shrew Moles, then, on each side we have six
gradually enlarging teeth, a canine, and five premolars. The true
molars are three in number on each side in both jaws. They are
broad, powerful teeth, with strong acute tubercles, and crowns
divided transversely into two parts. The eyes are small, and there
are no visible ears.
Another peculiarity of these animals is the presence, under the
root of the tail, of a large gland, which secretes a substance of a
strong musky odour, whence they are sometimes called Musk
Shrews. This gland is composed of from twenty to forty lobes, each
having a dilated upper part, and a narrow lower portion, and
containing in their walls a great number of small secreting sacs.
The Desman, or Wychuchol of the
Russians, is an inhabitant of Southern
Russia, where it lives in the banks of
streams and pools, in the region
between the Don and the Volga. It is
also said to occur in some parts of
south-western Asia. Its body is about
ten inches long, and its tail measures
about seven inches and a half. The
latter organ is narrowed at the root, DENTITION OF DESMAN.
and then nearly cylindrical for some
distance, and finally compressed from
near the middle to the extremity, thus forming a most powerful
swimming organ, by means of which, aided by the broad webbed
feet, the Desman makes its way through the water with great
rapidity. The surface of the tail is scaly, with a scanty sprinkling of
short hairs, and with a great number of small follicles, which secrete
a greasy material.
The body of the Desman is covered with a dense fur, composed
of a thick coat of fine downy hairs next the skin, and of longer
smooth hairs, which form the outermost coat. It is reddish-brown on
the back, ashy-grey on the belly, and shows a silvery lustre in certain
lights. The feet are naked and scaly above, and fringed with hairs at
the sides. At the eye, and over the auditory aperture, there are
whitish spots.
In its habits the Desman is described as greatly resembling an
Otter on a small scale. It lives by preference about standing waters
and slow streams, especially when these, as is so commonly the
case in Russia, are confined by steep banks of considerable height.
In these banks it makes its residence, which is something like that of
the Otter, consisting of a passage running obliquely upwards from
below the surface of the water, often to a length of twenty feet or
more, and then terminating in a sort of fortress-chamber, three or
four feet above the water level. But this retreat is only occupied by
the animal as a resting place; the greater part of its time, both in
summer and winter, being passed in the water. Here it disports itself
with an agility of which its rather heavy and clumsy figure would
hardly appear to give promise; swimming and diving readily, making
its way among the water-plants, and seeking constantly for the
animals which constitute its food. These are chiefly leeches, worms,
and aquatic mollusca and larvæ of insects, but in all probability no
small aquatic animal would come greatly amiss. The curious movable
trunk with which the animal is endowed is brought actively into play
during the search for provisions. It is turned and twisted in various
directions, touching the various objects that come in the way, and is
used to feel about for prey, which it is said to seize and convey to
the neighbouring mouth after the same fashion as the trunk of an
elephant. The animal is said frequently to put its trunk into its
mouth, and then to cry like a duck; when irritated or threatened, it
hisses, and tries to bite. The Desman is supposed to produce more
than one litter in the course of the year. It is pursued for the sake of
its skin, which somewhat resembles that of the Beaver and Ondatra
in its qualities; and great numbers are taken by means of nets,
especially in the autumn. Its flesh is uneatable, on account of its
strong musky flavour, which is communicated even to that of the
carnivorous fishes, such as the Pike, which, being less nice in their
tastes, do not object to an occasional Desman.

THE PYRENEAN DESMAN.[278]

The only other species of Desman is found in the small streams

of the Pyrenees both in France and Spain, where it lives after the
same fashion as its Russian relative, but is said to feed principally
upon trout. It is much smaller than the preceding species, being only
ten or eleven inches in total length, nearly one-half of which is
occupied by the long tail. The fur is chestnut-brown on the back,
greyish-brown on the sides, and silvery grey on the belly; the upper
lip bears some pectinated whiskers, the sides of the trunk are
covered with white and the fore-feet with brownish hairs; while the
hind-feet are naked and scaly. This animal also diffuses a strong
musky odour.

THE HAIRY-TAILED MOLE-SHREW.[279]

Besides the true Desmans this group is considered to include two

or three singular little creatures which lead directly towards the true
Moles. One of these is a Japanese species, discovered by Professor
Siebold, and described by Professor Temminck under the name of
Urotrichus talpoides, which we may call the Hairy-tailed Mole-Shrew.
It differs from the Desmans, and agrees with the true Shrews in
having only two incisor teeth in the lower jaw. There are thirty-eight
teeth in all. It is about the size of the common Water Shrew, with
the nose greatly elongated, not into a flexible proboscis, but into a
snout with the nostrils placed at the sides of the tip; the tail is about
an inch long, stout, scaly, and covered with long hairs, which form a
tuft; the fur is brown and velvety, and the snout and feet flesh-
coloured, and nearly naked.
This animal is common at elevations of from 1,000 to 1,200 feet
in the mountains of the southern and eastern parts of Japan, but
becomes more rare towards the north. In its habits it resembles the
Moles, digging out galleries in the earth, but going down deeper, and
rarely if ever forming heaps of loose earth at the surface.
A nearly allied species, Gibbs’ Mole Shrew (Urotrichus Gibbsii), is
found in North America.
Another species, leading more towards the Shrews, was
discovered in eastern Tibet by the Abbé David, and described by M.
A. Milne-Edwards under the name of Uropsilus soricipes, or the
Shrew-footed Uropsile. The general characters of the animal are very
like those of Urotrichus, but it has one premolar less on each side in
each jaw, making the total number of teeth only thirty-four. The tail
is naked and scaly; and the fur is of a slate-colour, with a slight
brownish tinge.

