PRINCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS, CAPILLARITY AND PERMEABILITY 123

Hence, u= h, Yey .(6.2)

It is called the neutral stress because it acts on all sides of the particles, but does
Stress, not cause the soil particles to press against adjacent particles. It has no shear component
Principle of
Effective
Capillarity and Permeability
6 he soil pores can be visualised as an interconnected but intricate network of irregular
tubes. Under equilibrium condition, water level in these tubes rises to the same elevation
This level can be easily determined by inserting a stand-pipe at the point in question and
observing the height upto which the water rises in the stand pipe [h, in Fig. 6.1 (a)). Thus
the pore water pressure, like the total stress, is also a measurable parameter. Astandnine
or a piezometer is used to measure the pore water pressure.
6.1 INTRODUCTION

skeleton and
a multiphase svstem consisting of asolid phase, called the mineral
fluidisphase,
Soil called the pore fluid. The constituents of the pore phase (which is invariably Drý soil
h,
The fluid mav influes
water) will influence the behaviour of thesoil mass in many ways.
WT::

the nature of the mineral surface chemically, and consequently affect the bondingg forees
between adjacent soil grains. This kind of interaction between the two phases, called the Saturated soil
chemical interaction, is important mainly for fine grained soils, and has already been
discussed in Chapter 4.
X
Another important role of the pore phase, namely, the physical interaction between Point O
the mineral skeleton and the pore fluid is discussed here. In the present discussion., a soil
whose pore spaces are completely filled with water asaturated soil-is considered. First. (a
a no flow condition is considered and the nature of stresses in the P
soil mass is examined. Area of contact (b)
and then the soil property called permeability is discussed.
of fluids through the soil mass. How this flow can Permeability enables the flow -of soil grain
(Total area A)
contact between particles and how it influences thealter the magnitude of the forces at the
discussed later. engineering behaviour of a soil,will be
(c)

6.2 Fig. 6.1 (a) Soil mass and pore water pressure; (b) interpretation of effectives stress;
PRINCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS and
(c) sectional plan of the contact area
Terzaghi (1925, 1936) was the first to The other part of the total stress is due to the soil skeleton and is called the effective
be safely said that in doing enunciate the
Some of the basic that he opened the floodgateseffective stress principle. It can now stress, õ.Thus,
for
pressures are a directdevelopments on shear strength, the discipline of soil mechanics.
ofishoot
vertical stress o at a point 0 of the effective compressibility and lateral earth S= G + u or G =G-U ...(6.3)
in a soil mass (Pig.stress concept, According to this, the Equation 6.3 is the effective stress equation. Combining Eqs. 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3,
6.1) is given by total
where Ya and Ysat are dry G=h,Yat h, Ysat G=0-u= (h, Yat h, Ysath Y = h, Y¡ + h,Y ...(6.4)
stress o can unit weight and ...(6.1)
of all the be calculated by simply adding saturated unit weight where y is the submerged unit weight. The term h, Y, occurs in both Eqs. 6.1 and 6.4
material (solids plus up the weights respectively. The total because for dry soils, u = 0 and o = õ.
compute the total stress are thewater) above the point per (mass x gravitational
nosition of the ground unit weights
and
unit area. All
that is
constant) Effective stress is defined as egual to the total stress o minus the neutral stress u.
water table. The total needed to
computed or even measured
with stressthicknesses of the soil layers and the The total stress, o acts on the entire area under consideration, namely, A (Fig. 6.1)
rmhe total stress suitable thus, a parameter
instruments, as a and the pore water pressure or the neutral stress on that area, A. where pore water is in
is made which can be
called the neutral
stress or pore upwaterof two parts. One partsuch pressure contact with this total area, that is, the total area, A minus the grain contact area, A, The
the ground water table
of the point pressure, u. It is is due to the nore cell. effective stress is equal, albeit approximately, to the force due tothe soil skeleton diyided
O,
multiplied by the unit equal tothe depthwater
simply and 1s
(h) below
by the total area A of the surface. While the total stress and the neutral stress are
weight ofwater measurable, the effeetive stress is not a physical parameter and cannot be measured. It
122
 MECHANICS PRINCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS,
BASIC AND
APPLIED SOIL CAPILLARITY AND PERMEABILITY
125
124 both of
which The total normal stress o
total stress, is given by
from the
can only be computed by subtracting the neutral stress P
are physical parameters. parameter, is still very A
not a
measurable
behaviour ...(6.6)
The concept of efective stress, even ifit is that the
mechanical Since the pore water pressure can act
realised
stress or
neutral is equal to the pOré water only over the void area, the
useful for geotechnical engineers. It can be easily with the total pressure u multiplied by the area of hydrostatic force
of asoil mass is linked with the effective stress rather than to pack more closely, decreases For equilibrium in the direction pores, Au
particles
stress. Thus, increase in effective stress causes the increases the
shearing resistance normal to plane XX,
the void ratio. leads to a decrease in compressibility and neutral stress,
which would P= N+uAuyydnos aie t
and the ...(6.7)
of the soil. But an equal increase in the total stress no-effect on the.soll behaviour. P
would bave ittle or Ay
ne effective stress_unchanged. A A
+ u
A ...(6.8)
This fact is borne out by experimental evidence as well.
follows:
The principle of effective stress can be spelt out as
effective stress is egual to the total stress minus the pore water pressure. A ..(6.9)
(a)The
aspects of the behaviour of soil, the most IfA,, is taken as approximately equal to A(a condition which is almost satisfied in
(6) The effective stress controls certain the case of granular soil particles where point contact can be
Important of which are the volume changes and the shearing resistance. assumed),
...(6.10)
6.3 PHYSICAL MEANING OF EFFECTIVE STRESS Equation 6.10 is very important for saturated soils. It may be noted that o here
does not represent the true contact stress between particles, which would be the much
From the principles of mechanics, it is known that stress is a fictitious parameter and is
not physically meaningful. It is especially so ina material like soil, which is not continuous higher value of
EN
where A, is the actual contact area between the particles.
and contains both the soil grains and void spaces within its fabric. In this kind of material, A,
on a microscopic scale, as the area reduces to a point in the limit, the point may lie on a
void instead of a particle. In the case of clay mineralparticles in a soil mass, the mineral crystals are not in
direct
contact, since.they-are-surounded by adsorbed layers of water. But it is assumed
Atruly horizontal surface through a soil at any depth must cut through many mineral
particles. However, conditions of stress at the points of contact of particles, rather than th¡t intergranular forces can be transmitted through the adsorbed water.
within them, are of relevance in consideration of strains, shear resistance, etc., within a In conclusion, it can be safely said on the basis of experimental evidence and practice
soil mass. Hence, it would be rather useful to consider a wavy plane XX in a fully saturated that the effective stress is afunction of the particle contact force and for saturated sands
soil, passing through points of interparticle contact only, as shown in Fig. and clays,the principle of effective stress holds considerable validity.
mass scale, the wavy plane is really indistinguishable from the true horizontal 6.1(b). On the
plane because
of the small size of particles. As indicated in Fig. 6.1 Effective Stress in a Partially Saturated Soil
A. is a very small fraction of the total surface (c), the area of contact of soil grains,
In a partially saturated soil, the water in the void spaces is not continuousthat is, the
can thus be taken to go through the pore water.area. The entire area of this horizontal plane material comprises a three-phase system of solids, pore water, and pore air (Fig. 6.2).
which is sometimes used for effective The 'intergranular stress', the terminology
effective stress is really not the stress at stress', is really a misnomer for the reason that Hence, the total stress at any point in a soil consists of the effective, pore air, and pore
water pressures. From laboratory test results, Bishop et al. (1960) gave the following
very large since the contact area particle contacts. The actual contact stress
between particles is very small Effective can be equation for effective stress in partially saturated soils:
sum of the contact forces divided by the grosS area. This is the stress is the
is not physically meaningful and cannot be reason why effective stress ...(6.11)
NOw consider the measured. where o= total stress
+broughout the soil massinterparticle forces, which are random in Pore air

forces can be resolved into lFig. 6.1 (©)). In the plane XX, at everymagnitude and direction u, =pore air pressure
-Pore water
nlane, which the wavy planeComponents normal point of contact, u,, = pore water pressure
and tangential to the direction of thethese
XX can be said to approximate
he effective normal true In Eq. 6.11, x represents the fraction of aunit
stress Q 1s equal to the cross-sectional area of the soil occupied by water. Solid
the area A of the plane
divided by the area A, or sum of all the components For a dry soil, X= 0, and for a saturated soil, X=1.
particle
Nwithin
EN'
Bishop et al. (1960) have pointed out that the
A intermediate values of x will depend primarily on Fig. 6.2 Partially saturated soil
...(6.5)
 MECHANICS
126 BASIC AND APPLIED SOIL pRINCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE
STRESS, CAPILLARITY AND
the degree of saturation S, but will also be influenced byfactorssuch as soil structure, the (contact angle) to the wall of the PERMEABILITY 127
cycle of wetting and drying or stress change leading to a particular value of S. water molecules cause the tube (Fig.6.4). The
adhesion
the water upwards until, at water to rise in this manner. Theforces between the glass.and
surface tension (force)
with the magnitude of the a height h, the weight of water in the column pulls
6.4 CAPILLARITY IN SOILS surface tension force Fig. 6.4
concave upward in case of water. is in equilibrium
In the case of some (a)). The meniscus formed is
all accounts for most of the land.based water. This water flows under the intluence where the internal cohesion materials (like mercury
Of gravity and results in the formation of streams, rivers, lakes etc., on the suriace, but a does not wet the glass; the forces are greater than the forces of adhesion, the for instance),
resulting meniscus is depressed and its substance
considerable proportion of the precipitation percolates into the rocks and soil. The depth From Fig. 6.4, the equation of shape is convex upward.
O penetration of percolating water is basically afunction of the porosity of the soilsor
rocks. meniscus. The force acting downwardequilibrium can be written for
is the weight of the columnthe forces acting at the
suspended from the meniscus. The upward of water of height h,
The ground water c¡n exist in either of the two forms, namely, () phreatic or tension force around the circumference. force is the vertical component of the surface
8ravtational water, and (iü) capillary water, occurring in two distinct zones demarcated meniscus at the surface. Figure 6.4 (b) shows the magnified view of the
by the water table of phreaticsurface
(Fig. 6.3).
Rainfal -Z

Tension
a c ef l o w X Transient percolating
Surface
water + capillary water
( (capillary)
Percolation

Free water surtace Waterr table h.

