WELCOME TO AP CHEMISTRY!

Even as we wrap up another successful school year, it is never too early to start thinking
about the future. Next year, new and interesting challenges await you in Advanced
Placement Chemistry. From its humble alchemical beginnings as a search to turn other
metals into gold and to produce an elixir that grants endless life, chemistry has grown into a
comprehensive study of the composition and behavior of the universe. In your first year
chemistry course you were able to see how broad the spectrum of topics can be; and you
learned not only the general chemical principles involved, but also how these topics fit
together. It is the goal of the AP Chemistry course to delve deeper into each of those areas
to discover new truths about the beauty and complexity of creation. Next year, you will gain
a deeper understanding of the “what” and “how” that makes the world around you familiar
and functional. Topics to be addressed include:

 Organic Nomenclature and Reactions  Solids, Liquids, and Solutions

 Quantifying Chemical Reactions  Chemical and Nuclear Kinetics
 The Behavior of Gases  The Equilibrium Condition
 Thermochemistry  Acids & Bases
 Submicroscopic Structure and Behavior  Thermodynamics
 Chemical Bonding and Periodicity  Electrochemistry

While it is certainly possible to appreciate chemistry from a purely qualitative perspective, true awe
is derived (Ha! Get it?) from an understanding of mathematical relationships. You need to be very
comfortable with algebraic manipulation and logarithmic functions. Concurrent enrollment in Pre-
Calculus or higher is strongly recommended but not required.

Now to the point – there are not enough hours in the day and not enough days in the year for us to
arrive at our destination if we delay our departure. You must hit the ground running next August,
and that will require you to do some personal preparation beforehand. Attached you will find sample
exercises to reacquaint yourself with fundamental concepts and skills from the first-year chemistry
course. You are expected to make sure you are comfortable with these exercises before you attend
the first class. Please email me for a key when you are ready to check your work, because ensuring
mastery will solidify your Pre-AP Chemistry fundamental knowledge assessment we will have during
the second week of school. Most - if not all - of this material is simple to do and to understand, but
repetition is often the key to mastery. Skills addressed in this summer assignment include:

 Dimensional Analysis and Unit Conversion  Writing and Balancing Equations

 Naming and Writing Formulas for Compounds  The Mole and Stoichiometric Relationships

Please don’t hesitate to send an email to me at [email protected] if you are

having difficulty with this assignment, simply need a question or two answered, or would
like to see the answer key. I will do my best to help you solidify this foundation on
which we can build your understanding of chemistry next school year. You making the
choice to do more in Chemistry makes you very important to me. Get comfortable e-
mailing me when needed because I will be there for you! I’m excited about how much
you will learn next year!

Regards,
Mrs. Deshaun Dotson
ATTACHMENTS:
Chapter One: Introduction to Chemistry READ ME!
Chapter Two: Measurement READ ME!
Scientific Notation & Significant Digits COMPLETE ME!
Dimensional Analysis #1 and #2 COMPLETE ME!
More Dimensional Analysis Practice Problems COMPLETE ME!
Naming and writing formulas for Ionic Compounds READ ME!
Naming and writing formulas for Covalent Compounds READ ME!
Naming and writing formulas for Acids READ ME!
Common Polyatomic Ions ***********************************************MEMORIZE ME!
Solubility Rules and Strong Acids and Bases****************************MEMORIZE ME!
Periodic Table of the Elements REFER TO ME!
Worksheet: Formulas and Nomenclature COMPLETE ME!
Lots of Ionic Naming Practice Problems COMPLETE ME!
Naming Covalent Compounds Worksheet COMPLETE ME!
Naming Acids and Bases COMPLETE ME!
Nomenclature – Practice Sheet COMPLETE ME!
Balancing Equations Practice COMPLETE ME!
Balancing Equations #1 COMPLETE ME!
Balancing Equations #2 COMPLETE ME!
Balancing Equations #3 COMPLETE ME!
Molar Mass Conversion Practice COMPLETE ME!
Molarity COMPLETE ME!
Stoichiometry Practice A COMPLETE ME!
Stoichiometry Practice B COMPLETE ME!
Let’s Assign Oxidation Numbers COMPLETE ME!

