METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Dr. Sameh Elhabashy

OBJECTIVES

 1. Demonstrate an understanding of the concept of measurement.

 2. Recognize the data-collection process.
 3. Identify data-collection methods.
 4. Define the instrument of a data-collection.
 5. List criteria for selection of a data-collection instrument.
 6. Identify the types of Data Collection Instruments.
GLOSSARY

 Reliability
 Validity
 Pilot study
 Measurement,
 Research instruments
INTRODUCTION

 This is the time when the researchers get to interact

with their study participants to examine or measure the
variable(s) of interest.
 MEASUREMENT

 Measurement is the process of how variables will be observed or

measured.
 For example, anxiety level could be measured in several ways,
such as through skin response, pulse rates, or self-report
questionnaires.
 PROCESS OF DATA-COLLECTION

• There are five important questions to ask when the researcher is in

the process of collecting data: Who? When? Where? What? How?
 PROCESS OF DATA-COLLECTION (Cont.)

• Who will collect the data? e.g. researchers, co-researchers….

• When will the data be collected? (Time, Duration, and frequency).

• Where will the data be collected? The setting for data collection must be determined.

• What data will be collected? What is the type of data being collected.
For example, is the study designed to measure knowledge, attitudes, or behaviors?

• How will the data be collected? Some type of research instrument or tool will be needed
to gather the data e.g. questionnaire.
DATA COLLECTION METHODS

 The variable(s) of interest to the researcher must be measured to examine it.

 This measurement is carried out through various data-collection methods.
 Method of Data collection is a systematic process of how gathering observations
or measurements.
 Data-collection methods are affected by several factors including
(a) the research question(s) or hypothesis(es),
(b) the design of the study,
and (c) the amount of knowledge available about the variable of interest.
 There are many alternatives to choose from when deciding a
data-collection method. e.g. “ Physiological measures,
observation methods, self-report questionnaires, interviews,
attitude scales, psychological tests, and other types of data-
collection methods may be selected”.
DATA-COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS (TOOLS)
• Research instruments, also called research tools, are the devices used to
collect data.

• The instrument facilitates the observation and measurement of the variables

of interest.

• The type of instrument used in a study is determined by the data-collection

method(s) selected and type of data itself.

• Examples:

If physiological data are used, some type of physiological instrument will be

needed. If observational data are needed to measure the variable of interest,
some type of observational schedule or checklist will be utilized.
 CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF A DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENT
Several criteria must be considered when deciding on a data-collection instrument;
these include the practicality, reliability, and validity of the instrument.

(1)Practicality of the Instrument

• How much will the instrument cost?

• How long will it take to administer the instrument?

• Will the population have the physical and mental ability to complete the instrument?

• Are special motor skills or language abilities required of participants?

• Does the researcher require special training to administer or score the instrument?
 RELIABILITY OF THE INSTRUMENT

 The instrument is considered reliable if it would give us the same result

over and over again (assuming that what we are measuring isn’t changing).

 The reliability of an instrument concerns its consistency and stability.

 Example:

If you are using a thermometer to measure body temperature, you would

expect it to provide the same reading each time it was placed in a constant
temperature water bath.
 VALIDITY OF THE INSTRUMENT
 The validity of an instrument concerns its ability to gather the data that it is
intended to gather.

 The content of the instrument is of prime importance in validity testing. If an

instrument is expected to measure assertiveness, does it, in fact, measure
assertiveness?

 The greater the validity of an instrument, the more confidence to obtain data
that will answer the research questions or test the research hypotheses.

 An instrument cannot be valid unless it is reliable.

 DATA-COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS COULD BE;

1- Use of Existing Instruments :

 a researcher may using an instrument is already available to measure the
research variable(s).