Phreatic water air
Phreatic flow
Capillary 'm
tube INeutral pressure, u

Fig. 6.3 Ground water

occurrence Glas Glas
The gravitational 0 Water
completely, has an internalwater is subject to
pore water pressuregravitational forces, saturates the voids
W

flows in lateral direction. greater than atmospheric

Water

The upper Gravitational water may be removedfrom soils bydrainage. pressure and (hydrostatic)
nhreatic surface. Atsurface
+Z
of the zone of full (a) (6)
In other words, the the water table, the ground water is
saturation of the soilis.called
the water table or
(c)

pore water pressure is subjected to atmospheric Fig. 6.4 Capillary rise: (a) capillary tube, (b) magnified at surface and
Tf the water zero. pressure. (c) capillary and hydrostatic pressure
foroe the soil contained in the pores of the
in the field is above the water table would be soil were subject only to the
completely saturated upto someperfectly dry. However, in gravitational =I dT cos o
upto some more height. TThis
is attributed to height above the water table reality, every soil 4
Capillary water is held above the phenomenon of andpartially where T has dimensions of force/unit length. For chemically clean glass tube and pure
force exerted atcthe water table by surface capillarity in soils.
whichis the attractive the water, a =).
states, i.e., liquid/gas, solid/liquid. In interface tension., a fluid
of soils,between
the Thus,
mineral grains and air.
between the molecules ofSurface tension is case it occursmaterials in different property,
the materials atattributed tothe between surfaces ofphysical 4T
To demonstrate the the interface differences in forces of water, h,= Yd ...(6.12)
with the voids between
the
capillary effects in soils, the attraction
soil grains,,is analogy of small bore T is a physicalproperty of water andits value is about 73 dynes/em or 73 mN/m.
in water. quite handy.
d standing with its lowwer end
At Consider acapillary Since y. =9.81 kN/m, for pure water in clean glass tubes, Eq. 6.12 becomes
up into a meniscus, with the
surface tensiontheforcetriple interface, glass tubes
T acting the water tube of diameter 3(10) m 0.03
along its surface is pulled d(mm) ...(6.13)
perimeter at angle a. which is convenient to remember.
 BASIC AND APPLIED SOIL MECHANICS PRINCIPLE OF
128 EFFECTIVE STRESS,
of the tube is smaller. yoids may CAPILLARITY AND PERMEABILITY
The height of the column of wateriis greater whenthe
diameter

Figure 6.4 (c) shows the stress distribution in water, At the level of the water surface in parts and
effectively
inthe smaller
stop capillary 129
the container, the pressure is one atmosphere (or the gauge pressure) inside the capillary rise in certain
upto h,. Thus, the zone pores,
tube, the same as outside the tube since there is no elevation difference between them. h remains
partially between thewater would rise
heights h, and
-Capillary film r,
b e l e eSurtace level, the pressure increases linearly
with depth, so that at a depth Aiscussion on influence saturated. For a detailed
p0int 0, its magnitude is zy. Above this point, the pressure in water 1s negative, :Fferent lengths,theshapes of
less than atmosphericpressure. Thus. the water here may be said to be in tension. he reader is and sizescapillary tubes of
on capillary rise,
TA
Its value u. at height h. above O is given advised to refer to Taylor
by The negative (1948).
pressure) held abovepressure of water
the water table (capillary
4T attractive forces between the results in
(from Eq. 6.12) ..(6.14) referred to as soil suction. particles and is T

sand particles connected Figure 6.6 shows L Capillary film rm

wnen a=0, the radius of the meniscus r is egual to d/2. For a # 0, r, is greater than the
radius of the tube. inducing in them by menisci of radiustwo
an intergranular m
r.
From consideration of the relationships between absolute, gauge and vapour pressure contáct stress Fig. 6.6.Capillary film inducing
of water, it can be shown that in capillary tubes less than 3u m in attractive force
diameter, water cannot Because óf the
cavitate while under tension. The capillary rise in such small tubes is a function
their diameters. But in tubes of larger only of rise in soils is not onlycomplex nature of the soil voids, a
theoretical
is even misleading. prediction
diameters, the limit of dubious accuracy, but of capillary
pressure that can be attained is governed by the vapour for the maximum negative based on direct observation of capillary rise in situ, An empirical method,
cavitation will result when the ambient pressure reaches thepressure of water, and hence approximate relationship suggested by Terzaghi in the more reliable
for large tubes, the maximum vapour pressure. Therefore, approach. One
and Peck (1967) is of the form:
and not on the diameter of thenegative pressure depends only on the_atmospheric pressure
tube. h; (em) =
Capillary Rise of Water in Soils and ...(6.15)
The capillary tube analogy to explainCapillary Pressures in which e is the vofd rati0,
degree. In contrast to capillary tubes,the capillary phenomenon in soils is true only to a constant which can have a valueD,, between
is the effective grain size in
cm and C is an empirical
the voids created by random the theoreticat height of capillary 0.land 0.5 sq cm. Another method of
grains are themselves estimating
directions. When water random and irregular and assemblages of soil
rises in a soil from below, thecommunicate with each other in all
diameter d a value equal to 20% ofrise
the
is to use Eq. 6.13 by substituting
for effective pore
In the upper part, however, lower part becomes fully
effective
soils). The important point to note here is grain size D,, (a reasonable assumption in
that capillary rise is controlled
occupied by air. In Fig. 6.5, water fills only the narrowest saturated.
the overall regime of ground voids and the larger voids remain
not the grain size, and that the same
soil mass with the same D,,can by pore size and
size distributions depending on soil have
water has been divided into four to variable capillary pressure. structure and fabric, geological history,different pore
etc., leading
Ground surface Sheet pile wall
Partially saturated by In the preceding pages, it was established
percolating water stress G is egual to the total stress, o
that the intergranular or effective
Partially saturated minus the pore water pressure, u, i.e., G
with capillary water When the pore water is in compression, as in =0- u.
the
Cap. sat. level
Open
face positive and when it is in tension, u is negative. Sincecase of hydrostatic pressure, u is
u is negative in the capillary zone
Saturated with Excavation Fig. 6.4 (c)], G = 6-( u) = o + u,. In other words, the
hcs
capillary water effective stress is increased
Free water by u,. If the height of capillary rise is h
y Water table
surface
Saturated with ...(6.16)
phreatic water and, therefore, the capillary pressure or the intergranular pressure induced by
flow can be very large indeed for fine-grained soils. It is well understood capillary
that the most
Fig. 6.5
Various zones of important consequence of the increase in is an increase in shearing resistance of the
Zones. Whilethe value of h, groundwater soil mass. This is the reason why one can walk comfortably on a sand beach adjacent to the
soil will be completely given by Eq. 6.13
saturated by capillary represents the maximum sea, a patch falling within the capillary zone but not on the dry sand above the capillary
moisture only up to a capillary rise, the Zone some further distance away from the sea where the soilexhibits much less bearing
height h Afew power in the absence of capillary pressures (Fig: 6.7).Again, when the sea water breaks
large the capillary menisci during tides, the temporarily induced shearing strength is lost. Anyone
 MECHANICS OF
130 BASIC AND APPLIED SOIL PRINCIPLE
EFFECTIVE STRESS,
walking on this surface virtually feel the ground sinking
under his feet Table 6.1 CAPILLARITY AND PE
Yet, in all these differentat states of thecan
this time beach zone, the relative density of the soil remains Approximate Height. of PERMEABILITY 131
ess the same. It is the presence or absence of capillary moisture
that makes all
Soils Canillary Rise in
tho difference.
the Different Soils
Coarse sand Height of capillary
rise*
Poor strength -Good strength
-Poor strength Medium sand 0.03-0.15 m
Fine sand 0.12-1.10 m
Dry sand Silt 0.30-3.5 m
Cap. sand bed Clay 1.5-12 m
Cáp. zone
Water table
*Loose sand/soft clays >10m
show
dense sand/stiff clay. Smaller rise
Fig. 6.7 Different states of a sand bed adjacent to sea (after Hansbo,compared
1975)
to
6.5
Capillary moisture in fne sands and silts allows excavations to be made because of
the stability it provides by yirtue of the induced shearing strength. Such PERMEABILITY OF SOILS
be impossible under dry soil conditions or under water table. excavations would Since soils consist of
destroyed by saturation due to rainfall or by any disturbance Capillary menisci are easily connected and may be discrete particles, the void spaces
viewed as a highly complex between the
stability in fine sands and silts is a temporary phenomenonor even by evaporation. The In a two-phase
solid-liquid system, these voids areand intricate networkparticles are inter
capillary moisture exists. which lasts as long as the water in most problems of irregular tubes.
of soil engineering.
potential difference is created in
completely
Water in filled by the liquid, which is
Bulking in moist sands is another manifestation of capillary
moisture. The capillary Zones of lower potential. a soil mass. Water these tubes is free to flow when a
menisci surrounding the soil grains flows from zones
produces apparent
cohesion which holds the particles together size and pore channels The resistance to flow is greater when the of higher potential to
in
enclosing honeycombs, especially when the moist clusters, irregular. On the other hand, the
when soils have larger voids, pores are smaller in
mass is loosely poured Fig. 6.8). soil -Floc
soils are permeable, the i.e., more or less regular flow resistance to flow is much less
The increase in channels. Thus, even while all
volume, known as bulking, occurs only in -Bonding due to than sands, sands more degree of perviousness is different. Gravels are more
Saturating the soil mass would result moist sands.
apparent cohesion
pervious
same soil may exhibit different than silts and silts more pervious than clays. pervious
in Indeed,
loose sand is much more perviousdegrees of perviousness, depending on its structure.theA
destruction of the menisci and an appreciable the
in volume. It is not a good decrease Fig. 6.8 Bulking in moist sand than when it is dense. A clay soil
idea, therefore, to buy moist structure more pervious than the same seil with a
sand by volume. of a soil is a soil property which with a dispersed structure.The flocculated
Another effect of capillarity is often describes quantitatively, permeability
the ease with which water flows
called capillary through that soil.|It is a very important
the crest of an
core ina dam even though thesiphoning. Water may flow over -directly influences the rate of flow of water engineering property of a soit. Since permeability
the crest of theimpermeable free in a soil, it has a
decisive effect on problems
(1967) report the casesurface
core. Terzaghi and Peck may be lower than involving excavations of open cuts in sands below
between Berlin and Stettin in of the 20 km long of flow of water into the cut to keep the water table (where estimates of the rate
was observed, when the Germany where a loss of 2,000 canal area free
This freeboard was impermeable core of the dikes was 30 litres of water per minute seepage through earth embankment dams (where afrom water by pumping are required),
sYphoning of water. apparently less than the height of cm above the water seepage loss stability of foundations (where a quickclay core is sometimes used to inhibit
The
was increased to 40 cm. loss was reduced to 450 litres per
capillary rise, resulting in level. release of pore water pressure by
drainage will increase the shearing resistance), subgrade
minute when the capillary
core height of compressible soils and many other engineering aspects. drainage, rate of consolidation
The above paragraphs
The height of capillary highlight the practical significance some Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow--Darcy's Law
rise can be really large in of capillary rise in
pressures can be off the case of fine-grained soils.
rise of different soilsignificant
types. magnitudes, Table 6.1 shows soils and capillary In 1856, Darcy, a French water works engineer, studied experimentally the flow of fluids
approximate heights of capillary through porous media. Before taking up Darcy's work for discussion, a brief description of
the terms used in the dynamics of fluid flow would be in order.
Steady flow in fluids means that flow parameters such as pressure, head or velocity
do not vary with time.
Unsteady flow refers to flow conditions which vary with time; also referred to as
transient flow.
 SOIL MECHANICS
BASIC AND APPLIED PRINCIPLE OF
132 EFFECTIVE STRESS,
parameters such as pressure, Loveis laminar and CAPILLARITY AND PERMEABILITY
is the type offlow where the fluid but also
implies that the flow one dimensional, which
133
e-dmensionalflow perpendicular to the flow direction
velocity etc., are the same at all points in asection of flow, i.e., with
respect to only one nint of a crosS-section velocity is the same at
can vary from section to section along the direction
irection of flow. If perpendicular to any
coordinate variable, say x.
00-dimensional flow means thefuid Darameters
vary in two coordinate directions. noints 1 and 2 (ig. stand-pipes
6.10)
ds of flow line, the which mark
the
are inserted at
the two
gHryadieulnct
!Transition