Online Resources:

www.khanacademy.org
A great website with video tutorials on specific problems. Click “Watch,” then navigate to
the Chemistry section.

http://www.sciencegeek.net/APchemistry/Powerpoints.shtml
Prepared Powerpoint® notes directly from our textbook, Chemistry, 5th edition, by Steven
and Susan Zumdahl
 CHAPTER ONE:
INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY

SUBTITLE SECTION PAGE

The Central Science 1.1
Scientific Method 1.2
Experimentation 1.3
Analysis 1.4
Laboratory Safety 1.5
Laboratory Equipment 1.6
1.1 THE CENTRAL SCIENCE
How often have you thought about
chemistry today? The answer is likely “very little”
or “not at all,” but chemistry is all around you.
From the processes that allow you to digest your
breakfast to the many functions of the car you ride
in – the engine, brakes, air conditioner, CD player –
all of them can be explained with chemistry. Even
the ability to read this page is dependent upon
chemical signals and responses in your brain.
Chemistry is often called “the central science” not
because the course is between biology and physics,
but because there is practically nothing that lies outside the realm of chemistry.
Chemistry is the study of matter and its interactions. Though there are many
branches of chemistry, the differences lie only in the type of matter or the particular
properties being studied. The Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) Registry has catalogued the
existence of over 27 million different substances, so it is impossible for one person to be an
expert in every area of a field as broad as chemistry. Organic chemists, for example, only
study substances that make up living matter. All living matter is made of compounds that
contain the incredibly versatile element carbon in addition to other elements such as
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur. Inorganic chemistry is the branch of science that
studies all other substances. Although it may seem that inorganic chemistry is the larger
field, approximately 85% of all compounds are classified as organic substances. The
properties of carbon are such that it is capable of combining with other elements in nearly
an infinite number of ways. Many of these compounds occur naturally, but a growing
number are synthesized in a laboratory. Nearly 50,000 new substances are added to the CAS
Registry every week.
Other branches of chemistry include biochemistry (the study of the chemical
processes of living organisms), physical chemistry (the study of the properties of matter and
the energy associated with it), and analytical chemistry, which is concerned with the
identification and measurement of substances.
1.2 SCIENTIFIC METHOD Table 1-1 Field of Study Careers

Pharmaceuticals,
Each of these branches of chemistry ORGANIC Compounds
Plastics, Agro-
CHEMISTRY containing carbon
focuses on matter, but what exactly is matter? chemicals
Environmentalist,
Simply put, matter is anything that has mass INORGANIC Compounds without
Materials science,
CHEMISTRY carbon
and takes up space. Practically everything in Metallurgy
Identification and Forensics, Food
the universe is matter, and to understand it ANALYTICAL
measurement of Quality,
CHEMISTRY
better, chemists – and you, now that you are in matter Manufacturing

this course – need a methodical and practical PHYSICAL Properties and

Nanotechnology,
Molecular modeling,
way to study it. Chemistry is an CHEMISTRY Energy
Biosensors

experimental science. Everything we know is a BIOCHEMISTRY

Processes of living Medicine, Genetics,
organisms Pharmacy
result of careful observation and a lot of
testing. The framework for gaining knowledge by experiment is called the scientific
method, and here we will consider the following basic model:

