Unit 1

Battery
Technology
Contents
• Battery Technology

• Introduction to batteries: Redox reactions and electron transfer, the basic

principles behind battery operation. Electrochemical cells: anode, cathode,
electrolyte, and their roles in energy conversion. Key battery performance
metrics. Emerging Battery Technologies

• Lead-acid batteries (working principles and applications), Nickel-metal hydride

batteries (improved efficiency, environmental advantages, and limitations),
Lithium-ion batteries (chemistry variations and performance characteristics),
exploring alternative chemistries (sodium-ion, solid-state, and organic
batteries).

• Limitations and Sustainability Concerns: Charge and discharge cycles: battery

degradation, Safety concerns with lithium-ion batteries: thermal runaway, fire
hazards, Environmental impact of battery production (resource extraction,
mining, and pollution).
Introduction:

• Batteries are essential for various devices.

• Clocks, watches, motor vehicles, and more rely on batteries.

Diverse Applications:

• Different applications require specific battery properties.

• Car batteries need high current for a short time.
• Pacemaker batteries must be small and steady.
• UPS systems require consistent backup.
• Hearing aid batteries must be tiny.
• Torpedo and submarine batteries must be stable and
rechargeable.

Global Industry:

• The battery industry has a significant global turnover.

1. Primary Batteries:
 Galvanic cells that produce electricity from sealed-in
chemicals.
 Cannot be recharged; once equilibrium is reached, they
are discarded.
 Examples: Dry cell, Lithium copper sulfide cell.

Requirements:
 Compact, lightweight, and made from readily available
materials.
 Economical and environmentally benign.
 High energy density and longer shelf life.
 Provide constant voltage and long discharge periods.
2. Secondary Batteries:

 Rechargeable cells that can be used through multiple

discharge and charge cycles.
 External electricity reverses the spontaneous cell reaction
during charging.
 Examples: Lead-acid batteries, Nickel-cadmium cell,
Lithium-ion battery.
Requirements:
 Long shelf-life in both charged and discharged states.
 Longer cycle life and design life.
 High power-to-weight ratio.
 Short recharge time.
 High voltage and energy density.
Batteries as Electrochemical Cells:
 Batteries store chemical energy and convert it to electrical
energy.
 Electrochemical reactions release electrons and transport
charged ions.
 Electrodes and electrolytes influence energy storage,
operating voltage, and battery performance.
 Each battery comprises one or more electrochemical cells.
 Cells have anodes (negative electrodes) and cathodes
(positive electrodes).
 Separators prevent internal short circuits, and current
collectors transfer electrons.
 Electrochemical cell
Electrochemistry: Branch of Physical Chemistry which deals with
the properties, behavior of electrolytes in solution and inter-
conversion of chemical energy (CE) & electrical energy(EE)

Electrochemical cell - a single arrangement of two electrodes in

one or two electrolytes which converts CE into EE or vice versa.

• Classification
• Galvanic Cells or voltaic cell –Daniel cell- Chemical to electrical

• Electrolytic Cells -Electrical to chemical

Galvanic Cell - Daniel Cell
Representation of galvanic cell.
• Anode Representation:
Zn│Zn2+ (1M) or Zn ; Zn2+ (1M)
Zn │ ZnSO4 (1M) or Zn ; ZnSO4 (1M)

• Cathode Representation:
Cu2+ (1M) │ Cu or Cu2+ (1M) ;Cu
Cu2+ (1M) ; Cu or CuSO4(1M) │ Cu

• Cell Representation:
Zn │ ZnSO4 (1M)║ CuSO4(1M) │Cu
 Anode vs Cathode in Galvanic cell

Anode:
• Electrode at which oxidation occurs
• is where electrons are produced
• has a negative sign

Cathode:
* Electrode at which reduction occurs
• is where electrons are consumed
• has a positive sign