L.e., flx, z) but thev remain the same in parallel planesS. ises in the pipes indicate heights to which water Laminar
function of three coordinate the Turbulent
flow. the fluid parameters are a soil at. these points. If pressure heads
In three-dimensionalassumption of one or two-dimensional flow is made in most elevation of point 1 is
arectilons i.e., flx, y, z), An there is a departure from the
as datum, h, represents taken
the elevation head of
simplify the analvsis. Even where nint 2. From fluid
engineering problems, to
,

appreciable. dynamics, we know that the

assumed flow conditions, the error involved is not potential difference that causes flow is
assumption of incompressible flow of difference between total potential the
Again, in geotechnical engineering problems, Flow velocity
water is made without much error. which is the sum of the pressureor total had Fig. 6.9 Laminar and turbulent flow of
if a fluid particle follows a defined
path and elevation head and head, the
Flow of fluids is described as laminar and as turbulent where random velocity the velocity head. liquids
the path of other particles soil flow problems the velocity head is For most
does not cross
criss-crossing path of fluid particles. There can
be other usually ignored since is small compared to the
two. The pressure head at 1 is hs and at 2 it is ho
luctuations result in azig zag and
transition states between laminar and turbulent flow. elevation in both pipes, no flow occurs. If the elevation head h.Ifis water stands at the same
zero (when 1
whether in agiven case, the flow is laminar the same elevation, the difference in pressure heads that causes flow is the and 2 are at
The fundamental laws that determine experiments with fluid flow piezometricheads between points 1 and 2).
difference in
formulated by Reynolds. The results of his
or turbulent, were is plotted against the hydraulic gradient, But in the set up shown in Fig. 6.10, it is
in a tube are shown in Fig. 6.9. Flow velocity, vper unit length of tube, i.e., h/l. The flow equal to Ah= h,-ho-ho Thus, to determine
iwhich is the head lost in flow due to friction
the flow is laminar (Section I). the total head difference between any two
velocity is proportional to the hydraulic gradient as long as
which eddies begin to form near points in a soil, one needs to insert two
As the velocity is increased. a critical state reached at
flow velocity and hydraulic gradient piezometers at two points and note the Area of x
the wall of the tube and the relationship between velocity again leads to a definite difference in the levels of water in the section AE
becomes uncertain (Section II). A further increase in
h Clean
curved line (Section III). sand
relationship; this time, however, represented by a continuous
piezometers.
flow remains turbulent well
Once in the turbulent zone, if the velocity is decreased, the
By conducting tests on the same soil
laminar flow. The velocity at which this and varying one of the three variables Ah,
h,
into transition zone IIuntil the motion reverts to
flow is always laminar. Land Aat a time, Darcy established that
change occurs is called the lower critical velocity v Below v, the
1i Datum plane
tube and established
Reynolds found that v is inversely proportional to the diameter of the independent of the the flow occurring per unit time is directly
the following general formula applicable for any kind of fluid. It is proportional to the head causing flow and
sample Fig. 6.10 Basic definitions in the theory of
systemn of unit. the area of cross-section of the soil
...(6.17)
but is inversely proportional to the length seepage

= 2000 of the soil sample; thus

...(6.18)
fluid
in which d is the tube diameter, y. is the unit weight of water,nis the viscosity of the was
constant of proportionality
and g is the acceleration due to gravity. has the units of
volume/time. The
is a function of the soil
wherea is the flow and
In most soils (except perhaps coarse gravel), the pores are so small that the flow of the soil in the tube was changed. Thus, it
observed to change when the soil, k; hence,
water through them is always laminar. Hence, from Fig. 6.9, the velocity of flow is namely, the coefficient of permeability of
pronortional to the hydraulic gradient. Darcy conducted his experiments on clean sands. property, ...(6.19)

A schematic diagram, such as the one shown in Fig. 6.10 can be used to study the flow q=*A
onditions and explain the development of Darcy's law. The figure shows a section through
eoil sample of length L and cross-sectional areaA connected to each end of the sample Ah gradient i,
is the hydraulic
...(6.20)

ve water reservoirs in which the water levels can be maintained constant by overflows. Since
difference between these two water levels is denoted by Ah. The flow demonstrated q=kiA
 MECHANICS

APPLIED SOIL PRINCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS, CAPILLARITY AND PERMEABILITY 141

BASIC AND

140 than 5%
fines) with D10 For silts and clays, the above relationships are not reliable. Though no conclusive
(with less
(1911), For clean
sands evidence in favour of any approach is available, many investigators have observed a linear
was proposed by Allen Hazen ...(6.30) relationship between e and log,, k which means that
size between 0.1 and 3.0 mm, Sito Uays
(*= CD0 0.4 to 1.2 with an
Cvaries from used, when k and
logo k, : log10 ky =e, i eg ...(6.36)
mm, constant Other factors: In clays, the influence of soil fabric on permeability is very important.
where k has the unit cm/s. Here, D,, is in k
sometimes
= 100 D, is for k< 10 cm/s.
average value of1. An approximate
equation
good Two clays, at the same void ratio, one having a dispersed structure and the other a
equation holds depends on
D10 are in cm/s and cm respectively. The
The factor (Yen flocculated structure may exhibit a large difference in permeability values. Dispersion
permeant -its viscosity and temperature: 6.29, effect causes the permeability to decrease, basically because of the reduction in the size of
fect of the from Eq.
the kind and physical state of the pore fluid. Again the voids available for flow. The adsorption complex on the clay mineral surface also
Yw
influences the permeability. For example, depending on the type of cation adsorbed on the
ka surface of montmorillonite clay mineral, the permeability is increased in the following
order (void ratio constant at 8)
..(6.31) montnlonit
or K< Na <H< Ca
viscosity and the unit weight of a permeant vary
with temperature. Similarly, for kaolinite at e = 1.5,
Since both the Koslit
in unit weight with change in
Rwill be affected by changes in temperature. The variation common permneant. Viscosity Na <K< Ca <H]-
temperature is much less imnportant for soils where water is the The knowledge that Na clays have a relatively low permeability can be utilized in
effects are more important. Greater the viscosity, lower the permeability. It is common the construction of clay cores in earth danms with the clays beingtreated with salt water so
practice to note the temperature of water during permeability determination and reduce that seepage is inhibited.!
the computed permeability value the value corresponding to 27°C (standard room
temperature). The fact thateffective stress influences the engineering properties of soil has already
been noted while enunciating the effective stress principle. Permeability is the first of
...(6.32) such engineering properties so influenced by the effective stress. As the effective stress
where kon = Value of k at 27°C
increases, the void ratio decreases and consequently the permeability also decreases. The
more important role of effective stress in affecting the shear strength and volume change
k,= value of kat T °C behaviour of soils is considered later in the book.
Lo, = viscosity of permeant at 27°C
Permeability of Stratified Soils
h= viscosity of permeant at T °C
Effect of void ratio: To predict When a subsoil in the field consists of a number of
the one at which it is determined, for a given soil the value of k at a void ratio other than strata which have different permeabilities,
Tavlor (1948) recommends the following k.
relationship: calculation of seepage through such a stratified
deposit requires the computation of average values
1+e 1+e of k applicable for the whole deposit. There are two Ha k
in which the coefficients
C, and C, are shape
packing of the grains and the such average values: the average horizontal
factors which coeficient of permeability, RH when the flow is
characteristics of the pores. depend on the ka
slightly with the void ratio, i.e,shape
C, = Co and hence, For sands, C manner-of parallel to the strata and average vertical
K
changes only H, k.
coefficient of permeability, ky when the flow is
normal to the strata.
1+e 1+e
Another relationship sometimes Consider the section of,a stratified soil mass Fig. 6.15 Average coefficient of
used is ..(6.33) permeability in layered soils
shown in Fig. 6.15. Let the thickness of the layers
Again, assuming C is
be H,, H,...H, and let it k, k, ..k, be their respective coefficients of permeability. It is
constant for sands. assumed that within each stratum, the permeability is the same for both horizontal and
...(6.34) vertical flow.
Horizontal flow (paallel to bedding planes): When flow is horizontal, it is taking
...(6.35)
place through all the layers at the same time and therefore, the hydraulic gradient is the
same in each layer; that is, i, =ig =...=i, =i. But the elocity of flow are different in
different layers.
 nINCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS, CAPILLARITY AND PERMEABILITY 139
MECHANICS

APPLIED SOIL
BASIC AND
Table 6.2 Numerical Values of k. Soil Type and Methods of
138 pumping at a steady Permeability Determination
some cases,
obtained (in
steadystateis
reached).