FAMILY X.—SORICIDÆ, OR THE SHREWS.

A great number of small mouse-like and rat-like animals,

presenting shades of character which render their classification
almost insuperably difficult, constitute the family of the Shrews,
which, as we have already stated, may be regarded as representing
the generalised or central idea of the Insectivorous Mammal. On all
sides the other families include anomalous species, and the
characters which distinguish these from their immediate fellows
generally tend in the direction of the Shrews.
In these creatures we find a mouse-like body, terminated in front
by a small head, with a long pointed muzzle, and behind by a nearly
naked, scaly tail of variable length. The eyes are small, as also are
generally the ears; the limbs are short, and nearly equal in size; the
skull is long and narrow, and has on each side of its base a space
not filled up with bone; the teeth are from twenty-eight to thirty-two
in number, and the middle incisors in both jaws are very large; the
skull has no zygomatic arch or tympanic bony bubble; the bones of
the shank (tibia and fibula) are united; and the intestine has no
cæcum. On the sides of the body or at the root of the tail the
Shrews possess peculiar glands, which secrete a fluid of strong
odour, serving no doubt to protect them from many enemies.
The Shrews are distributed over all parts of the Old World and in
North America. They live generally on the ground, although some
take freely to the water, and they feed upon worms, insects, and
other small animals such as they can overcome. The difficulty of
classifying these animals to which we have already alluded has led
to their being divided into an infinity of generic groups, of which we
shall endeavour to illustrate those which are now most generally
accepted.

THE COMMON SHREW.[280]

The Common Shrew, or Shrew-mouse, as it is often called, may

be noticed first, as being the species most likely to be met with by
our readers, in England at any rate. It is one of the species for which
the Linnæan generic name Sorex has been retained, the group as
restricted including Shrews with from thirty to thirty-two teeth, there
being four or five premolars in the upper and only two in the lower
jaw; with a basal tubercle to the upper inner incisors; with ears of
moderate size directed backwards, a long tail, and the feet not
fringed with hairs.
1. PIGMY SHREW. 2. COMMON SHREW. 3 AND 4. WATER SHREW.
❏
LARGER IMAGE
 Our Common Shrew is a pretty little mouse-like creature (its
figure will be seen in Plate 12), measuring about two inches and
three-quarters in length, with a tail rather more than an inch and a
half long. Its fur is generally of a reddish-grey colour above, and
greyish beneath; but the colour varies considerably, being
sometimes blackish or chestnut above, and tinged with yellow
beneath. The fore teeth are of a rich brown colour. The tail is four-
sided,[281] with the angles rounded off, and is nearly of equal
thickness throughout; it is covered with short, close, stiffish hairs.
Mr. Bell states that the Shrew sometimes occurs spotted with white,
and that he possesses one specimen “which is beautifully pied,
having a broad white band over the loins, which extends all round
the animal.”
The food of the Common Shrew consists
chiefly of insects and worms, but it also eats
the smaller mollusca, and even the common
Slug (Limax agrestis), according to Mr. Bell,
who says that he has not only found the
remains of that animal in its stomach, but
DENTITION OF has also fed it upon slugs in confinement.
COMMON SHREW. Like its ally, the Mole, it is very pugnacious,
and two Shrews rarely come together
without a battle, when the weaker one is killed and eaten. The
breeding season of the Shrew is in the spring, when the female
makes a comfortable nest of soft dry herbage in some convenient
hole in the ground, and there brings forth from five to seven young
ones. Their increase is checked to a certain extent by natural
enemies. Thus, the Mole is said to kill and eat them when they come
in his way; and Cats, Weasels, Owls, and some other animals, will
also kill them; and some at least do not disdain to make a meal
upon them. The Barn Owl especially seems to make great havoc
among the Shrews.
All sorts of evil qualities were attributed to the Shrew by our
ancestors, some of which are still believed in. One old writer says
that the Shrew-mouse is “a kind of Field-mouse of the bigness of a
Rat and colour of a Weasel, very mischievous to cattel; which, going
over a beast’s back, will make it lame in the chine; and the bite of it
causes the beast to swell at the heart and die.” The running of a
Shrew over the leg of a beast was generally believed to cause the
latter great pain, and to produce lameness. The proper cure for
these imaginary ills was on a par with the mischief; the remedy was
the application to the part affected of a branch or twig of a shrew-
ash, which, says Gilbert White, “was made thus: into the body of the
tree a deep hole was bored with an auger, and a poor devoted
Shrew-mouse was thrust in alive, and plugged in, no doubt with
several quaint incantations since forgotten.”
There is one circumstance in the natural history of the Shrew
that must have struck everybody, although it is still entirely
unexplained. This is the death of great numbers of these animals in
autumn without any apparent cause. Residents in the country will
know that at that season Shrews may be seen lying dead on almost
every footpath; in fact, the observation is so general as to have
given rise to another superstition, namely, that a Shrew cannot cross
a public path without paying the penalty of death. The individuals
thus found dead are of both sexes, and of various ages.
The Common Shrew occurs not only in the British Islands, but
also over the whole continent of Europe, from Sweden and Russia to
the shores of the Mediterranean.
The Lesser Shrew (Sorex pygmæus, whose figure will be seen in
Plate 12) is a second British species nearly allied to the preceding,
but smaller, measuring rather less than two inches in length, and
with a proportionately longer tail. The lower parts of the body are
also whiter. It is the smallest of British Mammals.[282]