OBSERVATION HYPOTHESIS EXPERIMENTATION ANALYSIS

Observation is perhaps the most important tool we possess to help us understand the
world around us. Observations can be either quantitative (measurements that involve a
number and a unit) or qualitative. Sometimes an observation applies to many different
systems and is formulated into a statement called a natural law. A common misconception
is that a law is something that has been proven, but in fact a law is simply a summary of
what happens. For example, when you drop a pencil, it falls to the floor. This is a
qualitative observation. You might also say that a pencil dropped from a height of four feet
takes exactly 0.5 seconds to reach the ground. This is a quantitative observation. In fact,
you will find that a book, a nickel, a golf ball, or any object at all also takes 0.5 seconds to
reach the floor from a height of four feet. This observation appears to apply to any system.
The idea that all objects accelerate toward the earth is a natural law. There is nothing to
prove, it is just an observation of a naturally occurring event.
 Once an observation has been made, a hypothesis - a possible explanation for the
observation - is formulated. Perhaps we may believe that objects fall to the ground because
they are being pulled downward by tiny green men with ropes. It may
sound absurd to you, but it is a hypothesis nonetheless. With our
explanation in hand, it is time to perform an experiment in an attempt to
verify or refute our hypothesis. Experimentation and the collecting of data
form the basis for all scientific knowledge, and it is important for
experimental data to be accurate and unbiased. So how will we test our
hypothesis about little green men? Perhaps it will be as simple as looking
for them: set up an array of high speed cameras, drop a pencil, and
carefully examine every frame of recorded footage. But one trial is never
enough to confirm or invalidate a hypothesis. The experiment must be
repeated many times, sometimes by many different scientists, before the
results can be claimed as truly valid. In our scenario, after recording the fall of a multitude
of objects, there has been no evidence to support the existence of little green men with
ropes. The gravitational attraction between objects must be caused by something else.
In 1920, a young patent clerk published an idea that appeared to experimentally
account for the phenomenon of gravity, even the quite astounding observation that light can
be “bent” by a strong gravitational attraction. This idea was firmly based upon years of
observation, countless experiments, and a multitude of detailed calculations. The young
man, Albert Einstein, suggested that space itself was
distorted around very massive objects, and that what we
see as “falling” is really just an object following the curves
in space. This idea is called the General Theory of
Relativity, and has been the accepted explanation for
gravity for nearly a century. It is not a law, nor has it been
“proven.” A theory is just an explanation of how or why something occurs and is backed up
by experimentation. We assume this particular theory is true because there hasn’t been
another explanation proposed that is supported by experimental evidence to the same
degree. If observations are made which contradict the theory, General Relativity will have
to be modified, or even thrown out altogether. Science, along with the theories and models
it produces, is constantly changing as new data is collected and analyzed.

1.3 EXPERIMENTATION
As you can see, experimentation is the focal point of science. It provides the
evidence to support our conclusions about the both the visible and microscopic worlds. In an
introductory chemistry class such as this one, experiments will be performed with one of
three goals in mind:
 To test a hypothesis
 To confirm or demonstrate a natural law
 To gather and analyze data
It is important for you as a chemist to understand how an experiment is set up. As
has been said before, experimental data must be accurate and unbiased. Any person who
performs the experiment should be able to replicate the results of any other person. This
can only be done when the focus of the experiment is explicitly defined – only one of the
innumerable variables associated with the investigation can be changed by the researcher.
This single variable is called the independent variable. To illustrate this concept, imagine
that you are going to gather information about how plants grow when exposed to lights of
different color. There can be only one independent variable – the color of the light – and
everything else must remain the same for every trial. The type of plant used, the intensity
of the light, the temperature, the amount of water, and the composition of the soil must be
the same – constant - for every experiment. Although there can only be one independent
variable, there can be numerous dependent variables which change as a result of the
independent variable. For our experiment, several things might be affected by the color of
light: the height of the plant, the number of leaves, the depth of the root system, etc. This
type of experiment has one final component, the control. The control is a trial for which
the independent variable is considered normal or unchanged. In this scenario, the control
would be white light or sunlight. The control is used for comparison, serving as a baseline
by which to evaluate the effectiveness of a change in the independent variable. In addition,
multiple trials should be conducted for each change of the independent variable to prevent
errors from skewing the results.
 Collecting data from an experiment in an organized way allows a chemist to find
information quickly and easily and often helps in evaluating its significance. There are many
ways to organize gathered information, and the method used depends entirely on the type
of experiment being performed. A data table is the most commonly used organizational
tool, but every data table looks different. Two of the most common are shown below; the
first for an experiment gathering qualitative data and the second for a quantitative
investigation. Often a data table must be custom-made to fit the needs of a particular
experiment, and when all else fails, a simple list can suffice.