Consider the flow after flow is

days before a
steady 101 102 103 104 10 10 10 10 10
rate nust be continued for many
Pervious Practically
From Darcy's law, q=kiA (good drainage)
Slightly pervious impervious
(poor drainage)
A = 2rrD
Here, Clean sand, clean gravel Homogeneous
Clean and sand mixture Fine sand, sandy silt,
dh silt clay
g=k 2rrD gravel
Determination by constant
head permeameter
dr = 2 Dkdh Determination by falling head permeameter
or
Determination by consolidation test

Integrating, log. = 2D (ho -h,)

...(6.27) 10° 10 10 10
101 102 10 10 10
1
Then, k= 2.3 21D log10 Coefficient of permeability k, cm/s

Factors Affecting Permeability difference to the value of

can make such
seen how the soil type 10° cm/s, sand between
Observation wells
It has already been greater than
clean gravel has a k value
Pumping well than
permeability. For example; cm/s and clay has h values smaller
10-6
Initial water table
and 10-3 cm/s, silt between 10-3 and so large that engineers are interested
10 permeabilityis expressing the
in the value of be raised while
Drawn down Impermeable stratum 10-6 cms. The variation to which 10 must value of k equal to
water table determining the power Roorkee silt has a
mostly in writing 4 or even
example, while vary, it can be 2 or
permeability value. For The number 3 can
cm/s, the power 4 is important.
3x 104 nonhomogeneity.
influence the value
of
on account of factors which
Aquifer 1or 5 in the field identify a few
one can
however,
For a given soil, tube of any
flow through a somewhat
Impermeable stratum permeability. for the rate of
Poiseuille equation cross-section
irregular
Writing down the adapting it to the
case of
Fig. 6.14 Pumping test in a confined aquifer cross-section and
grains, we get the equation
geometrical
between soil
similar to the
flow passages ...(6.28)

Other Methods of Permeability Determination

For fine grained soils of very low permeability such as clay soils, the coefficient of q n 1 +e
cdee
permeability is determined by an indirect methodfrom the results of consolidation test law gives
with Darcy's V
(Chapter 9). Comparing this equation 1 v s casi ty ...(6.29)

Useful empirical formulas and tables giving numerical values of kfor different soils representative
n 1+e
erist. Table 6.2 is one such Table, which provides some useful pointers. Certain boundary shape and d,
is a factors that
galues ofkare significant. For instance, kof 1.0 cm/s is the approximate boundary that on grainreflects the effect of
dependent
factor presented
separates clean gravels from clean sand and sandy gravels, kof 10-cm/s is the approximate shape since it being
composite
quite useful empirical formulae are
where Cis a eauation is
boundary separating pervious soils and poorly-draining soils and kof 10- cms is, perhaps, grain stze.
he above commonly used
to the
elower limit of permeability of soil, though values lower than 10- cm/s have been reported Some of the proportional

Cs oomne colloidal clays. It can be seen that the range of values for k is simplv enormous. affect
permeability.
of a soil is empirical formulae
permeability

coefiicient of
simplest
earliest and
The permeability of a clean sand, for example, can be a million times the permeability of a below. grain size:
The
One of the
plastic clay. Effect of particle size.
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e

square ofa
 MECHANICs
136 BASIC AND APPLIED SOIL anNCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE
STRESS, CAPILLARITY AND
dh in time dt. PERMEABILITY
tererring to Fig, 6.12. if the level
of water in the standpipe falls by asumes a curved surface 137
dh
the negative assumed to be constant at called
any
drawdown, upater table. The
hydraulic
Ghe flow in unit timethrouch the sample = g =ax velocity of fall, .e. -a dt radial flow through any given radius. Under gradient is also
of water pumped out of cylindrical surface at radius r steady-state conditions, the rate of
is constant and
time. Equating the two expressioms the well in unit time. equal to the amount
SI8n indicating that the head decreases with Consider the
h dr andheight h. flow through an elementary cylinder of soil having
- adh
dt =kA
L
Hydraulic gradient (from outside to radius r, thickness
inside)
dh
Rearranging and integrating, i=
dr
-a Area of flow, A = 2urh
From Darcy's law, q = kiA
al
Hence, k =
A(t, -t) dh
=k 2Trh
dr
If t,-t, =t, k= 2.3aAt 1og10 h¡
...(6.25)
dr
= 2-kh dh
Laboratory tests must be performed, as far as possible, on undisturbedsoil samples.
But in the type of soils for which permeability is important (sand, silty sand, etc.)
undisturbed sampling poses the greatestproblem. The permeability values obtained from Integrating, loge
the laboratory tests may often be quite different from the true values. Degree of saturation /r)
being less than 100 per cent is one important reason. This happens when there is entrapped Thus, (h= 2.3glog1olr, ...(6.26)
air in the sample. But by far the most important reason for discrepancy is the impossibility
of simulating the in situ soil structure in the test sample. Permeability of natural soil Though two observation wells suffice for computing k, higher accuracy will be
deposits is greatly influenced by macrostructure factors such as heterogeneity, stratification, obtained by observing water table in more than two boreholes. Values
ofh, and h, can be
ete., and such effects can hardly be reproduced in the laboratory. To properly account for determnined by measuring the drawdoWn at the two
observation wells.
these factors, the geotechnical engineer may have to use the field pumping tests.
There are several ways of measuring permeability in the field. The most suitable
method in a given situation involves the selection of an area which duplicates the conditions Pumping well. IN Observation wells
of the particular problem for which the permeability values are to be used. For example, Initial water table
values ofkare often needed in problems involving drainage of excavations, reservoir storage
losses due to seepage etc. An appropriate field test for such situations consists of pumping dh
out water from a well and estimating the soil permeability from observations on the
resulting drawdown surface. The pumping tests are no doubt expensive but are more reliable WatDrawn
wateer tabledown
h

than the laboratory tests,since more of the soil macro-structure is incorporated

-in the
in situ test. Aquifer

Water is pumped out from the main well at a constant rate until the water levels in Impermeable stratum

the observation wells (at least two in number) become steady or constant, indicating a
steady state of flow. The flow quantity and the levels in the observation wells are noted. Unconfined flow pumping test
One of the two basic flovw conditions will apply, namely unconfined flow or confined flow. Fig. 6.13 when the aguifer
condition occurs
contined flow drawdown
Unconfined flow pumping test: The test conditions are shown in Fig. 6.13.Here pumping test: A strata (Fig. 6.14). Here. the
Confined flow impermeable
the aquifer is underlain by an impermeable stratum and the test well extends to the bottom above and below
by of the aguifer.
confined both upper surface
of the permeable stratum and is perforated over the section which is below the water is r, above the
values of
table. In its original state, it is assumed that the ground water is at rest. The pumping Surface is. for all
generates a radial flow of water towards the filter well and as a result, the water table
 SOIL MECHANICS
oNCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE
134 BASIC AND APPLIED STRESS, CAPILLARITY
AND
Water is allowed to flow PERMEABILITY 135
Dividing both sides of Eq. 6.20by A level constant by through the sample
...(6.21) overflow. from
during a given time t is The quantity of water flowing a reservoir designed keep the water
The presence of collected in a vessel and weighed.
qlA =v =ki out of the soil or
arcyS law can be expressed in
the form of either Eq. 6.20 or Eq. 6.2l.
entrapped air in the soil can afect ischarge Q
superficial or fictitious #his possibility, firstly
6.21, v /s referred to. asthe superficial velocity of flow; annlied to the soil samplede-aired water is supplied to thethe results seriously. To eliminate
Ln Eq. the croSs-section and not through the
the valve C and keeping before commencing the test. Thereservoir
because the actual flow is through the nores in and
entire cross-sectional area A. The permeability of a soil can then be defined assthe superficial
valves A
and B open, with valye A test is then then vacuum is
started by closing
actual velocity of water flowing in the of flow. Flow is allowed being used to control the
etocuty of flowunder unit bvdraulic sradient. The to
by constant levels in the continue till a steady state of flow is established, rate
voids is called the seepage velocity V, Hence, manometer tubes. Then the discharge is as evidenced
...(6.22) tests at varying rates of flow can be performed and the measured. Several such
From Eg. 6.20, average value of k determined.
where A, is the area of voids in the totat coss-sectional area A.
q=kiA
A rpeLeity ...(6.23)
Since, A Hence, |k=9 QL
Constant level
cm/s ...(6.24)
iA Ah
In engineering practice, for the where k = coefficient of permeability (cm/s)
sake of convenience, u is used instead of
V, Since n < 1, the seepage velocity is Q= discharge (cm) collected in time t (s)
always greater than the superficial or A = cross-sectional area of sample (cm)
discharge velocity. h= difference in manometer levels (cm)
Measurement of Permeability Manometers
L= distance between manometer tapping points (cm)
The coefficient of permeability can be Falling head test: This method is used to determine the permeability of soils such
determined in three ways-by laboratory as fne sands and silts. In such soils, thepermeability is too small to enable accurate
tests, by field tests and by empirical measurement of discharge using a constant head
permeameter. A common arrangement of a falling Stand pipe
approach. Vacuum Xl area =a
In the laboratory, it is possible to head permeameter is shown in Fig. 6.12. A cylinder
use either the constant head or the containing the soil sample is placed on a base Area of cds = A
variable head test. (perforated disc) fitted with a fine gauze. A
connected
Constant head test: It is based graduated standpipe of known diameter is n
Wire mesh to the soil sample. h
on the measurement of the quantity of and gravel filter standpipe
water that flows under a given hydraulic The test is conducted by filling the
flow to take place
gradient through a soil sample of known with de-aired water and allowing
test, the water level
length and cross-sectional area in a given Area = A through the sample. During the height of water in
will continuously drop
and the
time. Constant head permeameters are recorded at several time
intervals
specially suited to the testing of pervious, the standpipe is pair of measurements,
one
coarse-grained soils, since adequate. during the test. Any fall from h, Falling head permeameter
taken for the head to Fig. 6.12
measurable discharge is needed for the Perspex cell namely, the time value ofk. The average
6.12), will yield one readings.
accurate determination of permeability to h, (Fig. computed fromn several such
by this method. A typical setup of this value of k can be unit time
the discharge in
A
law,
kind of permeameter is shown in Fig. From Darcy's h
A11 The soil sample is contained in a q=kiA =kA toh,
of the L
perspex cylinder. At the side
corresponding

time t between
t, and to
number of manometer
a an
intermediate
cylinder,
enable whereh is the
flow head at
connection points are provided to
readings to be
pairs of pressure head and h
figure). Fig. 6.11 Constant head permeameter
taken (one pair is shown in the
 APPLIED
SOL MECHANICS
BASIC
AND PRINCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS. CAPILLARITY AND PERMEABILITY 149
which
the soil and water
container
in
148 c r o s s - s e c t i o n
Aof a EXAMPLES
area of
considering an
Fig. 6.19, A Example 6.1: For the subsoil conditions shown in Fig. 6.20 (a) draw the total, neutral
be placed,
water) = (h +
H, +H) Yo HA +Y, H, A
are assumed to (due to water) =
Yet ...(6.44) and effective stress diagrams upto a depth of8 m. Neglect capillary flow.
force soil + H, A
Upward
(due to HA + Yyo Solution: Unit weight of the partially saturated sand above the water table
downward force )y.A = Yat
(h +H, +
Total
condition, G.+ Se
F'or quick for y., and
rearranging,
Yt(sand) = 1+e
Y
Substituting
G-1