2- Developing an Instrument:
 If no existing instrument is appropriate for a particular study, the researcher has
to develop a new instrument.
 New reliability and validity testing will need to be tested.
 A PILOT STUDY

 A pilot study can be defined as a 'small study to test research

protocols, data collection instruments, and other research
techniques in preparation for a larger actual study’.
Sample
 No set number of subjects is needed for a pilot study.
Factors such as time, cost, and availability of persons similar
to the study subjects help determine the size of the pilot
group.
TYPES DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS

 Physiological methods.
 Observational methods.
 Interviews.
 Questionnaires.
 Survey.
 Attitude scales.
 Psychological tests.
 Visual Analogue Scale.
 1- Physiological Measures
- Use of specialized equipment to determine physical and biological status of
subjects.
- Such measures can be:
• Physical such as weight or temperature.
• Chemical such as blood glucose level.
• Microbiological such as cultures.
 2- Observation Methods
- Gathering data through visual observation.
- Observing the subject may give a more accurate picture of the behavior in
question than asking the patient.
- Ex.:
- individual characteristics and conditions, such as traits and symptoms,
verbal and nonverbal communication behaviors, activities and skill
attainment, and environmental characteristics.
 3- Interviews
- Is a method of data collection in which an interviewer obtains
responses from a subject in a face-to-face encounter, through a
telephone call, or, today, through an Internet connection.
- Interviews are used to obtain factual data about people, as well
as to measure their opinions, attitudes and beliefs about certain
topics.
 Types of Interviews

• 1- Structured interviews.

• 2- Semi-structure interview.

• 3- Unstructured interview.
 Types of Interviews
1- Structured Interviews:
- Involve asking the same questions, in the same order, and in the same
manner of all respondents in a study.
- Most appropriate when straightforward/direct factual information is desired.
- Include strategies that provide a control by the researcher over the content
of the interview.
 Types of Interviews
2- Semi-structured Interviews:

- Interviewers are generally required to ask a certain number of specific questions,

but additional probes / exploration are allowed or even encouraged.
- Both closed-ended and open-ended questions are included in a semi-structured
interview.
 Types of Interviews
3- Unstructured Interviews:
• A great deal of freedom to direct the course of the interview.
• Are conducted more like a normal conversation,
• Topics are pursued at the discretion/preference of the interviewer.
• Are particularly appropriate for exploratory or qualitative
research studies.
 4- Questionnaires
- Are paper-and-pencil instruments designed to gather data from individuals
about knowledge, attitudes, beliefs and feelings.
- The investigator determines the content of an interview or questionnaire from
the literature review.
- The item must be clearly written so that the intent of the question and the nature
of the information sought are clear to the respondent.
- The only way to know whether the questions are understandable to the
respondents is to pilot test them in a similar population to test the reliability and
validity.
 Guidelines for Questionnaire Construction
1. Short questionnaires is better than long.
2. State Questions in an Affirmative rather than a negative manner.
3. Avoid ambiguous/unclear questions. (many, usually, few, often,
large, several, and generally).
4. Avoid double negative questions. (Don’t you disagree with the idea
that . . .”
5. Questions should contain neutral/unbiased wording.
 Types of Questions
1. Demographic Questions: characteristics of the sample. (age, gender, educational, …etc.).

2. Closed-Ended Questions: choose from given alternatives. (true/false, checklist, multiple-

choice questions and matching questions).

3. Open-Ended Questions: are used when the researcher wants the subjects to respond in
their own words or when the researcher does not know all of the possible alternatives
responses (Essay and fill-in-the-blank are types of open-ended questions).
 Surveying
• Surveying involves gathering information from large number individuals using a questionnaire.

• Surveys should be:

• reach a large number of respondents
• generate standardized, measurable, realistic data
• as well as offer confidentiality / anonymity.

• Designing survey instruments capable of generating credible data, however, can be difficult
 5- Attitude Scales
• The Likert scale was named after its developer, Rensis
Likert. These scales usually contain five or seven responses
for each item, ranging from strongly agree to strongly
disagree
 6- Psychological tests
- Are self-report measures
- Assess personality traits, needs, or values of people.
- Ex.: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI),
contains 550 affirmative statements that require an answer of True,
False, or Cannot Say. This test is composed of 10 subdivisions,
including areas such as depression, paranoia, and hysteria.
Psychological tests
 7- The visual analogue scale
(VAS)
- Presents subjects with a straight line drawn on a piece of paper. The
line is anchored/fixed on each end by words or short phrases that
represent the extremes of some phenomenon, (pain scale).
- Subjects are asked to make a mark on the line at the point that
corresponds to their experience of the phenomenon.
- Ex.: Pain; well-being mood, anxiety; depression, nausea, psychological
distress; fatigue; dyspnea….