DEKAY’S SHREW.[283]

Some small species of American Shrews agree with the restricted

genus Sorex in the number of teeth, but have no lobe at the base of
the upper incisors; the external ear is small, turned forward, and the
tail short, usually not longer than the head. These form the genus
Blarina.
Dekay’s Shrew is about four inches and a half long, and the tail
about an inch. Its fur is of a rusty yellow-grey colour above, paler
beneath; the nose and feet are reddish-brown, and the front incisors
black. From Dr. Bachman’s description it would appear that this
animal burrows rather deeply in the ground, after the fashion of the
Mole. It is found in the northern United States.

THE GARDEN SHREW.[284]

A very considerable number of Shrews, distributed in all parts of

the Old World, and including two or three well-known European
species, have been formed into the genus Crocidura, which in its
turn has been divided again and again by means of characters
generally of very slight importance.
The Crociduræ have from twenty-eight to thirty teeth, all white,
or with white tips; the lower incisors are not toothed; the teeth
between the incisors and the molars in the upper jaw gradually
decrease in size; and the tail is covered with short hairs, among
which there are a good many longer ones.
The Garden Shrew (Crocidura aranea) is a small species, usually
measuring a little over four inches in total length, of which the tail
occupies about an inch and a third. It has twenty-eight teeth which
are all white. The fur is of a mouse-grey colour, shading off into
whitish ash on the lower surface; the feet are light ashy, with the
toes flesh-coloured, as is also the tip of the snout; and the ears,
which are well exposed, are ash-coloured above and whitish below.
The fur occasionally has a reddish-brown tinge; and, as in the
Common Shrew, specimens spotted with white, and even albinos,
sometimes occur. This is a common species almost all over Europe,
but does not occur in Sweden or in the British Islands. It lives in
woods and plantations, in the fields and in gardens, and in the
winter approaches close to the houses, sheltering itself under stones
and other objects, and sometimes even entering stables and other
outbuildings. Like the other species, it feeds upon insects, worms,
and other small animals, and like them also it has the reputation of
injuring domestic animals by walking over them.
The Tuscan Shrew (Crocidura etrusca) is another well-known
European species, but its distribution is much more limited than that
of the Garden Shrew. It is found generally in the extreme south of
Europe, from France to the Black Sea, and also in the north of
Africa, but does not appear to extend north of the Alps. Like the
Garden Shrew, it frequents gardens, and not unfrequently comes
into houses and outbuildings. In the open country it selects dry and
warm situations.
The total length of the Tuscan Shrew is from two inches and a
half to two inches and three-quarters, and as the tail is nearly an
inch long, the head and body may measure little more than an inch
and a half. It is the smallest of living Mammals. The teeth are thirty
in number. The colour of the fur is ashy with a reddish tinge above,
light ashy beneath; the tail is clothed with short hairs, and with a
series of rings of longer white hairs; and the ears are of moderate
size, projecting distinctly from the fur. In its habits it agrees with the
other species.

THE RAT-TAILED SHREW.[285]

Amongst a number of Indian species, some of which are of

doubtful distinctness, we may notice one which seems to be widely
distributed in the East, and well known in India and elsewhere,
under the name of the Musk Shrew, or Musk Rat. It is usually of a
dark brown or even blackish colour above, and much paler beneath,
but it varies considerably in this respect, and thus has probably
given origin to several so-called species. The ears are of
considerable size, and the tail, which is about three-fourths the
length of the body, is thickened towards the root—a character of the
sub-genus Pachyura. The animal is about six inches long. It is a very
common Indian species, and frequents houses at night, hunting
round the rooms in search of the Cockroaches and other insects
which abound there. From time to time it utters a sharp, shrill cry.
Its musky odour is exceedingly strong, and is said to impregnate
everything that the animal passes over; in fact, the popular belief in
India is that in running over a bottle of wine or beer, it is capable of
infecting the contents! This, however, is rather more than doubtful.
Mr. Jerdon distinguishes two species—an Indian one which he calls
Sorex cœrulescens, which is usually of a bluish ash colour, and a
somewhat smaller species, chiefly inhabiting Further India and
China, to which he gives the Linnæan name of Sorex murinus. If
they are distinct, it is probably to the latter that Mr. Swinhoe refers
in his notes on Chinese Mammals under the name the “Musk Rat.”
He says that it is found throughout China, Formosa, and Hainan, in
houses in large towns, being carried about in junks with the cargo. It
has an unpleasant musky odour, and makes a peculiar chattering
noise, which sounds like the chinking of money, and, he adds, often
disturbed him in his room at night. Such a sound heard in the dark
in a strange place would certainly be rather alarming to any one who
had money to lose.
 RAT-TAILED SHREW.