1+e total
approach used above, 2.65 + 0.4 x 0.6
H and the 1+0.6
x 10 = 18 kN/m³ (7, = 10 kN/m)
approach used earlier
stress
Thus, the effective excavations
are made below water Unit weight of saturated sand
give the same results. may occur
when
the area freeefrom water. It G+e 2.65 + 0.6
boiling
condition
pit to keep alternativl
Ysat (sand) Yw x 10 = 20.3 kN/m3
In practice, pumped lout from the excavation or
excavation
1+e 1+0.6
table and water is lowering the water table at the
site before when a pervions
prevented by condition is also
Common Unit weight of saturated çlay
can be flow. Boiling
length of upward artesian pressure
condition.
G1 +w) 2.70 (1 + 0.45)
by increasing the
underlyinga clay
soil is in an
Ysat(clay= 1+wG x10 (e = wG, when S = 1)
sand stratum be made: 1+0.45x 2.70
following points can
To sum up, the is a hydraulic
condition. = 17.67 7N/m
not a kind of sand. It hydraulic'gradient
1. Quicksand is upward under a At elevation -3 m:o=3× 18 = 54 kN/m2
'quick' when the flow is
2. A sand soil becomeseffective stress to zero. u=0(: neutral stress is equal to zero for dry and partially saturated conditions)
which reduces the gradient is about 1.
the critical hydraulic Þ =0- u= 54 kN/m?
3. In a typical sand soil, fine sands. In clays, the
shearstrength
occurs mainly in At elevation 5m: o =3 x 842x 20.3 = 94.6 kN/m?
4. Quicksand condition when the effective stress becomes zero, owing to
does not get reduced to zero even u= 2 x 10 = 20 kN/m2
gravels, the large discharge_ required to
its cohesion. In very pervious sands and
improbable of occurrence. G =0- u= 74.6 kN/m?
maintain aquick condition make it
5. Human beings and animals are not sucked into a quicksand. At elevation - 8m:o=94.6 + 3x17.67 = 147.6 kN/m²
6. High artesian pressure in a coarse sand is one of the most important reasons 0r u=5 x 10 = 50.0 kN/m²
the development of quicksand condition. G =g-u=97.6 kN/mn2

. A Seepage Force The stress distribution diagrams are shown in Fig. 6.20 (6)
The seepage pressures are sometimes converted into forces by multiplying them by s
total cross-sectional area of the soil sample. The seepage force is applied by the flowing
water to the soil skeleton through frictional drag. In an
isotropic soil, the seepage force
Sana
e= 0.6
S= 40%
always acts in the direction of flow. Seepage force is usually expressed as force per unit 54 54
-3 m
volume of soil. Thus, Gs = 2.65
-5 94.6 20 g4.6
j= Seepage force Seepage pressure x Clay
Volume ofo soil Area
Volume
hyA 147.6 50 97.6
Ah -8m- -
To analyse the (a) Subsoil onditions (b) Stress-distribution diagrams
forces acting on a soil
combination withhsubmerged element, we can use in forces

weights or
both methods give the same answer, boundary water forces with
either seepag Although

the latter total weights.to adopt. Fig. 6.20 Example 6.1

procedure is more connvenient
 SOIL
MECHANICs PRINCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS, CAPILLARITY AND PERMEABILITY 147
APPLIED
BASIC AND

the soil
surface i Quíck Sand Condition
the top of
146 depth z below is clear from Eg. 6.41 that by inereasing the total head difference h, it is possible to
noint C at a given bv
effective
stress at a
stress
atCis reach a condition when the effective stresses in the soil become equal to zero; that is,
in Etfective
to iz Y
ncrease

pressure is
thus equal
...(6.40)
HY-i HY,, = 0
h
H Yw or iz , ,
Seepage
This condition occurs when the hydraulicgradient
= 2 + izy,
opening the
valve i= i = ...(6.42)
caused by Yw
Upward Flow shown in Fig. 6.19. It is piezometers at the
upward seepage is constant. The
The condition of tank. The rateof water supply
is kept locations. l is called the critical hydaatic gradient. When upward flow takes place at the critical
hydraulic gradient, asoil such as sand loses all its shearing strength and it cannot support
located below the pressure heads at these
and C indicate
the H, + H any load. The soil is said to have become 'quick' or 'alive' and boiling will occur. The popular
planes ofA, B Elevation head, =
Pressure head, + + H+ h) +0 name for this phenomenonis quieksand. Quicksand is not atype of sand but only ahydraulie
Total head at A = Elevation head, = (H,
B= Pressure head, + flow shall take
placein condition. What has happened under this condition is that the seepage pressure iH Y,, has
Total head at than the total head at A,
head at B is greater
Since the total
beome equal to the effective pressure Hy so that the effective stress throughout the soil
i = H The
stresses are calculated as is reduced to zero. As long as i<iop only a part of the total head diference hisused up in
under a hydraulic gradient viscous friction, with the seepage pressure reducing the net effective stress but not quite
the upward direction completely nullifying it.
below: From Eq. 6.42, substituting for from Eq. 2.22,
At A: G-1
...(6.43)
1+e
G =0
The specific gravity of sand particles does not vary much; so if the void rtio of the
At B: Og =Hy, + Hysat natural deposit is known, i, can be computed from Eq. 6.43. Assuming G= 2.65, i will
Ug= (H, +H+h) y,m vary from 1.1 for e = 0.5 (dense sand) to 0.83 fore= 1.0 (loose sand). For the usual range
..(6.41) void ratios in sand soils of 0.6 to 0.7, the critical gradient will be just about 1, an easyof
õg = HYsat -Y)-hy = HY-iH Y figure to remember.
The o, u and õ plots are shown in Fig. 6.19. Why does boiling occur mostly in fine sands or silts?\Seepage forces affect sands
more than clays because sands do not possess cohesion, while fine silts and clays have
some inherent cohesion which holds the grains together even at the critical
h hydraulic
gradient. In sands, the shear strength t, is given by the equation,t,= Gtan oJwhere is
the angle of shearing resistance. Hence, when G = 0, tñ = 0. In
TL H,
clays, however,
Er=c+ o tan vhere c is the cohesion. The cohesion component of shear strength is
HiY, +ZYsat (H, +Z+ 0z) Yw independent of o. Boiling does not occur in coarse sands and gravels either, because these
H soils are highly pervious; hence as per Darcy's law, large discharges are required to produce
a critical gradient of unty and such flows rarely naterialise in
practice.
When a natural soil deposit becomes 'quick, it cannot
or an animal. But the common belief that human beingssupport the weight of a person
or beasts are sucked into a
H H, quicksand does not stand scrutiny. Quicksand is a viscous
Hy' -hyw about twice that of water. Hence, any person can easily float liquid with a unit weight of
in it, material being viscous,
Inflow
moverment in it is, however, the very tiring. In trying to make desperate
movements in
panic, one may tire oneself and die by suffocation. But if one were to hold the
Fig. 6.19 Variation of o, u head clear
and õ with depth for and make slowW movements, one can grasp something and pull oneself out
An upward seepage, upward flow of the affected
therefore,
downward seepage. It reduces the produces an effect which is Zone.

ceepage pressure acts in the contrary to that o

etfective stress at the level of point A second approach to obtain an expression for i is to equate
direction of ilow, which is upward B by i H N.. The
in this case. pore water pressure and the total weight of all the material above the total boundary
that boundary. From
 BASIC AND APPLIED SOIL MECHANICS
144 noINGIPLE OF EFFECTIVE
STRESS, CAPILLARITY AND
reckoned from the position of the assumed datum. As a final step, the pressure head is Since the total head at A PERMEABILITY 145
culated as the diference between the total head and the elevation head. Tlable 6.3 is greater than
shows the magnitudes of heads different points. the total head at B,
the downward flow shall take place in
Hydrodynamic Case - Flow Condition direction under a hydraulic
in elevation of water gradient i = head loss h The difference
ue stresses in a soil mass are computed as exDlained earlier (Section 6.1), provided there level in the length of flow H
1s no flow taking place through the soil. The condition is known as the hydrostatic condition, The total stress at any stand pipes at the planes of A and B is h.
But when water flows through the soil, it exerts drag forces called seepage forces on the water above it. point in the soil mass is
solely due
ndtvidual grains of the soil. The presence of the seepage forces, which act in the direction to the 'no flow' Hence, there is no change in the distribution of o to the weight of soil and
O Iow, will cause changes in the pore water pressures and effective, stresses in the soil. condition.
At A: total stress
The stress with depth when compared
calculations are shown below:
hese
6.19. effects can be studied with the help of illustration shown in Figs. 6.17, 6.18 and O =Hflu
pore water pressure
No flow' Condition (Hydrostatic case) effective stress
Figure 6.17 shows a tank flled with submerged soil, with no seepage occurring, At B:
the valve at the base is closed. Hence. the water levels in because
top, bottom and any intermediate position of the soil layer the standpipes inserted at the
Og = H, Y, + HYgut
are the same. The variation of ,Ug = (H, + H-h) y,
the total stress o, pore water pressure u and effective strss
condition are shown in Fig. 6.17. G with depth for the 'no flow GB = Og - Wg = H(Ysat -Y)+ h y =HY+h
The o, u, õ diagrams are shown in y ... (6.39)
/Downward Flow Fig. 6.18.
The condition of downward seepage is A comparison of the effective
stress õR in Eq. 6.39, with the value
opened. A constant level of water in theshown in Fig. 6.18. The valve below the flow (hydrostatic) condition of Gz for the no
soil tank is maintained by adjusting tank is shows that the effective stress is
from the top and the outflow at the supply increased by h Or
datum. the bottom. The base of the tank can be taken as the H HY, =iHY
h y.. oriHy.. is referred to
as the seepage pressure.
Inflow
(h
H,+Z Ysat
(H, +z) w
zy'
HiXw tZ Ysat A(H, +2- iz) w zy + iz Yw

Valve H
closed
Hw+ysat Hy
Fia. 6.17 Variation
of o, uand G HW+ w
with depth for 'no HY, + Hygat
conditionflow
motal head at A= Outflow (H, +H- h) Yw
Total head at B=Pressure head, +Elevation head, = Fig. 6.18 Variation of o, u and G with depth for
Pressure headg +Blevation H,+H downward flow
head, =(H, +.H - h)+ Downward seepage, thus, means an increase in
0 stress is due to the frictional force or drag acting on the effective stress. This additional
surface'of the grains which form
the walls of the pores. This seepage pressure always acts in thedirection of flow. The
 SOIL MECHANICS DRINCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS, CAPILLARITY AND PERMEABILITY 143
BASIC AND APPLIED