Oxdn. Is Losing Electrons, Rdn. Is Gaining Electrons

Electrodes (Anode and Cathode):
 Anode: Where electrons flow out (oxidation).
 Lower standard reduction potential (more negative).
 Desired characteristics: Low reduction/redox
potential, high specific capacity, reversibility, and
good conductivity.
 Cathode: Where electrons flow in (reduction).
 Higher standard reduction potential (more positive).
 Desired characteristics: High reduction potential, high
specific capacity, reversibility, and stability.
 Cell potential (Ecell) = Ecathode - Eanode.
 Greater potential difference results in higher voltage.
Electrolytic Cell

external circuit

internal circuit
 Comparison between Galvanic and
Electrolytic Cell
Galvanic Cell Electrolytic Cell
• Cell reaction is spontaneous • Cell reaction is non spontaneous
• Converts Chemical Energy to • Converts Electrical Energy into
Electrical Energy Chemical Energy
• Anode is negative terminal and • Anode is positive terminal and
cathode is positive terminal cathode is negative terminal
• Have two electrodes and two • Have two electrodes and single
electrolytes electrolyte
• Used as portable source of • Used in Electrolysis apparatus.
electric energy. • Salt bridge is not used
• Salt bridge is used • Eg : Electroplating.
• Eg: Daniel Cell
 Comparison…….contd..
•Similarities:

•Involves oxidation at anode & reduction at cathode

• oxidation & reduction in the separate regions

•Electrons flow from anode to cathode in the external

circuit

•Reactions occur on electrode surface only

Sign of electrode potential
 Emf of a cell
The difference of potential, which causes a current to flow from
the electrode of higher potential to one of lower potential.

Ecell = Ecathode- Eanode

ECell 3 factors:

*The nature/composition of the electrodes: SRA+SOA

large potential
*Temperature E α T
*Conc. of the electrolyte solns. E α C.
Nernst Equation

An expression of a quantitative relationship between electrode

potential/cell potential and concentration of the electrolyte
species in an electro-chemical reaction
E= Eo-0.0592/n log 1/[Mn+] at 298K

From Nernst equation,

• If concentration of solution (Mn+) is increased, the electrode
potential increases and vice versa.
• If temperature is increased, the electrode potential increases and
vice versa.
 Nernst equation for an electrochemical cell

 RT Conc of species at Cathode

E cell  E cell  2.303 nF log Conc of species at anode 
0

 


 0 o
 2.303
RT  
Cu 2 
For Daniel cell E
 cell

E C
- E A
nF
log
 
zn 2 

Significance of the Nernst equation:

• To calculate the potential of a cell that operates under non-standard

conditions.

• To measure the equilibrium constant for a reaction, when the overall

cell potential for the reaction is zero

E=E° - (RT/nF)lnKc where E=0

Energetics of Cell
Reactions

 ΔG = -nFE Joules

 ΔS = nF(∂E/∂T)P JK -1

 ΔH = nF[T(∂E/∂T)P –E] Joules

Types of Electrolytes:
 Liquid, solid, polymer, or composite (hybrid)
electrolytes.
 Selection depends on battery type.

Desirable Properties:
 High ionic conductivity.
 No electric conductivity.
 Nonreactivity with electrodes.
 Wide operating temperature range
Traditional Liquid Electrolyte (desired properties)
 Low viscosity, high energy density.
 High charge/discharge rate.
 Operational temperature: -40°C to 60°C.
 Low flammability.

Polymeric Electrolytes:
 Solid or gel form.
 Solid: High flexibility, energy density, safety, and stability.
 Gel: High ionic conductivity, multifunctional, chemically
stable.
  Solid polymeric electrolytes have low ionic conductivities
at room temperature.
 Gel polymeric electrolytes have better conductivity but
poor mechanical strength.

Advantages of Solid Polymeric Electrolytes:

 No leakage.
 Non-flammable.
 Non-volatile.
 Thermal and mechanical stability.
 Easy fabrication.
 High achievable power density and cyclability.
Battery Performance matrix

1. Current:
 Measure of electron flow during discharge.
 Expressed in amperes (coulomb per second).
 High conductance electrolyte ensures uniform current.
 Batteries provide direct current.
2. Capacity:
 Charge in ampere-hours (A h) obtained from the battery.
 Depends on battery size.
× ×
 Determined by Faraday relation: 𝐶 =
Where C is the capacity in A h, m is the mass of active material and M is
the molar mass.
 Capacity measured by time (t) to reach minimum voltage (Ecellmin)
during fixed current discharge.
 Longer flat portion in discharge curve indicates better capacity.