The “Musk Rat” of Ceylon is a reddish species, described by

Kelaart as Sorex kandianus, and by Mr. Jerdon as S. serpentarius. It
is rather smaller than the preceding, but takes its place in the
houses of Ceylon and Southern India, and renders itself equally
offensive by its strong musky odour.
Several other Indian species are referred to Crocidura, one of
which, C. Perroteti, is said to be even smaller than the Tuscan
Shrew. Others occur in Africa, in Egypt, Mozambique, and
Madagascar, and in the neighbourhood of the Cape.

THE WATER SHREW.[286]

Our British Water Shrew is the type of a distinct genus, all the
species of which appear to haunt the margins of water. They have
thirty teeth, all of which are tipped with brown or red. The upper
front teeth are large and curved, and have a basal cusp behind; the
lower ones are nearly horizontal, and have a single tubercle and no
notch at the tip. Behind these teeth there are on each side in the
upper jaw four small teeth, the last of which is very minute; and in
the lower jaw two small teeth. The molars are four on each side in
the upper, and three in the lower jaw. The snout is pointed, and
furnished with very long whiskers; the eyes small; the ears of
moderate size, and valvular; and the feet and lower surface of the
tail fringed with stiff hairs.
Our Water Shrew (its figure will be seen in Plate 12), which
measures about three inches and one-third in length, and has a tail
rather more than two inches long, is generally nearly black on the
upper surface and white beneath, the colours being usually
separated by a distinct line of demarcation. The hairs fringing the
feet and the lower surface of the tail are white. There is, however,
considerable variation in the colour of different specimens, some of
which have been described as distinct species. One especially, in
which the whole of the fur is of a black colour, has been called the
Oared Shrew (Sorex ciliatus or remifer), but the existence of
intermediate steps has led to the recognition of the identity of even
this with the Common Water Shew. Mr. Bell is of opinion that the
differences of coloration depend on the season and the age of the
specimen. The tail is slender, four-sided, and compressed towards
the tip. The Water Shrew is distributed over the whole continent of
Europe, as far north as the shores of the Baltic. It is found in many
localities in England and in Scotland, but is not known to occur in
Ireland.
The Water Shrew is one of the prettiest of our British Mammals.
Its movements, especially in the water, are very agile; and although,
from its swimming by alternate strokes of its hind feet, its course is
of a somewhat wriggling character, the peculiar mode in which it
flattens its body so as to show a narrow white border on each side,
and the silvery lustre of the coat of air-bubbles which adheres to its
back, give it a very elegant appearance when thus engaged. It is
found chiefly about the rivulets of mountainous and hilly countries,
generally showing a preference for those quieter parts where the
water flows smoothly over a sandy bottom, but it will also make its
way through more broken water, in shallow parts full of stones. Clear
water seems to be the great desideratum, and if this can be secured
the Water Shrew will put up with a lake or pond. It is not, however,
absolutely confined to the water-side, but will at times wander about
the fields, sheltering itself under haycocks, and other heaps of dried
plants, and even making its way into houses, barns, and
outbuildings.
Nevertheless, as may be judged from the fringed tail and feet, it
is essentially an aquatic animal, and its regular habitation seems to
be always constructed in the immediate vicinity of water. Here the
Water Shrew burrows into the soft ground of the bank, and forms a
subterranean dwelling, usually with several openings, one of which is
situated beneath the surface of the water, to give the little creature
an opportunity of slipping quietly and unperceived into or out of its
house. Its food is principally obtained in the water, and consists of
aquatic insects, worms, mollusca, and crustacea, which it snaps up
in its rapid fittings to and fro. In Bell’s “British Quadrupeds” the
pursuit of the Freshwater Shrimp (Gammarus pulex) in a shallow but
rapid streamlet by the Water Shrew is described. The little animal
was seen busily pushing about among the stones at the bottom of
the water, sometimes poking its nose under them, sometimes
turning them over in a fashion which might be thought beyond its
strength. The result was the same in either case; the Shrew
captured some small article of food, with which it made off to the
side of the stream, where it was heard crunching the crustaceans
between its teeth.
Besides this small prey, the Water Shrew is said by Continental
writers to attack almost any small animal that comes in its way—
frogs, fishes, and even small birds and quadrupeds are described as
among its victims. It is also said to feed on the spawn of fishes, and,
according to Brehm’s testimony, will even destroy large fish, such as
Carp, by eating out their eyes and brains. Carrion and dead animals
will also furnish it with a meal. One of Mr. Bell’s editors gives a
striking instance of this. A steel rat-trap had been set, and in the
morning contained a large Rat, “on which was perched a small black
object, which proved on closer approach to be a Water Shrew. The
Rat was dead, and the Shrew was devouring it. Although the slender
snout and projecting and comparatively weak teeth of the Shrew
were but ill adapted, one would have thought, for devouring prey of
the size of a full-grown Rat, yet the animal had succeeded in making
a small hole through the skin, and this it was most energetically
employed, by means of both teeth and claws, in enlarging. So
ferocious were its actions, that it might very properly be said to be
fighting the Rat; and so intent was it on its work as to suffer itself to
be captured by the observer, who laid the loading-rod of his gun
across its back.”
The breeding season begins in April or May, when the courtship
of the little creatures commences by a persevering pursuit of his
intended partner by the male. The lady exhibits a becoming coyness,
leading her suitor a long chase through the water; but while thus
engaged both parties keep the main chance in view, and seize
everything eatable that comes in their way. The young are brought
forth in a chamber in the bank, and are from five to seven or eight
in number.
A nearly allied, but larger species, the Himalayan Water Shrew
(Crossopus himalaicus), occurs in the streams of the Himalayas. Mr.
Jerdon, who obtained it from the Little Rungeet River at Darjeling,
describes it as five or six inches long, dark brown or blackish above,
paler beneath, and with a bunch of hairs at the tip of the tail. It was
said to kill small fish, tadpoles, aquatic insects, &c. Another species
(C. platycephalus) inhabits Japan.
The Marsh Shrew (Sorex palustris), of North America, has bean
referred to this genus by some authors; but it has a long slender,
cylindrical tail, with a pencil of hairs at the tip, and Professor Baird
refers it to the genus Sorex. The teeth are the same in number as in
Crossopus, and likewise have their tips reddish-brown. This species
inhabits the northern parts of North America up to Hudson’s Bay
Territory.
 THE TIBETAN WATER SHREW.[287]