1.4 ANALYSIS
Collecting data is only part of experimentation. Equally important is the analysis of
the data that is collected. There
Table 1-2
are many ways to analyze data, ACTION OBSERVATION INTERPRETATION
but here we will look at three: Put ice in
Ice floats Ice is less dense than water
water
 compare and contrast Put ice in
Ice sinks Ice is more dense than alcohol
 patterns alcohol
 graphs Put alcohol in Water and alcohol are
Liquids mix
water miscible
It is as important to look at
Put oil in water Liquids separate Oil and water are immiscible
what is similar as to examine the
differences between things. For
example, in Table 1-3 we see that Table 1-3 White Light Red Light Blue Light

each plant sprouted on the third Day Height Leaves Height Leaves Height Leaves
1 0 cm 0 0 cm 0 0 0
day, was 0.5 cm tall, and had two 2 0 cm 0 0 cm 0 0 0
leaves. This should lead us to the 3 0.5 cm 2 0.5 cm 2 0.5 cm 2
4 1.0 cm 2 0.5 cm 2 0.5 cm 2
conclusion that light does not play 5 1.5 cm 2 0.5 cm 2 0.5 cm 2

an important role in the initial 6 2.0 cm 4 1.0 cm 2 0.5 cm 2

7 2.5 cm 4 1.0 cm 2 0.5 cm 2
growth of a plant. We also see 8 3.0 cm 4 1.2 cm 2 0.5 cm 2

that there is always an even 9 3.5 cm 4 1.2 cm 2 0.5 cm 2

10 4.0 cm 6 1.5 cm 2 0.5 cm 0
number of leaves. The differences
are obvious; plants grew larger under white light than red light, and larger under red light
than blue light. Therefore our conclusion might be that colored light hinders the growth of
plants, but we might improve this experiment by testing more colors such as yellow, orange,
or green.
Patterns in data lead us to important conclusions. In Table 1-2, four substances are
mixed together in various ways. We see that ice is less dense than water but more dense
than alcohol. We can create a pattern out of this that lists the three substances in order of
increasing density: alcohol, ice, water. The data for the fourth substance, oil, does not
give us any indication as to its relative density. This experiment could be improved by
examining the relationship of oil to ice and alcohol as well. In the experiment described in
Table 1.3, the number of leaves is a pattern. There is always an even number of leaves, and
each pair appears to develop after an additional 2.0 cm of growth. The last plant, however,
lost leaves on the 10th day, leading us to conclude that the plant has died and its leaves have
fallen off.
Perhaps the most useful way to analyze data is to create a graph – a model that shows
the relationship between one variable and another in an experiment. For most graphs, the
independent variable is plotted along the x-axis and the dependent variable along the y-axis.
The data points are plotted and the mathematical relationship is determined to be linear,
exponential, quadratic, etc. Since all experimentation involves a certain amount of error, it
is important to create best-fit lines or best-fit curves. Examples are shown on the following
pages. All graphs must be labeled appropriately – a title that describes the graph, labels on
each axis that include the units of the measurements being utilized, and if necessary, the
slope of the line or its equation.
Graph #1: A scatter plot with a best-fit
line. In this experiment, the mass Mass vs. Volume of Unknown Liquid
(dependent variable) of a liquid was
12
measured at varying volumes
(independent variable). The data points 10
indicate a linear relationship, so a best-fit

Mass of Liquid (g)

line was drawn that most closely 8

approximates each point. Notice that it is y = 0.9964x

6
not essential for every point to be on the
line. The equation for the line is in slope- 4
intercept form, y = mx + b, and the slope
indicates the density of the liquid 2

(d=m/V).
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Volume of Liquid (mL)

Graph #2: A scatter plot with a best-fit Amount of Unknown Substance as a Function of Time
curve. In this experiment, the amount of
substance remaining (dependent variable) 70

was measured as time (independent 60

variable) passes. The data indicates an
Amount remaining (g)

50
exponential or logarithmic relationship, so
a best-fit curve was drawn that most 40
closely approximates each point. Notice y = 128.19e-0.7979x
30
that it is not essential for every point to
be on the curve. The equation for the 20
line is written in logarithmic form,
10
y = Ae-kx, where A is the original amount
of sample and k is the rate of decay. 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (min)