Fig 5: Battery voltage during charging Fig 6: Battery voltage during discharging
3. Electricity Storage Density:
 Measures charge per unit mass stored in the battery.
 Includes mass of electrolyte, current collectors, terminals,
and other elements.
 Minimize mass of subsidiary elements for high storage
density.
 Example: 7g of lithium vs. 65g of zinc for the same charge.
4. Energy Efficiency: Energy efficiency
= (Energy required for charging /Energy released on discharge)×100%
 Depends on current efficiency, overpotentials, and internal
resistance.
 Aim for high energy efficiency.
5. Cycle Life:
 Number of charge-discharge cycles before failure (applicable
to secondary batteries).
 Regenerate active material during charging.
 Affected by corrosion, shedding, shorting, and morphology
changes.
6. Shelf Life:
 Retains performance during storage under specified
conditions.
 Self-discharge due to reactions or corrosion.
 Tolerance to temperature, vibration, and shock.
7.Energy Density:
• Ratio of energy available to battery mass (or volume)
(Wh/kg or Wh/L).
• Continuous energy density above a threshold or very
high density for short periods.

8. Power Density:
• Ratio of power(rate of energy
transfer) available to battery
mass (W/kg) or volume (W/L).
Ragone Plot
• Aim for continuous high power
density or short bursts
EMERGING BATTERY TECHNOLOGIES
Emerging battery technologies are constantly developing to fulfil the
increasing requirements of many industries, such as consumer
electronics, EVs, renewable energy storage, and grid stability.
Below are a few noteworthy developing battery technologies:
1. Solid-State Batteries
 Replace liquid/gel electrolyte with solid
 Higher energy density and safety
 Potential to revolutionize EVs and portable devices

2. Lithium-Sulfur Batteries
 Higher energy density than lithium-ion
 Uses abundant, affordable sulfur
 Challenges: conductivity and polysulfide dissolution
3. Lithium-Air Batteries
 Extremely high theoretical energy density
 Lithium metal anode, oxygen from air cathode
 Issues: cycle life and anode stability
4. Flow Batteries
 Liquid electrolytes in external tanks
 Scalable, flexible capacity
 Research on better energy density and cost

5. Metal-Air Batteries
 Metal anode, atmospheric oxygen cathode
 High theoretical energy densities, potentially low cost
 Reversibility, efficiency, and cycle life challenges
 Lead Acid Battery/Storage Battery
(Lead Accumulator or Car Battery or the acid battery)

Construction
 Lead grid electrodes maximize surface
area
 Anode: spongy lead (Pb)
 Cathode: lead dioxide (PbO2)
 Electrolyte: sulfuric acid solution (H2SO4),
specific gravity ~1.25
 Separators: wood, rubber, or glass fiber
 Encasement: plastic or vulcanized rubber
 Wet cell: common electrolyte without
liquid junction
Discharging reactions
At the anode:
Pb (s) → Pb2+ (aq) + 2e-
Pb2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → PbSO4(s)
Pb(s)+ SO42-(aq) → PbSO4(s) + 2e-

At the cathode:
PbO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + 2e− → Pb2+(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Pb2+(aq) + SO42−(aq) → PbSO4(s)
PbO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + SO42−(aq) + 2e− → 2 PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)

Overall: Pb(s) + PbO2(s) +4H+(aq) + 2SO42−(aq) → 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)

Reactions during Charging:
Cathodic reaction
PbSO4(s) + 2e- → Pb(s)+ SO42-(aq)
Anodic reaction
PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l) → PbO2(s) + SO42-(aq) + 4H +(aq) + 2e-
Net reaction: 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l) → Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4
Overall Discharge – Charge Reactions