This is another of the Mammals for the knowledge of which we

are indebted to the Abbé David, and it is one of the most curious
species of this family, presenting a combination of characters
peculiar to itself with those of the True Shrews and the Desmans.
“Its head and skull,” says M. A. Milne-Edwards, “refer this animal to
the Soricidæ, whilst its palmated feet and compressed tail indicate
close affinities with the Myogalidæ; but the sucking discs with which
the lower surfaces of its feet are furnished belong to itself alone, and
nothing of the same kind is to be found in the allied groups.”
In some respects the Tibetan species is allied to the European
Water Shrew, but it has only twenty-eight instead of thirty teeth,
namely, incisors, 3–3, canines, 1–1, molars, 4–4; the skull is flattened;
1–1 1–1 4–4
the body robust, and supported on short limbs; the muzzle short,
broad, and conical, with large whiskers at the sides, and the nostrils
opening laterally near the extremity; the eyes exceedingly small; and
the ears entirely concealed by the hair and quite destitute of a
conch. The tail is stout, longer than the body, quadrangular at the
base, then triangular, and finally flattened at the sides; and the feet
are large and broadly palmated, so as to form vigorous swimming
organs, very closely resembling those of the Desmans. As in the
latter animals, the feet are fringed with stiff hairs of peculiar
construction; but the nails, which in the Desmans are strong, are
here small and weak. The sucking discs, already mentioned as
peculiar to this animal, are certainly among its most remarkable
characteristics. They occur upon the feet of both pairs, and consist
of large pads, depressed in the middle to form cups, which are
doubtless of service to the animal in its aquatic mode of life.
The Tibetan Water Shrew is rather a large species, measuring,
when adult, nearly eight inches in total length, more than half of
which, however, is occupied by the tail. It is thus much larger than
the British Water Shrew. Its body is covered with hair of two kinds.
Close to the skin is a very thick soft down of a slaty grey colour,
through which pass numerous longer hairs, which are grey at the
base and white at the extremity, causing the animal to vary
considerably in appearance, according as these longer hairs are
raised or laid flat. The lower parts of the body are white.
In its compressed tail and largely webbed feet this Shrew
possesses most admirable instruments for progression in the water;
in fact, it must be regarded as the most thoroughly aquatic of all the
family of the Shrews. According to its discoverer, it lives habitually on
the banks of the impetuous torrents which descend from the
mountains of Moupin in Tibet; and notwithstanding the rapidity of
these streams, it swims and dives in them with the greatest facility,
chasing the small fishes which constitute its principal food. Although
not uncommon in its native region, its activity in the water renders
its capture exceedingly difficult. In order to procure specimens, it is
necessary to divert the course of a stream, and then pursue the
animals into the holes in which they take refuge.