Stong Acid / Strong Base Titration

Graph #3: A scatter plot with a
connecting smooth curve. In this 14
experiment, the pH (dependent variable)
12
of an acidic solution was measured as
base is added (independent variable). 10
The data indicates a complex polynomial
8
relationship, so we connect all the data
pH

points with a smooth curve. No equation 6

is given.
4

Scatter plots are used when we are 2

certain that a mathematical relationship

0
exists between the independent and 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
dependent variables in an experiment. Volume of added base (mL)
 Graph #4: A Histogram. This graph
Chemistry Exam Grades indicates the grade distribution on a
typical chemistry exam. Histograms are
7
useful for graphing the number of items
6 in a category.
Number of Students

0
50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74 75-79 80-84 85-89 90-94 95-99 100+
Grade Range

Average Monthly Temperature Graph #5: A line graph. This graph plots
the average temperature (dependent
110 variable) for twelve months (independent

100 variable). Line graphs are almost

exclusively used for graphing the change
90
in a property over time.
Temperature (F)

80

70

60

50

40
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month

Monthly Expenses
Graph #6: A pie graph. This graph shows
the relative amounts of an average
person’s income that are spent in certain
Savings
12% categories. Pie graphs are almost

Entertainment exclusively used for showing percentages,

4% though data in a histogram can also be
Rent
Food
42% shown in pie graphs.
10%

Utilities
12%

Auto
20%
1.5 LABORATORY SAFETY
Since much of your work in this class will be done in the laboratory, it is important
that you learn to follow certain safety guidelines to protect yourself and your classmates
from serious injury.
General Safety Rules:
1. Eye protection is required at all times in the laboratory. Your eyes are very sensitive
and can easily become irritated or damaged if you are not wearing safety goggles at all
times. Goggles protect your eyes from chemical splashes, harmful vapors, and sharp
equipment.
2. No food or drinks are allowed in the classroom. Because of the nature of chemistry,
you will be working with many substances that are harmful if they are ingested. It is not
worth the risk to assume that what you are eating has not been contaminated in some
way.
3. Horseplay and pranks are prohibited. Chemistry lab can be fun and exciting, but it can
also be dangerous if care is not taken to ensure the safety of everyone working nearby.
4. Unauthorized experiments are prohibited. Even though science is based upon curiosity
and seeking answers to questions, it is important to have a general idea of what to expect
from an experiment so you will not accidentally cause injury to yourself or others.
5. Locate and know how to use all safety equipment. The fire extinguisher, fire blanket,
safety shower, and eye-wash station can save your life if used properly and responsibly.

Emergency Procedures:
1. Chemical spills. If any chemical gets on your skin or clothing, flush the area with lots of
cold water and notify the teacher immediately. Use the safety shower if the spill is
extensive. If the chemical gets into your eyes, immediately irrigate the eye for 15
minutes at the eye-wash station.
2. Burns. Immerse the burned area in cold water and notify the teacher.
3. Cuts and abrasions. Immediately clean the wound with water and notify your teacher.
Hold a sterile pad firmly over the wound until the bleeding stops, then apply a bandage.
4. Fires. A small fire at your desk can usually be put out by smothering it with a
nonflammable material such as a damp rag or an inverted beaker. If your clothing catches
fire, try to use your lab apron to put it out or wrap in a fire blanket. If necessary, roll on
the floor. If a fire cannot be put out by the above procedures and there is little personal
risk, use the fire extinguisher. Do not put yourself in danger to extinguish a fire.