Recharging
 External power source reverses discharge reactions
 Lead sulfate (PbSO4) adheres to electrodes, facilitating
reversibility
 Specific gravity of H2SO4 indicates battery’s charge
level
Overcharging of Lead Acid Batteries
 Electrolysis of Water
2H2O (l) + electrical energy → 2H2(g) + O2(g)
 No gas release if lead ions present
 Hydrogen gas at cathode:
 2H+(aq) + 2e-→ H2(g)
 Oxygen gas at anode:
 2H2O(l) →O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e-
 Consequences of Overcharging
 Acid level reduction, potential electrode damage
 Risk of explosion due to high-pressure build-up
 Older batteries require periodic ‘topping up’
 Maintenance-Free Batteries
 No gas-release vent, controlled gassing
 Pb-Ca alloy anode reduces water electrolysis
 Catalysts recombine gases into water, no maintenance
needed
 Sealed design prevents leakage

 Applications
 Automotive Batteries: Starting, lighting, ignition (SLI) for
cars and trucks
 Industrial Batteries: Motive and standby power for heavy-
duty applications
 Consumer Batteries: Emergency lighting, security systems,
power tools, UPS
Advantages
 High Efficiency: Voltage efficiency ~80%
 Reversibility: Fast chemical reactions, high negative free
energy change
 Longevity: 300-1500 recharge cycles, up to 2000 for sealed
batteries
 Quick Recharging: Approximately 2-8 hours
 Low Self-Discharge: Maintains charge when not in use
 High Current Capability: 12 V car batteries can deliver over
10 A
Disadvantages
 Sulfation: Large PbSO4 crystals formation if left partially
charged
 Weight: Low energy-to-weight ratio (~35 Wh/kg)
 Concentration Dependent: Cell potential drops as sulfuric
acid is consumed
 Temperature Sensitivity: Reduced efficiency at lower
temperatures
 Overcharging Risks: Potential electrode damage and
explosion
 Toxicity: Environmental and health concerns with lead
• Corrosion: Lead grid corrosion at lead dioxide electrode
Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) battery
As electronic products have come to feature more sophisticated
functions, more compact sizes and lighter weights, the sources of
power that operate these products have been required to deliver
increasingly higher levels of energy. To meet this requirement, nickel-
metal hydride batteries have been developed.
Construction
 Positive plate: Nickel hydroxide
 Negative plate: Hydrogen-absorbing alloys
 Separator: Fine fibers
 Electrolyte: Alkaline, mainly potassium hydroxide
 Case: Metal, with self-resealing safety vent

Structure and Alloys

• Hydrogen-absorbing alloys absorb/release hydrogen
• Alloy types: AB (TiFe, etc.), AB2 (ZnMn2, etc.), AB5 (LaNi5, etc.)
and A2B (Mg2Ni, etc.) preferred for electrodes

Charge and Discharge

• Hydrogen moves between electrodes during charge/discharge
• No change in electrolyte concentration
• Sealed design maintains internal pressure
Discharge Electrochemical Reaction
Charging Electrochemical Reaction

Source: Frequently Asked Questions | Kawasaki Heavy Industries

A model of this battery’s charge and discharge mechanism is shown
in the figure below.
Advantages
 High Energy Density: Surpasses Ni-Cd batteries, with capacities ranging
from 1000mAh to 3000mAh or higher
 Long Cycle Life: Hundreds to thousands of recharge cycles
 Environmentally Friendly: Fewer harmful materials, no toxic cadmium
 Safety: Stable, lower risk of thermal runaway or fire hazards
 Cost-Effective: Long-term economic power solution with fewer
replacements needed
Disadvantages
 Self-Discharge: Loses 1-5% charge per day when idle
 Memory Effect: Potential issues if not fully discharged before recharging
 Temperature Sensitivity: Performance affected by extreme
temperatures
 Charging: Slower charging rates, limited fast charging capability
 Voltage Output: Lower compared to newer battery chemistries
Applications  Emergency lighting and
backup power
 Consumer electronics
 Renewable energy storage
 Power tools
 Flashlights and portable
 Medical devices
devices
 Hybrid vehicles
 Electric bicycles and
scooters
Lithium-ion Batteries

 Lithium metal cannot be used safely in secondary batteries.