THE TAILLESS SHREW.[288]

Another curious little Mammal, brought from Tibet by the Abbé

David, is described by M. A. Milne-Edwards as forming a distinct
genus, under the name of Anurosorex, or the Tailless Shrew. It has
only twenty-six teeth in all, namely, incisors, 2–2, canines, 1–1, and
1–1 1–1
molars, 4–4. The tail is remarkably short, scarcely passing beyond
4–4
the hairs of the body, slender, slightly flattened, of the same
thickness throughout, and covered with small scales, from between
which project a few very short hairs. The general form of the body is
mole-like, the head is large, the muzzle conical, flesh-coloured,
having the nostrils on each side near its extremity, and furnished
with long whiskers. The eyes are scarcely perceptible, and the ears
are entirely concealed beneath the hairs. The feet are short and
scaly, whence the name given to the species, and the fore-feet are
broader and stronger than the hind-feet, thus furnishing all
additional indication of affinity to the Moles.
This species was found abundantly both in the Plains and
mountains of Setchouan and Tibet, where it lives in burrows which it
digs in the earth. Its total length is little more than four inches, and
its fur, which is very silky and thick, is of a grey colour with a
greenish brown tinge. The feet are whitish and the nails white.

In the preceding sketch of the Insectivorous order of Mammals,

we have followed in general the classification proposed by Professor
Mivart, and slightly modified by Mr. Gill. The following summary of
the arrangement will be useful for reference:—

SUB-ORDER I.—DERMOPTERA.
Family 1. GALEOPITHECIDÆ.
Genus—Galeopithecus.

SUB-ORDER II.—INSECTIVORA VERA.

Family 2. TUPAIDÆ.
Genera—Tupaia, Ptilocereus, Hylomys.
Family 3. MACROSCELIDÆ.
Genera—Macroscelides, Petrodromus. Rhynchocyon.
Family 4. ERINACEIDÆ.
Genera—Erinaceus, Gymnura.
Family 5. CENTETIDÆ.
Genera—Centetes, Hemicentetes, Ericulus, Echinops,
Oryzorictes, Solenodon.
Family 6. POTAMOGALIDÆ.
Genus—Potamogale.
Family 7. CHRYSOCHLORIDÆ.
Genera—Chrysochloris, Chalcochloris.
 Family 8. TALPIDÆ.
Genera—Talpa, Parascaptor, Mogera, Scaptochirus,
Scaptonyx, Condylura, Scalops, Scapanus.
Family 9. MYOGALIDÆ.
Genera—Myogale, Urotrichus, Uropsilus.
Family 10. SORICIDÆ.
Genera—Sorex, Blarina, Crocidura, Crossopus,
Nectogale, Anurosorex.