142 written as From Eqs. 6.37 and 6.38, it can be proved that for any stratified system, Rå Will
velocity can
be
average
discharge always be greater than k,.
By Darcy's law, the

different layers and

6 6 D)
discharge in H 6.6 TYPES OF HEAD, SEEPAGE FORCES AND QUICKS AND
H., is the sum
of the to CONDITION
since (u, H + V2 width in the plane normal
H, t ... + v, considering unit
cross-sectional area,
represents the total It has been mentioned earlier that of the three types of A
the plane of the cross-section.
H) or heads in fluid flow, namely, the velocity head u'/2g, the
kn =
1 (ki H, +k,i H, +...**,i pressure head phy,, and the elevation head z, the first
1 ...(6.37) one is negligible for seepage problems in soils.
Henceforth, when we say total head, it means the sum
of the pressure head and the elevation head only. AE
Ifh is the head loss during flow, then 2
the head loss in different layers. The elevation head at a point is the vertical
h=h,=h, =.. = h.,where h.. ho...are distance of that point measured from an assumed datum Ey
Ifqis the total flow through the layer system, then
plane which is normally taken at the tail water
q =9, +g,t ... + 4, elevation, for convenience. The pressure head is the Fig. 6.16 Calculation of
where q, , g, ... are the flow through different layers. pressure of water at the point p divided by its unit heads Flow downwards
Vertical flow (rormal to bedding planes): In this case, the flow is taking place in one weight y,u: If a piezometer or an open standpipe is
layer after another and continuityof flowrequires the velocity offlow in each of the layers inserted at a point of flow, water would stand at a particular height inside the piezometer.
to be the same. The hydraulic gradients, on the other hand, change from layer to layer. If wemeasure the actual height of rise of water column in the piezometer, this represents
Let the hydraulic gradients in different layers be denoted by i,, i, ... i, and the total the pressure head while the elevation of the water level referenced to the datum plane is
head loss in flow over the total thickness H be denoted by h made up of head losses in each its total head or the piezometer head. The difference in total heads at any two points in a
of the layers equal to h,, h,...h, The constant velocity of flow is soit through which flow is occurring represents the head loss during flow between these
hhth, t r. thy points. The hydraulic gradient is calculated with respect to the total head. Toillustrate
these concepts, Fig 6.16 is shown.
Table 6.3 Magnitudes of Head and Head Loss at Different Points
Loss of head in layer 1 is h, = H,i : i, =
H, and similarly, Point Pressure Elevation Total Head oss

The total head loss

h, =H,i, ...and h, =H, i, head head head

h= H, i, +H, i, t ... +H, i AE AE 0

Combining the first and the last
equations, B AB BE AE 0
h AC CE AE 0
CD DE CE AE/2

Ru Hi + Hkh (=AE-ÂE/2)
H,, t... +Hn'n F EE -EE AE
H
All the head loss is assumed to have occurred during flow through the soil sample.
For flow normnal to
H, ...(6.38) Thus,at the entry point C, the head loss is zero; at F, all the head AE is lost while at D, the
the stratification. midpoint of the soil sample, half of the head is lost (AE/2). For computing the magn+tudes
h=h, + h, t .. + h, of heads at any point within the soil, it is necessary to first calculate the head loss upto
q =41 and that point in a proportionate manner (related to the length of low upto that point as a
42 =....= 4, fraction of the total length of flow through the soil). Thus, the total head at that point is
estimated as the total head at entry point minus the head loss. The elevation head is
 AND
APPLIED SOIL MECHANICS
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS, CAPILLARITY AND PERMEABILITY 157

Solution:
156 Case I [Fig. 6.27 (a)): Elevation 0 m is taken as the datum.
EI. (m) Total head at El. 3 m = Elevation head + Pressure head
50
= 3.0 + 1.5 = 4.5 m
150 Total head at El. 0 m=0+ 0 =0 m
150 Total head loss in soilAand soil B= 4.5 m
80
-10 250 For continuity of flow, v = ka i = kg ig
230

scale) kA hg
not to
(Figures L
Fig. 6.26.
Example
6.8
hA. kB LA0.01, 1.5 = 0.1
hg k Lg 0.1 1.5
h_5-1 h¡ = 0.1 hg and hË + hg = 4.5 m
Hydraulic gradient i = L5
h, = 0.41 m; h¡= 4.09 m;
q =kiA cum/day
By Darcy's law, 60 x 24 x 1 x
l The total head vs elevation diagram is shown in Fig. 6.27 (c). Quantity of flow
q= 10- x 60 x gl meter length will be the same in both soil A and soil B;
10- cum/day
= 8.6 x 0.41
shown in Fig. 6.26. g=k, iaA = 0.1 x 10-2 x x 1.5 m³/s
and
u G versus depth plots are At El,-5 m. the
no 1.5
The o,
water pressure variation in the clay stratum. at the base of = 4.1 x 104m³/s
Note the pore level in the pond. But
water pressure is governed
by the elevation of water artesian pressure head in
the
Case II [ Fig. 6.27 ()]: Since flow is occurring through both strata simultaneously,
water pressure is governed by the
the clay stratum, the pore kN/m² at El,-10 m. the hydraulic gradient of flow is the same:
from 50kN/m² at El.5m to l50
sand layer. That is why u changes the artesian pressure in the pore water. 4:5
From E1.-10 m to El.- 20 m, u is due to = 1.5
depth. It can be seen that the 3.0*
G variation is drawn by subtracting ufromoat each quicksand condition. Quantity of flown =Quantity of flow in soil A + Quantity of flow in soil B
effective stress is reduced to zero at the clay-sand interface. This is the
condition.
Upward seepage and a hydraulic gradient of 1are a combination leading to this
Example 6.9: Two soils, soil Aand soil Bare arranged in the manner shown in Figs. = 0.1 x 10-2 x 1.5 x 0.75 + 0.01 x 10-2 × 1.5 x 0.75
6.27 (a) and 6.27 (b) in two tubes. Determine the quantity of flow in each case and show the = 0.001125 x 0.0001125
distribution of total head with respect to elevation. = 1.2375 x 10-m/s
El. (m) El. (m) Total head at El. 3 m Elevation head+ Pressure head
4.5 4.5
=3.0 + 1.5 = 4.5 m
Total head at El.0 m=0+0=0 m
3.0 4.5
Soil A 3.0 4.5 m Head loss in soil A = Head loss in soil B = 4.5 m
k=0.1 cm/s Soil Á Soil B The total head vs elevation diagram is shown in Fig. 6.27 (d).
1.5 4.0 k=0.1 k=0.01
Soil Cm/s cm/s Example 6.10: The following data were recorded in a constant head permeability test.
k=0.01 cm/s Internal diameter of permeameter = 7.5 cm
oL M.5m 0 1.5 3.0 4.5 Head lost over ásample length of 18 cm = 24.7 cm
Total head (m) Quantity of water collected in 60 s = 626-ml
(a)
(b) 0.75 m0.75 m 4.5
Total head (m) Poro[ity of the soil sample was 44%
Fig. 6.27 (d) Calculate the coefficient of permeability of the soil.
Example 6.9
 AND
APPLIED
SOIL
MECHANICS
BASIC
PRINGIPLE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS, CAPILLARITY AND PERMEABILITY 155
El. (m)
9
El. (m) o (kN/m) u(KN/m')
154 5
9.8 9.8
4

El. (m)
10r 5

4
k03.cD/s
n=33%

6
-Sand Sand Yos20KNm? 9.84 80 -88.2
k=0.1 cm's

n=33%
3
Fig. 6.24 Example 6.7
2
Figure 6.24 shows the o, uand G diagramns for Case II. The total stress distribution
is not different from what it would have been had there been no flow. The pore water
Case ll pressure distribution, however, different because of the flow condition. At El. 4 m, the
Case pressure head is 1 mand hence u =lx 9.8 = 9.8 kNm². At El. 0 m, the pressure head is 9
Fig. 6.23
Example 6.7 m, the height upto which water would rise in a standpipe introduced at that location.
atmospheric, often called
negative Hence, u =9x 9.8 = 88.2 kN/m². The pore pressure distribution is no longer hydrostatic.
Note that pore pressures which are less than Effective stress distribution is obtained by subtracting u from o at every depth.
pore pressures, can exist. at El.0 m. Example 6.8: At the site shown in Fig. 6.25, water rose to El. + 5 m in standpipe inserted
in this case. Datum is taken
Case II: Seepage is upward in the sand stratum. Determine the quantity of flow into the pond in cu. mper day from the
Elevation Pressure Total Head clay layer per sq. m of the pond bed. Plot o, u and õ versus depth. Assume y, = 10 kN/m.
Elevation of Loss (m)
point (m) head(m) head (m) head (mn) Solution:
0 9 k= 10-5 x 102 x 60 x 60 x 24 m/day
0 (entry end)
4 (exit end) 4 1 5 4 A =1 m²; L=5 m
5 0 5 4 El. (m)
1(point A) 1 5

The superficial velocity can be calculated using Darcy's law, v = ki

Case I: V= ki Pond
-5
= 0.1x =0.25 cm/s k= 105 cm/s
4 Clay 3
Case I: Ysat =20 kN/m
U=ki -10
Sand
= 0.1x =0.1 cm/s Ysat = 18 kN/m
4
The seepage velocity, v, 1s
given by the equation -20

U, = n
Fig. 6.25 Example 6.8
Case I: 0.25 To find the head causing flow:
0.33 =0.76 cm/s Insert a standpipe in the sand layer at the bottom of clay stratum; water rises upto
Case II: 0.1 El. + 5m, which is due to the artesian pressure on sand stratum. Insert a standpipe at the
V0.33 =0.3 cm/s top of clay stratum; water rises upto El. 0m which is the top of the pond. Hence, the
difference in the two elevations, i.e., 5 m, is the head causing flow.
 153
A P P L I E D
SOIL MECHANICS PRINCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS, CAPILLARITY AND PERMEABILITY
AND
BASIC
sand stratum
the maximum (a) Let the safe depth of excavation = x m: Thickness of clay overlying
as the upward pressure due to
D e t e r m i n e

foundation.

boiling. For the = (10 -x) m. Bottom of excavation remains stable as long
stress due to the clay
against