 In these types of batteries, The electrolyte is normally LiPF6
(LiBF4 can also be used instead of LiPF6 as it is not resistant
to corrosion).
Construction

 The anode is lithium-carbide type intercalate (LixC6).

 The cathode is a transition metal oxide MO2 of variable
oxidation state (MnO2, CoO2, NiO2) which can intercalate
lithium (usually cobalt dioxide, CoO2 is used). Lithiated metal
oxide such as LiCoO2, LiV2O5, LiMn2O4 are inserted into the
cathode which consists of a layered graphite crystal.
 The electrolyte is usually inert (polar) dry ether or carbonates
(diethyl carbonate or propylene carbonate), in which a
conductivity salt such as LiPF6 or LiBF4 is dissolved.
 It is called as a lithium ion battery as contains no
lithium metal.
 Both the electrodes are intercalation compounds.
 The anode is a special intercalation compound
consisting of a graphite host into which lithium ions
have been electrochemically inserted between the
carbon atom layers.
 The lithiated graphite is written as LixC6.
 Working Principle
Discharge reaction:-

The main principle is based on the movement of lithium

ions between anode and cathode through the electrolyte
occurs during charge and discharge process.

Anode reaction: Li ( C ) Li+ + e-

Cathode: Li+ + e- +CoO2 LiCoO2

The overall cell reaction is as follows:

Overall: CoO2 + Li ( C ) LiCoO2

Charging reaction:-

The main principle is based on the movement of lithium

ions between anode and cathode through the electrolyte
occurs during charge and discharge process.

Anode: LiCoO2 Li+ + e- + CoO2

Cathode reaction: Li+ + e- Li ( C )

The overall cell reaction is as follows:

Overall: LiCoO2 CoO2 + Li ( C )

 When charged, cobalt ions are oxidized and lithium
ions migrate into the graphite
 Because of this reason, the lithium ion batteries are
called ‘Rocking chair, ‘Swing’ cells
 When discharging, the battery delivers energy to the
external load and when charging it receives energy
from a d.c. power source.
 The electrode that acts as an anode, during
discharging becomes a cathode when its charging.
Applications:

1. Used in applications where one or more of the advantages

(size, weight or energy) outweigh the additional cost, such
as mobile telephones and mobile computing devices.

2. Used when the battery design matters in a particular

application as different designs are possible (Cylindrical,
jelly-roll design, flat rectangular).

3. Used in current-generation laptops, cellular phones, video-

recorders, portable CD players, televisions and implantable
medical devices.
Advantages
1. Designed to overcome the safety problems associated with the
highly reactive properties of Lithium metal.
2. Long cycle life (400-1200 cycles).
3. Smaller, lighter and provide greater energy density than either
nickel-cadmium or nickel-metal-hydride batteries
4. Can be operated in a wide temperature range and can be
recharged before they are fully charged.
5. Typically designed to be recharged in the device rather than in an
external charger.
6. The average voltage of a Li-ion battery is equivalent to three Ni-Cd
cells.
7. A typical Li-ion battery can store 150 watt-hours of electricity in 1
kilogram of battery as compared to lead acid batteries can sore
only 25 watt-hours of electricity in one kilogram.