Only in one respect have we thought it desirable to depart from

Professor Mivart’s system, namely, in raising the Desmans
(Myogalidæ) to the rank of a distinct family. This course was
adopted for the sake of simplicity in the classification, as the
combination of characters presented by those animals places them
so remarkably between the Moles and the Shrews, that from a
zoological point of view they cannot satisfactorily be referred to
either.
One thing that will strike the reader at once is the great number
of family types, for the most part strongly characterised, that can be
distinguished in so small an order. Mr. Wallace estimates the total
number of species of Insectivora at 135, and of these about 65, or
nearly one-half, belong to the single family of the Shrews, leaving
about 70 species for all the other families; and of these 34 species,
or again nearly one-half, are referred to the two widely distributed
groups the Hedgehogs and the Moles.
Considering these facts, and the clear differentiation of most of
the forms, notwithstanding the existence of those types already
alluded to, which in several of the families seem to lead towards the
Soricidæ, we can hardly avoid agreeing with Mr. Wallace in regarding
the existing Insectivora as “the detached fragments of a much more
extensive group of animals, now almost extinct,” a view which is
strongly corroborated by the geographical distribution of the
animals.
 Curiously enough several of the smaller and more peculiar
families are limited much in the same way as the Pteropine Bats and
Lemurs, chiefly to the countries surrounding the great Indian ocean,
beneath which, as we have already stated, the hypothetical
continent of Lemuria is very probably submerged. The
Galeopithecidæ and Tupaiidæ are almost confined to the Malayan
region, and the Centetidæ (with the exception of the anomalous
genus Solenodon) are peculiar to Madagascar; the Macroscelididæ
have their home on the eastern coast of Africa, except a single
species which occurs in the northern part of that continent; the
Chrysochloridæ are exclusively South African; and the curious
Potamogale inhabits some of the West African rivers. Thus, except in
the case of Solenodon, the whole of these groups are now
represented solely within the region inhabited by the Pteropine Bats.
Does this point to a “Lemurian” origin, or at any rate to a great
former development in the Lemurian land, of the Insectivorous
Mammalia?
Of the more widely distributed families, the Erinaceidæ occur
chiefly in the northern temperate regions of the Eastern hemisphere,
stretching away continuously from Europe and the North African
deserts, through Asia Minor and Persia, and across Central Asia to
the Pacific Coast, whilst one or two species occur in South Africa,
and one very aberrant form, the Bulau (Gymnura), is found in the
Malayan region, along with the Bangsrings, to which it is allied
through the genus Hylomys. The true Moles and the Shrews occur in
the northern parts of both hemispheres, and the latter family,
indeed, is represented in all parts of the world except South America
and the Australian region. The Desmans, which stand in so peculiar
a position between the Shrews and the Moles, present a curious
instance of what has been called “discontinuous distribution,” the
two nearly allied species being found only in two localities, separated
from each other by the whole breadth of the European continent.
The entire absence of Insectivora from the South American
continent, and the presence of the Solenodons, which seem to be
most nearly related to the Centetidæ of Madagascar, in Cuba and St.
Domingo, are further remarkable facts in the geographical
distribution of these animals. Scarcely less singular is the distribution
of the two species of Urotrichus, one of which occurs in Japan, and
the other on the Pacific coast of North America.
The evidence derived from the fossil remains of Insectivora, as to
the former history of the order, in its bearing upon the present
geographical distribution of its members, is very inconclusive; but
the principal facts to be gathered from it is that from Miocene times
to the present day the representatives of the order in different
localities, so far as these are known, have generally belonged to the
same types, and no undoubted remains of Insectivora are known
from earlier formations than the Miocene. At one time, indeed, some
of the beautiful Mammalian fossils of the Stonesfield slate (Lower
Oolite) of Oxfordshire were regarded as probably representing
Insectivora, but their Marsupial character is now generally
recognised; and this is the case also with the Dromotherium from
the Trias of North Carolina, which was at one time believed to carry
the present order so far back in time.
Species of the existing genera Erinaceus, Sorex, Myogale, and
Talpa, and of several nearly-allied extinct genera, have been
determined from Miocene and subsequent deposits in various parts
of Europe, and especially from the lacustrine beds of the Auvergne;
and in North America also a few species have been found and
referred to genera for the most part almost identical with those still
living on that continent. In some instances even the Miocene species
appear to be nearly identical with those now inhabiting the same
regions.
The principal apparent exceptions to this rule are to be found in a
fossil species from the Miocene of the Auvergne, described by M.
Pomel under the name of Echinogale Laurillardii (Centetidæ), and
two forms described by Hermann von Meyer, as forming a new
genus (Oxygomphius), allied to the Bangsrings, from the Tertiary
basin of Weisenau, in Southern Germany. But the true position of
these fossils is, to say the least of it, exceedingly doubtful; and this
is still more strikingly the case with the Eocene American genus
Omomys supposed to be an animal allied to the Hedgehogs and the
Bangsrings, but which Professor Leidy himself, in describing it,
compares with nearly all the types of true Insectivora and with the
Opossums.
This last comparison leads us, perhaps, towards the origin of the
Insectivora. In the East, the Bangsrings, and notably the beautiful
little Ptilocerque, and the curious genus Hylomys, which, again,
seems to unite the Bangsrings with the Hedgehogs through the
anomalous genus Gymnura, present manifest relationships with the
Phalangers, some of which abound in the islands further to the east.
From these animals to the true Shrews, many of which abound in
the east, is no great step. On the other hand, we have already seen
that Brandt recognised Opossum-like characters in his Solenodon,
but it must be confessed that these are almost exclusively external.
Professor Leidy describes, besides Omomys above referred to, some
other fossils from the Eocene of Wyoming, which he seems to regard
as Insectivorous in habit, but Marsupial in structure; and the
Stonesfield Mammals, although plainly Marsupial, have Insectivorous
tendencies, so that the derivation of the type Insectivora from the
Marsupials, or at all events the near affinity of the two orders,
perhaps at several points of contact, may be looked upon as
established.
In the other direction the affinities of the order would seem to be
through the Shrews, Hedgehogs, and Centetidæ with the Carnivora,
towards which also the curious West African Potamogale seems
clearly to point. The Bangsrings, again, show some traces of an
affinity to the Lemurs; and Galeopithecus seems almost to constitute
a central point of alliances, uniting the Insectivora with the Lemurs
and Bats, and further exhibiting, as Mr. Wallace thinks, certain
peculiarities which smack strongly of direct Marsupial relations. The
relationship of the Insectivora to the Rodentia can hardly be
regarded as a true affinity, although the analogies between different
types in the two orders are among the most striking phenomena of
the kind with which we are acquainted. The type of the Mice and
Rats is reproduced by the Shrews, the Squirrels by the Bangsrings,
the Porcupines by the Hedgehogs and Tanrecs, the Jerboas by the
Jumping Shrews, and the Ondatra by the Desmans; whilst even the
highly specialised Moles are reflected among the Rodents by the
various species of Mole-Rats. But none of these resemblances
indicate affinity, and the Rodent type may be regarded as
differentiated from the old probably Marsupial ancestral forms quite
independently of the Insectivora.
W. S. DALLAS.

PRINTED BY CASSELL & COMPANY, LIMITED, LA BELLE SAUVAGE, LONDON, E.C.