152 sand as required

artesian head does not become egual to the downward acting total
of 4 is
h a s p e r v i o u s

stratum at El. 0 m.
6.5:A masonry
dam
factor of safèty
Example ifa
gradient, Thus,
permissible upward
and G, = 2.65. (10 x) Ysaticlay) =6.5 Yy.T
sand, n=45%
Solution: G,-1 (10 -x) x 19.33=6.5 x 9.8
gradient, i = 1+e X= 6.7 m
Critical hydraulic
8, i.e.
0.45 = 0.82
(6) If the depth of excavation is 8 m, remaining thickness of clay will be 10
that
e=1-n 0.55 2 m. For stability, the artesian head h should be brought down such
G = 2.65
2y=hy.. Tor 2× 19.33 = h x 9.8
2.65 -1
= 0.9 h=3.95 m
head,
o=1+0.82 Example 6.7: For each of the cases I and II of Fig. 6.23, determine the pressure
What
0.9
= 0.225 elevation hed and total head at the enteringend, exitend and point A of the sample.
permissible hydraulic
gradient= g
clay, 10 m
are the superficial and seepage velocities of flow? Draw o, u and õ diagrams from
a stratumn of stiff
Hence, EL. 0m to 5 m for Case II.
tobe excavated in ground wator
the and
6.6: Afoundation trench Solution: Case I: Seepage is in the downward direction (check the total head at entry
borehole,
Example (Fig. 6.22). In a trial the depth
bed of coarse sand surface. Determine water
thick, by
underlain a
elevation of 3.5 m below ground
bottom becoming exit end of the soil). Atmospheric pressure is maintained at the top of the reservoir for
an (El. 10 m) and at the bottom of the tail water (El. 0m). Datum is taken at El. 0 m,
to danger of the
was observed to rise carried out without the
excavation can be safely T'he sp. gr. of clay particles is
upto which an in the sand stratum. convenience.
under the artesian pressure
unstable
is 0.8. It is conyenient to first determine the elevation and total heads, and then calculate
2.75 and the void ratio water
safely to a depth of & m, how much should the the pressure kead by'subtrãcting elevation head from the total head. This procedure can
Ifexcavation is to be carried out
table be lowered in the vicinity of the
trench? be adopted for any point within the soil, For the entry end'and exit end of the sample,
Solution:
however, the pressure head can be directly established by the level of free water with
which either of these ends isin communication.
(G+e)
Ysat(clay) = 1+e Elevation Pressure Total Head
Elevation of
point (m) head (m) head (m) head (m) loss (m)
2.75 +0.8
-x9.8 = 19.33 kN/m3 10 10 10
1+0.8
6 (entry end) 6 4 10
2 (exit end) 2 0 10
10 0 0 10

3 (point A) 0.5 2.5 7.5

i
E
mnl.
EL. 6.5 m
Excavation
10
For point A, the head loss upto A is calculated proportionately as x 3= 7.5 m.
Clay 4

Thus, the total head at A is equal to total head at entry end (10 m) minus the head loss
(7.5 m), that is, 2.5 m. The pressure head is computed last: it is the total head- elevation
Coarse sand . head, i.e., 2.5 3.0 = 0.5 m.

Fig. 6.22
Example 6.6
 AND
APPLIED SOIL MECHANICS
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS, CAPILLARITY AND PERMEABILITY 151
uptothe
ground
surface, what
150 table
rises The sand is saturated by gravity flow below W.T. and by capillary flow upto a height
water of 2 m above W.T.
(a), ifthe
Fig. 6.20
6.2 (a): In El,-1 m:G= 1 x20 =20 kN/m² (total stress is the same whetherthe soil is saturated
El.8m?

Example stress at
kN/m2
change in effective
is the =154.5 by gravity flow or capillary flow)
17.67
Solution: G=5x
20.3 +3 x u=-1x 10 =- 10 kN/m² (capillary flow, hence -ve porewater pressure)
kN/m?
At E l 8 m,
u=8x 10 = 80 kN/m2 G =0- u= 20-(- 10) = 30 kN/m2
154.5- 80
=74.5
= 23.1
kN/m2
This is due El.2 m:
G = 97.6 74.5 o= 2x 20 = 40 kN/m2
decreased by
table from
partiallv
saturated
stress has above water u=0 (:" porewater pressure =0 at W.T.)
stress is, therefore, equal to
effective
Thus, the soil mass
state of the effective
G = 40 kN/m2
to the change in thestate. The difference in
to the submerged E l 8 m , ifin Fig. 6.20 (a) the
El4 m: o= 4x 20 = 80 kN/mn2
10.0)] = 23.1 kN/m.
3 [18 (20.3 - efective stress at u =2 x 10= 20 kN/m?
Example
is the change in
6.2 (b): What
2 m? G =80 20 = 60 kN/m?
water table is louwered by
still remains
saturted At El.0 m: u=-2 x 10 =- 20 kN/m2
Solution: change, since the so1l
147.6 kN/m² (no
At El.-8 m, o = and G =0-(-20) = 20 kN/m?
between El 3m and El,5 m). at El-5 m) The stress distribution diagrams are shown in Fig. 6.21 (6)
(since the W.T. is now
u=3 x 10 = 30 kN/m²
117.6 kN/m².
G = 147.6 - 30 =
kN/m. This increase is again Ground surface 20 20
which represents an increase in õ of 117.6 97.6 = 20 Om
thickness from submerged to
layer of 2 m Capillary saturation
attributed to the change in the state of the soil upto G.S. 30
-1m 10
saturated. A =2 (20.3 - 10.3) = 20 kN/m.
water table Sand
In general, it can, therefore, be understood that a rise in position of
40
-2 m 40
results in a decrease in effective stress while a lowering of the water table bringsabout an Gg = 2.60
increase in effective stress. This effect has an important bearing on bearing capacity and e= 0.60
80
settlement of foundations.
-4 m
L20 60

Example 6.2 (c): Ifin Fig. 6.20 (a), the water table rises upto an elevation l m above the (a) Subsoilconditions (b) Stress-distribution diagrams
ground surface, what will be the effective stress at El.8 m?
Solution: See Example 6.2 (a), in which the water table was at the Fig 6.21 Example 6.3
in free water level above the ground surface by lm would result inground surface. A rise Example 6.4: What is the theoretical height of capillary rise and the capillary pressure
stress at every location from El. Omto El.-8 mby 1 xy or 10 an increase in total in a fine grained soil with effective size (D, of 0.002 mm?
nore water pressure would also increase at kN/m2. Similarly, the
10 kNm2. Thus, the effective every location by the same Solution: D,,= 0.002 mm; using the assumption that the effective pore diameter= 20% of
stress distribution for this case ould magnitude, L.)
Ex. 6.2 (a). be the same as Di0 that is , 0.2 x 0.002 = 0.0004 mm,
G at El.8m =74.5 kN/m2 0:03
Any fluctuation in the level of Height of capillary rise h, = 0 0004(mm) m) = 75m
free
in any charge in effective stress at any water above the ground surface would not result Capillary pressure
Example 6.3: For the subsoil
depth within the
soil deposit. =-h,Yu
stress values at 1 m, 2 mand.l4 mconditions shown in Fig. 6.21 =-75 >x 10 = - 750 kN/m2
depths? Assume (a) what are the effective Such high values of capillary rise and capillary pressure are seldom realised in
Solution: =10 kNI
m. practice, since some of the voids are large enough to cause water to vaporize and destroy
G+e the menisci.
Ysat(sand) = 2.6 +0.6
1+0.6 x10 = 20 kN/m³
 AND
APPLIED SOIL MECHANICS PRINCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS, CAPILLARITY AND PERMEABILITY 159
BASIC

velocity
during the test. If the Example 6.11: In afalling head permeabilitytest on a sample 12.2 cm high and 44.41 cm'
158 and the
seepage
permeability of the soil for a in cross-sectional area, the water level in a standpipe of 6.25 mm internal diameter dropped
estimate the from a heightof 75 cm to 24.7 em in 15 minutes. Find the coefficient ofpermeability.
velocity
discharge
determine the of 25°C,
Also temperature Solution:
test was carried out at a
porosity of 39%
and at 20°C. al
Solution:
k= 2.3 At log10 h
From Eg. 6.24, TX0.6252
a= = 0.307 cm2
4
t= 15 x 60 = 900 s
A7.5 = 44.18 cm?
12.2 75
cm/s k= 2.3 x 0.307 x 44.41 x 900 log10 = 1.04 x104 cm/s
626x18
= 1.72 x 10- 24.7
k= 44.18 x 60x 24.7
24.7
|Example 6.12:A stratified soildeposit is shown in Fig. 6.28 along with the coefficients
v=ki= 1.72 x 10-1x 18 = 2.36 x 10- cm/s of permeability of the individual strata. Determine the ratio of kyto kyp Assuming an average
Discharge velocity hydraulicgradient of 0.3 in both horizontal and vertical seepage, find (i) discharge value
V_2.36x10-1 and discharge velocities in each layer for horizontal flow, and (ii) hydraulic gradient and
-=5.36 x 10- cm/s loss in head in each layer for vertical flow.
Seepage velocity 0.44
For n = 44%,
LV= 1.5 x 10 cm/s i=1.14
k, =5x 10.cm/s i=constant =0.3
e, =0.79; = 0.275
1+e h, 228 cm
V, =6x10cm/s
For n, =39%,
i, = 0.0285
k=2x 10 cm/s q=3.3 cc/s/cm
e, = 0.64 = 0.16 h, = 14.25 cm
1+e
At 25°C, viscosity of water , = 8.95 millipoises - i= 0.19 ha = 57 cm
k=3x 10 cm/s V=9x 10* cm/s
At 20°C, N, = 10.09 millipoises
Lh=300 cm
Considering that Dis. vel. Hydraulic gradient Head loss
(not to scale) (not to scale) (not to scale)
(a) Horizontal flow (b) Vertical flow
(neglecting effect on Y,)
karc =1.72 x 10-1 x 8.95
Fig. 6.28 Example 6.12
Now considering that 10.09 =1.526 x 10-1 cm/s at e = 0.79 Solution:
Average coefficient of permeability for horizontal flow,

Roneo at e= 0.64 is kH, +kgH, +kglg

H
equal to
1.526 x 10 x 0.16 5x10* x 2000 + 2x10 x500 +3x103 x300
0.275 = 8.88 x 10 cm/s
1000
= 1.l× 10- cm/s
 APPLIED
SOIL MECHANICS pRINCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS, CAPILLARITY AND PERMEABILITY 161
AND
BASIC
Solution:
huy =9hux
160 for
vertical
flow,
1000
Total head loss during flow = 10cm (from Fig. 6.29)
300 hn + h = 10
p e r n m e a b i l i t y

of 500
coefficient
H 200
Average
H 5x104+ 2x10-2
3x10-3
10 h , =10 or h, (x) = 1 cm
and
hun = 9 cm
10-
cm/s
(a) For vertical flow, velocity of flow is constant in soil X and soil Y.
= 1.9 x
1 . 1 x 1 0 - 2