Disadvantages
1. Poor charge retention
2. Self discharge rate is about 10% per month
3. High cost
Working of Li- ion cell

https://youtu.be/VxMM4g2Sk8U
54
Sodium-Ion Batteries
 Economical alternative to lithium-ion
 Abundant sodium, lower energy density
 Suitable for cost-effective stationary storage
Sodium-ion Batteries (SIBs)
 Sodium Availability
 Abundant in Earth’s crust and seawater
 Simpler, less energy-intensive extraction than lithium
 Cost-effective raw material for large-scale storage

Similarities and Differences with Li-ion

 Both Li and Na are Group 1 Alkali Metals
 Similar electron loss properties, ideal for batteries
 Difference in ionic radii: Li+ (~0.76 Å) vs Na+ (~1.00 Å)
 Larger Na+ ions challenge traditional electrode materials
Challenges in Na-ion Technology
 Developing electrode materials for larger Na+ ions
 Novel electrode materials like Prussian blue
analogues for improved mobility and layered sodium
vanadates
 Lower energy and power densities than Li-ion
batteries
Advancements
 Research on optimizing electrode materials and
electrolytes
 Focus on enhancing performance metrics
Alternative energy Devices: Fuel cells
A fuel cell is a galvanic cell in which chemical energy of a fuel –
oxidant system is converted directly into electrical energy in a
continuous electrochemical process

The reactants (i.e. fuel + oxidant) are

constantly supplied from outside and the
products are removed at the same rate as
they are formed.
Anode:
Fuel → Oxidation products+ ne-
Cathode:
Oxidant + ne- → Reduction products 58
Fuel cells

Courtesy of Toshiba
Micro fuel cell Toshiba fuel cell with refueling cartridge
 Methanol Fuel cell
Construction

• Electrolyte:- Sulphuric acid

• Electrodes:- Typical gas diffusion electrodes, made up of

porous C coated with Pt catalyst.

• Fuel:- Methanol

• Oxidant:- Air

• Catalyst:- Platinum

• Operating temperature:- 30 – 80oC.

• Charge-carrier:- H+
Schematic Diagram of a Methanol Fuel Cell

61
Fuel Cell Stack

62
 Mechanism for Methanol Oxidation

• Electrosorption (forming Pt-CH2OH, Pt2-CHOH

species) of methanol onto Platinum layer deposited on
membrane electrode assembly (MEA)

• Addition of oxygen to adsorbed carbon containing

intermediates generating CO2

63
Operation of Fuel Cell

64
 Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell

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 Proton exchange membrane cell
Construction

• Electrolyte:- Ion exchange polymeric membranes.

• Electrodes:- Typical gas diffusion electrodes, made up of

porous C coated with Pt catalyst.

• Fuel:- Hydrogen

• Oxidant:- Air

• Catalyst:- Platinum

• Operating temperature:- 30 – 80oC.

• Charge-carrier:- H+
 Perflourinated membrane by DuPont.

F F F F F F F F F
Role of conducting membrane
C C C C C C C C C

F F F F O F F F F
1. It acts as electrolyte to provide ionic
F C F
conduction b/w anode and cathode
F C F
2. Its serve as a separator for two
O
reactant gases
F C F

F C F

O=S=O
-
O
+
H

PERFLUOROSULFONIC ACID MEMBRANE

• Working
Anode reaction:
H2 2H+ + 2e-

Cathode reaction:
½ O2 + 2H+ + 2e- H2O

Overall reaction:-
H2 + ½ O2 H2O

 Optimized proton and water transport properties of

membrane are crucial for efficient fuel cell operation
 PEMFC
Advantages Disadvantages
• solid electrolyte provides • Dehydration of membrane reduces
excellent resistance to gas proton conductivity and excess
crossover. water can lead to flooding of the
electrolyte. Both the conditions
leading to poor performance.
• low operating temperature
allows rapid start-up
• Perflourinated membranes have high
cost
• capable of high current
densities • sensitive to poisoning by trace levels
of contaminants including CO,
sulfur species and ammonia.
 Differences and Similarities
Fuel cell Galvanic Cell
• Do not store chemical energy • Store chemical energy
• Reactants fed from outside the • Reactants form an integral part of
cell continuously its construction.
• Need expensive noble metal • These special conditions are not
catalysts & optimum required
operative conditions • Get-discharged when stored – up
• Do not get discharged & no energy is exhausted.
need of charging • Limited life span in use
• Never becomes dead as long
as fresh reactants are available
• Useful for long-term • Useful as portable power services.
electricity generation.
• Reaction products must be • No such problem
continuously removed
• No pollutants generated • Pollutants are generated after their
• Significantly higher power useful life
densities • Lower power density
 Safety Concerns with Lithium-Ion Batteries

 Internal Shorts and Thermal Runaway: Damage or malfunction

can lead to dangerous heating and pressure build-up.
 Overcharging and Overheating: Excessive heat from overcharging
or high temperatures can trigger thermal runaway.
 Physical Damage: Dropping or crushing can damage internal
components, causing short circuits.