 FOOTNOTES:
[1] πλατύς, flat or broad; ῥινές, nostrils.
[2] κατά, downwards; ῥινές, nostrils.
[3] Ἄνθρωπος, man; μορφή, form or shape.
[4] The back edge of the hard, bony palate, with which the soft palate and
uvula are continuous, forms a wide concave notch, whilst that of man projects in
the centre of the notch.
[5] The tongue has the same kind of papillæ, or slight projections of its
surface, as in man; some called fungiform are seen at the tip, and on the surface
generally, and others more or less cup-shaped. These last are found at the back,
and are not arranged in any definite shape or order.
[6] The Gibbons have no air sacs.
[7] See page 16.
[8] Troglodytes Tschiégo (Duvernoy); Troglodytes calvus (Du Chaillu).
[9] Troglodytes Koolo-Kamba (Du Chaillu); Troglodytes Aubryi (Gratiolet and
Alix).
[10] Koolo is the cry, and Kambe means “to say.”
[11] Troglodytes niger.
[12] This interesting animal died in 1876.
[13] They have several muscular peculiarities. Thus the great muscle of the
hind part of the loins (sacro lumbalis) is vast and fleshy in man, but it is reduced
to very small proportions in the great Apes. The great oblique muscle of the body
is not attached to the hip, and the muscles of the buttocks are reduced
excessively in the Apes. All this renders their erect position difficult and not usual.
The motions of the shoulder and arms are assisted by extra muscles; one
stretches from the sixth neck-vertebra to the first rib, another reaches from the
outer part of the collar-bone to the neck in front, to the bone under the tongue
(hyoid bone), and a third from the collar-bone to the side of the first vertebra. The
small muscle of the chest (pectoralis minor) reaches to the capsule which
surrounds the shoulder-joint. There is an extra muscle, which reaches from the
back to the elbow, and which allows the animals, when hanging by one hand, to
turn and twist the body slightly. The metacarpal bone of the little finger has a
special muscle, which tends to enlarge the grasp of the hand. The great Apes
have, however, an imperfect or deficient proper flexor to the thumb, and the
extensor of the first joint of the thumb is wanting. The ill-developed “calf” has not
its two great muscles combined in the one tendo Achillis, as in man, and the
muscles of the foot are so arranged that they permit of much more independent
motion than those of man have.
[14] Simia satyrus. Simia morio.
[15] The Transversus pedis.
[16] A muscle, called the accessory flexor of the toes, is absent in the Orangs,
and one termed scansorius, or climber, exists on the outside of the hip and the
joint of the thigh.
[17] * Is the intermediate bone.
[18] Hylobates.
[19] Hylobates syndactylus.
[20] The abductor of the third joint of the second finger. The thumb counts as
the first finger.
[21] Hylobates lar.
[22] Hylobates hoolook.
[23] Hylobates pileatus.
[24] Hylobates agilis.
[25] Cynomorpha.
[26] Semnopithecus melalophus.
[27] Semnopithecus maurus.
[28] Semnopithecus nasalis.
[29] Semnopithecus entellus.
[30] Semnopithecus frontatus.
[31] Semnopithecus rubicundus.
[32] Semnopithecus nemæus.
[33] Semnopithecus nigripes.
[34] Semnopithecus Nestor.
[35] Semnopithecus ursinus.
[36] The kinds of Monkeys included in this genus have a very wide
geographical range. Mr. Wallace states that a species has been seen at an altitude
of 11,000 feet in the Himalayas; and Semnopithecus roxellana, which resembles a
young Semnopithecus nasalis, occurs in Eastern Tibet (about lat. 30° N.) in the
highest forests. Elsewhere, they extend over the forest land of the Oriental region
of natural history.
[37] Thumbless Monkeys.
[38] Colobos guereza.
[39] Cercopithecus.
[40] Cercopithecus Diana.
[41] Cercopithecus Mona.
[42] Cercopithecus petaurista.
[43] Cercopithecus talapoin.
[44] Cercopithecus callitrichus.
[45] Cercopithecus erythrogaster.
[46] Cercopithecus ruber.
[47] Cercopithecus æthiope.
[48] In the Cercopitheci the skull has a large brain-case, and that part on
which the brain and cerebellum rest is concave or pitted on the petrosal bone, and
on each side of the crista galli in the fore part of the skull. In general there is a
laryngeal pouch. The first premolar is like that of the Semnopitheci. The other
anatomical peculiarities of these and of the Semnopitheci will be found in the
description of the Macaques and Baboons.
[49] Macacus, or Inuus.
[50] A name of the Roman divinity Faunus.
[51] Macacus cynomolgus.
[52] Macacus cyclopis.
[53] Macacus radiatus.
[54] Macacus rhesus.
[55] Macacus maurus.
[56] Macacus brunneus.
[57] Macacus nemestrinus.
[58] Macacus sylvanus, or Inuus ecaudatus.
[59] Macacus silenus.
[60] Cynocephalus.