Working with Chemicals:

All chemicals are potentially harmful to some degree. Avoid direct contact with any
chemical. It is especially important to keep chemicals away from your hands, face, and
clothing. Many substances are easily absorbed through the skin or through inhalation.
Chemicals can also enter the body through the mouth or transferred to your eyes if your
hands are contaminated.
1. Never taste any chemical.
2. Carefully read the label twice on any bottle prior to using it. Use chemicals only from
containers that are clearly labeled.
3. Do not carry supply bottles to your desk as other students will need them. Bring your
appropriate container to the supply table and take only what you need.
4. Do not return unused portions of chemicals to their containers as you could
contaminate the entire bottle. See if other students in your area need the chemical or
dispose of the excess as directed by your teacher.
5. Weigh chemicals in a previously-weighed container or on weighing paper rather than
directly on the balance pan.
6. Never smell an unknown substance directly to determine its odor. Carefully waft the
fumes toward your nose to protect yourself from harmful vapors.
7. Pour substances from the reagent bottles holding the label side of the bottle in your
hand. This prevents dripping on the label and provides a clean side for holding the bottle.
8. If a solution spills onto the table, dilute the spill with lots of water and use paper
towels to soak it up or to push it into the sink. Dispose of the towels. If an acid is spilled,
neutralize it with sodium bicarbonate (baking soda), then clean up as before. Strong
bases can be neutralized with acetic acid (vinegar).
9. Disposal of waste chemicals:
(a) Do not put any solids, paper or broken glass into the sink. They are to be disposed
of in the trash or in the waste jars provided.
(b) Acids, bases and water solutions may be washed down the sink with large
amounts of water, unless your instructor gives you other disposal instructions.
(c) Volatile or flammable liquids should not be poured down the drain, but should be
placed in specially marked containers and kept sealed.
10. When diluting acid always add acid into the water. The water will absorb the heat
produced and also prevent the acid from splashing onto your skin.

Working with Heat:

1. Never reach across an open flame. It is advisable to roll up long sleeves and to tie back
hair that is longer than shoulder-length.
2. Before heating glass containers, examine them to see that they contain no cracks. The
expansion caused by heating could cause the damaged glass to break.
3. When heating any solid or liquid in a test tube, keep the tube in constant motion and
do not point the mouth of the tube at another person. Hold the test tube with test tube
clamps to avoid burning yourself.
4. Always hold the test tube that is being heated at an angle, and heat the sides of the
tube as well as the bottom.
5. Never look down into a tube containing a reagent or hot water, especially if it is being
heated.
6. Never apply a direct flame to a container of volatile or flammable materials, and never
place an open flame near such containers.
7. Hot glass looks just like cold glass, so always place hot objects on wire gauze to cool.
Hot glass can inflict severe burns.
8. Never immerse hot glassware in cold water, which could cause it to shatter.
Conclusion of the Lab:
1. Clean and dry all of your glassware and your lab desk. Return all of your equipment to
its proper place.
2. Check to see that the gas and water are turned off before you leave your working area.
3. Wash your hands thoroughly.
4. Place your goggles in the sterilizer and your apron in its proper place.

1.6 LABORATORY EQUIPMENT

Choosing the right equipment is just as important as designing an experiment.
Without the proper tools, it is difficult to achieve quality results that can be repeated by
future researchers. It is important for you to be able to identify all of the equipment below
and be able to use it effectively.

Measurement: Heating: Miscellaneous:

Graduated Cylinder Bunsen Burner Watch Glass
Buret Hot Plate Stirring Rod
Volumetric Pipet Wood Splint Funnel
Dropper Bottle Ring Stand
Tools: Ring Clamp
Reaction Vessels: Scoopula Utility Clamp
Test Tube Dropper Clay Triangle
Beaker Disposable Pipet Wire Gauze
Erlenmeyer Flask Beaker Tongs
Florence Flask Crucible Tongs
Evaporating Dish Test Tube Tongs
Crucible
Well Plate
 CHAPTER TWO:
MEASUREMENT AND MATTER