 Manufacturing Defects: Poor manufacturing can

increase the risk of thermal runaway; quality control
is vital.
 Puncture or Penetration: Puncturing a battery can
cause internal shorts and thermal runaway.
 Age and Degradation: Over time, batteries degrade,
becoming more prone to overheating and thermal
runaway.
 Safety Measures and Environmental Impact of Battery
Production:
 Safety Measures in Lithium-Ion Batteries:
 Battery Management Systems (BMS): Monitors and
controls charging/discharging to prevent hazards.
 Thermal Management Systems: Utilize heat sinks and fans
to prevent thermal runaway.
 Quality Control and Testing: Ensures detection and
correction of cell flaws before market entry.
 Safety Standards and Regulations: Established by
authorities to ensure safe battery use.
 Environmental Impact of Battery Production:

 Resource Extraction: Mining for battery materials can

lead to ecological damage.
 Energy Intensity: High energy consumption in
production; renewable energy can reduce impact.
 Chemical Pollution: Handling and disposal of
hazardous chemicals must be managed safely.
 Water Usage: Significant water use in production;
conservation and recycling are key.
End-of-Life Management:
 Crucial Disposal Management: Essential to minimize
environmental harm.
 Recycling Infrastructure: Development needed to
prevent pollution.
 Material Reuse: Advocacy for reusing battery materials
to reduce impact.
Environmental Considerations:
 Vital Role of Batteries: Key in renewable energy and
electrification transition.
 Mitigation of Environmental Impact: Necessary at all life
stages of batteries.
 Sustainable Practices: Implementation critical for
environmental protection.
 Technical Advancements: Adoption can address
manufacturing concerns.
 Regulatory Frameworks: Establishment helps ensure
environmental safety.
1. Using the electrochemical series, calculate the emf of the cell
Fe(s) /Fe2+(0.1 M) ││ Cd2+(0.2 M) / Cd at 298 K. Write the cell
reactions.
From the series we have;
Eo Cd2+/Cd = − 0.40 V ; Eo Fe2+/Fe = − 0.44 V
At anode Fe →Fe2+ + 2 e−
At Cathode Cd2+ + 2 e− → Cd
Net reaction: Fe + Cd2+→ Fe2+ + Cd
EMF of the cell at 298 K is given by
Eocell = Eocathode − Eo anode
= − 0.40 − (− 0.44)
= 0.04 V
Ecell = Eocell − (0.0591 / n) log [ Fe2+ ] / [Cd2+]
= 0.04 −( 0.0591/ 2 ) log [0.1] / [0.2]
= 0.0488 V
2. Write the cell reactions and calculate the EMF of the
following cell at 298K.
Mg/ Mg2+ (0.001M) // Cu2+ ( 0.0001M) / Cu .
Given Eo Cu2+/Cu = 0.34 V and Eo Mg2+/Mg = − 2.37V
At anode Mg → Mg2+ + 2 e−
At cathode Cu2+ + 2 e− → Cu
Net reaction Mg + Cu2+ → Mg 2+ + Cu
Ecell = Eocell − (0.0591/n ) log [ Mg2+]/ [Cu2+]
Eocell = Eocathode − Eo anode
= 0.34 – [ −2.37]
= 2.71V
Ecell = 2.71 – (0.0591 /2) log [0.001]/ [0.0001]
= 2.6805 V
Battery

The standard free energy change for the cell reaction

in a lead acid battery at room temperature is -390.5 kJ
mol-1. Calculate the cell voltage.

ΔG° = − n F E°

390500 = - 2 x 96500 x E°

E° = 2.02 V