=5.79

1 . 9 x 1 0 - 3
Uy = ky iy= k, i,
102 3.3Bccc/s/cm width
0.3 x 10x 2=
9 = 4x 10-8 x 1
(i)Horizontal flow 1.l x10-x 10
q=kyiA= 1.5 x 104 cms
104 x 0.3 = ky = 4.4 x 10cm/s
U, =k, i=5x 6.0 x 10-8
cm/s
k, i= 2x 10 x 0.3 = 1
V, = 9.0x 104 cm/s (6) g = ky iA = 4 x103x x10 ccs or 14.4 cc»hr
x 0.3 =
v, =ko i =3x 10 different f
10
of flow is
velocity
the same but the (c) El. of water in piezometer at El. 0cm in soil Y= 40 cm (El. 0m is assumed as
the gradient of flow is
(for horizontal flow, datum)
different layers.) El. of water in piezometer inserted at El. 10cm in soil Y=40 9=31 cm (total head
gradients
continuity of flow, but at El. 10 cm)
flow isthe same because of
(For vertical flow, velocity of .. Elevation of water in piezometer inserted at El. 5 cm = 35.5 cm (total head at
are different for different layers.) 104 cm/s El. 5 cm)
V= 1.9 x 10 x 0.3 = 5.7 x Pressure head at El. 5 cm = 35.5 5.0 = 30.5 cm.
5.7x10-4
5.7x104
=1.14; i, = 0.0285; |Example 6.14: For a field pumping test, a well was sunk through a horizontal stratum
i, = 5x104 2x10-2
of sand 14.5 m thick and underlain by a clay stratum. Two observation wells were sunk at
5.7x104 horizontal distances of 16 m and 34 m respectively from the pumping well. The initial
= 0.19 position of the water table was 2.2 m below ground level. At a steady-state pumping rate of
3x10-3
925 litres /min, the drawdowns in the observation wells were found to be 2.45 m and 1.20
h, (head loss in layer 1) =i H, = 1.14 x 200 = 228 cm m respectively. Calculate the coefficient of permeability of the sand.
Similarly, Solution: For the case of unconfined flow of Fig. 6.30,
h, =0.0285 x 500 = 14.25 cm
and h, =0.19 x 300 =57 cm k= 2.3-hË
Check: Total head loss = 228 + 14.25+ 57 = 299.25
cm 0.3 (i) x 1000 (H)
The results are shown in Fig. 6.28 (6). In this case, r;= 16 m;r, =34 m
Example 6.13: If in Fig. 6.29, soil X h, = 14.5 2.2 - 2.45 = 9.85 m
permeability of 4 x1cmls and the head lost has a EL. in cm
ho = 14.5 2.2- 1.2 = 11.10 m
Y is 9 times the head lost is soil X in soil 40
925
(a) What is the 30 m°/s
permeability of flow per hour?
(6) What is quantity of
q=
10 x60
flow per hour? -20
(o) To what 34
elevation would water rise 10
log10
piezometerinserted in a Soil Y. 925 16
What is the pressurein soil Y at El, 5 cm?
k= 2.3x
head at this point? 10 x 60 xn 11.10 9.85
Area = 10 cm
= 1.41x 10 m/s or 1.4l x 10- cm/s
Fig. 6.29 Example 6.13
 M E C H A N I C s
aNCPLE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS, CAPILLARITY AND PERMEABILITY 163
SOIL
APPLIED

RASIC AND
4. In a deposit of silt the water table which was originally at a depth of 2 m was lowered to a
depth of 4.5 m by pumping. What is the change in effective pressure at a depth of 4.5 m?
162 q= 925 lit/m Assume capillary saturation upto ground surface in both cases. (24.5 kN/m²; increase)
EI. 0
m
2.2 mI
Initial W.T. S= 50%
2.451| 2m

Sand 14.5 m 16 m 34 m S=75%

aquifer
-4 m
S= 100% Sand
C l a ys t r a t u m e= 0.5
-6 m Water table
Example
6.14
Fig. 6.30
Gs 2.70
S= 100%
PROBLEMS

stress -10 m
and effective
total, neutral
in Fig. 6.31, plot the
conditions shown Fig. 6.32 Problem 5
l. For the subsoil bottom of the clay
layer, when
above the W. T.)
distribution upto the (take S = 50%
table is at 2 m below ground surface 5. For the soil profile shown in Fig. 6.32. plot o, u, G versus depth from DI. 0 to EI. 10 m.
(a) the water surface, and (At El.- 10 m: o= 204.2 kN/mn2: u =39.2 kNm2: G = 165 kN/m)
at the ground
(6) the water table is surface.
(c) the water table is 2
m above the ground the position of water 6. The end ofa clean glass tube is inserted in pure water. What is the height of capillary rise, if
stress with change in
your comments on the change in effective the tube is (a) 0.1 mm, and (b) 0.001 mm in diameter? (0.3 m; 30 m)
Offer
table. 7. Calculate the approximate height of capillary rise in a soil having e = 0.75, D,, = 0.05 mm
u = 68.6 kN/m², G 107.9 kN/m? (assume C = 25). Use both approaches discussed in the text. What are the corresponding
(a) 9 m depth; o = 176.5 kN/m²,
(6) 9 m depth; o =180.2 kN/m, u 88.2 kNm?, G =92.0 kN/m? values of capillary tension? (h, = 0.67 m /3m; T = 0,082 NIm 0.37 N/m)
(c) 9 m depth; o = 199.8 kN/m², u = 107.8 kN/m2, G
= 92.0 kN/m 8. A sample of soil for a constant-head permeability test yields the following data:
2 For the conditions Fig. 6.31, Problem l, if the water table is lowered by pumping by 2 m Diameter of the permeameter = 7.6 cm; length of the soil sample = 20.0 cm; head causing
from its position stated under part (a) of Problem 1l,what is the change in effective stress at flow = 15.0 cm; quantity of water collected in l0 min = 150 cc; G, = 2.65, . . = 20 kN/m.
the mid depth of the clay layer? (19.6 kN/m2: increase) Determine (a) coefficient of permeability in cm/s (b) superficial velocity of flow, and (c) seepage
3. In a deposit of fine sand the water table is 3 mbelow the ground surface but the sand upto a velocity. (7.35 x 10- cm/s; 5.5 x 10S cm/s; 1.5 x 10cm/s)
height of 1 m above the water table is saturated by capillary water. The sand above this 9 A falling head permeability test was performed on a sand sample and the following data
height may be considered dry. For the sand, G, =2.68 and n =40%. Calculate the effective
stress at a derpth of 8 m
were recorded:
(100.6 kN/m) Cross-sectional area of permeameter = 100 cm; length of the soil sample = 15 cm: area of
G.S the stand pipe = 1 cm2, time taken for the head to fall from 150 cm to 50 cm =8 min,
TIX
temperature of water = 25°C; dry mass of the soil specimen = 2.2 kg and its G = 2.68.
Compute the coefficient of permeability of the soil for a void ratio of 0.70 and standard
Sand temperature of 20°C. (2 x 10cm/s)
6m
Gs =2.67
e=0.6 10. A pumping test was carried out at a site where a 8m thick clay stratum overlies a fine sand
stratum 1.5 m thick. Below the sand stratum lies an impermeable rock stratum. After a
steady state was established, the pumping rate from a well-boring was measured at
Clay 15,000 cc/s. The average water levels in the two observation wells made at 6 m and 15 m
4m
Ysat=20 kN/m radius were respectively 5.0 m and 4.5 m below ground surface. Determine (a) the coefficient
of permeability of the sand, and (b)the effective pressure during pumping at the bottom of
the sand stratum at 6 m radius, if the total stress at the bottom of the clay was 140 kN/m².
Assume y, for sand to be 20 kNm. (2.9 x 10- cm/s: 125.9 kN/m)
Fig. 6.31 Problem
1 11. Excavation is made in a soil whose porosity is 30% and specific gravity of soil grains =2. 60.
Al.5 mlayer of this soil is subject to an upward seepage head of 2m. Find out what factor of
 PRINCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS, CAPILLARITY AND
APPLIED
SOIL
M E C H A N I C S

PERMEABILITY 165
BASIC AND (c) What is the effective stress at mid height of
against pumping, soil A?
unit weight of
needed
of 2 is Assume
164 factor of safety stratum?
layer.
If a above the
soil the
gravel
66 cm
headin
(boiling)?

piping placed loss of (0.84 ; 2.07 m)

safety exists against required
to be negligible
Soil A: k= 10 cm/s
what depth of gravel is that of the soil
and
Assuming thatthe head 50 cm Soil B h00 cm Ze =18 KNm
be the same as
gravel to Fig. 6.33. for the effective
shown in expression

s h o u l d be
conditions
write an what the Soil A Soil B : k= 10 cm/s
in
subsoil
per cent, avoided, |100 cm
12 An excavation
is to be nmade a t X - X to be 15 condition is to be kN/m2: D= 2.2 m) Ysat = 20 kN/m
layer 12
loss in the coarse sand terms ofD. If
boiling
(G =9.8 D , -
pit?
stress at level X-X
in left in the
that has to be
minimum depth of water
Sheetpiling Fig6.35 Problem 14
7 Lake (a)a= 3.6 x 10-5 A/m/min (Ain m2)
Silt (6) 1- 266 cm
3.0 m Excavation

level
6 m
2- 260 cm
Silty clay 3- 230 cm
4.5 m
D Ysat =19 kN/m
(c) (7.126 kN/m2)
2 m
15. For the cases l and 2 of Fig. 6.36, determine the pressure head, elevation head, total head
2.5 m
andhead loss at the entering end, exit end, and point Xof the sample.
Coarse sand
(Case - 1; At X - h,=25; h, =30 ; h, =-5; h, =75(cm)
Impervious
Case - 2; At X- h, =30; h, =- 40 h, =70; h, = 10(cm)
Fig. 6.33 Problem 12
of water that can be
water filter. Determine the amount
13. Figure 6.34 shows a setup of a diagrams. 40 cm |40 cm
total, neutral and effective stress distribution
filtered in aday. Draw the
kN/m² 7.5 m depth; o = 107.5
(Q= 30.23 mi; 4m depth, o =39.2 kN/m2; u =39.2 kN/m²; G =0 -Soil
1Ocm
kN/m²; u = 9.8 kN/m², G = 97.7 kN/m) 40. cm Soil
X
10 cm 10 cm
20 cm
|4.0 m
Soil Case- 1 Case -2
k=6x 10 cm/s
n=40%
G =2.65
Fig. 6.36 Flow of water through soil samples -Problem 15
3.5 m
Om REFERENCES
Area =3.14 m
L. Hansbo, S. (1975), Jordmateriallara, Almqvist Wiksell Forlag AB, Stockholm.
Fig. 6.34 Þroblem 13 Z. Hazen, A. (1911), Discussion of Dams and Sand Foundations' by A.C. Koenig, Transactions,
14. For the set-up of Fig. 6.35,
(a) What is the quantity of ASCE, Vol. 73, pp. 199-203.
To what height above water flowing per minute? S. Taylor, D.W. (1948), Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.
3?
XX would the water
rise in a peizometer Terzaghi, K. and R.B, Peck (1967), 'Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice; 2nd Ed, John
inserted at points 1, Z a Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.