SUBTITLE SECTION PAGE

Accuracy and Precision 2.1
Significant Figures 2.2
Le Systeme Internationale 2.3
Dimensional Analysis 2.4
2.1 ACCURACY AND PRECISION
In order for valid conclusions to be drawn from quantitative measurements in science, it is
essential that those measurements be both repeatable and reliable. The reliability of a measurement
refers to how close a value is to the true or accepted value and is called accuracy. Careful selection
and calibration of laboratory equipment can go a long way toward ensuring accurate measurements.
The repeatability of a measurement is called precision, and is usually talked about in two ways – how
close a series of measurements are to one another, and the “fineness” of a particular measurement,
which will be discussed momentarily.
The figure below showing the archery targets is a good way to visualize the difference between
accuracy and precision. In the first scenario, the arrows all strike the target near one another, but
they are all far from the bull’s-eye. This would represent an experiment whose data are precise but
not accurate since the result is repeatable but not reliable. In the second scenario, none of the arrows
hit the center, meaning the results were neither accurate nor precise. On the final target, the results
are both accurate and precise as all arrows strike near the bull’s-eye.

Whenever possible, you should always perform an experiment multiple times. This will
eliminate much of the human error involved and produce much more accurate results. In addition,
when an experiment is performed repeatedly with the same result, we have confidence that the
measurement is accurate. In general, it is assumed that if the measuring instrument is in working
order and is properly calibrated, precision is a good indicator of accuracy.
Suppose we set up an experiment in which three students measure the temperature of boiling
water using different thermometers. Each student takes a measurement, waits one minute, takes
another measurement, and so on until each thermometer has recorded four temperature values. The
results shown in Table 2.1:
 TABLE 2.1 Student One Student Two Student Three From this information we can
determine which experimental data is
Trial One 99.4ºC 97.3ºC 100.1ºC
best – both repeatable and reliable.
Trial Two 102.3ºC 97.4ºC 100.0ºC
The true boiling point of water is
Trial Three 101.7ºC 97.4ºC 99.9ºC 100.0ºC, so accurate data would give

Trial Four 101.3ºC 97.3ºC 100.0ºC

values at or very near that number.
Precise measurements are repeatable,
as indicated by the results from students Two and Three. So let us analyze the data shown here: The
first student’s data is neither accurate nor precise. This could be due to errors made by the
experimenter, or perhaps the thermometer is faulty in some way. The second student’s data is
precise, but is not accurate. This is likely due to an incorrectly calibrated thermometer that gives
consistently low temperature readings. The third student recorded temperatures close to the true
value (accurate) and reported similar temperatures repeatedly (precise).
As mentioned earlier, the second use of the term precision refers to the “fineness” of a
measurement. To illustrate this concept, consider a beaker, a graduated cylinder, and a buret each
filled with the same quantity of water:

As we look at the markings on the beaker, we see that the smallest increments are 25 mL.
When reading a measurement, we can always make a “guess” as to the very last digit in the number.
We can estimate one decimal place smaller than the smallest increment on the instrument. In this
case, the smallest increment is 25, so the best approximation we can make is to the tens place.
Perhaps a good approximation for this volume would be 30 mL. It is impossible to know the volume in
the beaker more precisely than this. For this reason, beakers are rarely used for measuring volume. In
the graduated cylinder, the smallest increment between markings is one milliliter, so we can
approximate one decimal place smaller than one, the one-tenths place. As a general rule, if the
markings are too close together to approximate ten smaller markings, then estimate by halves. Since
the meniscus of the water in the cylinder rests between 32 and 33 mL, then we could report this
volume as 32.5 mL. Different graduated cylinders have different increments, but these are the best
tool we have for making fairly precise measurements quickily. In the buret to the left, the smallest
marking is 0.1 mL, so we can estimate the one-hundredths place. Again the markings are too close
together to divide each increment by ten, so we will do half. The meniscus lies between 32.4 and 32.5
mL, so the volume is 32.45 mL. Burets and volumetric pipets are used when it is important to know the
volume as precisely as possible.
Keep in mind that the estimation of the last digit is an acceptable practice for every piece of
laboratory equipment, including beam-balances and rulers. See if you can correctly read the
measurements in the photos below:

2.2 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

Since the instrument itself determines the degree of precision, it follows that all
measurements are understood to contain a certain amount of error, either human or
instrumental. It is impossible to measure exactly five and one-half grams of table salt, for
example. We may be able to measure 5.5 grams, 5.50 grams, or even 5.500 grams, but none
of these measurements represents exactly five grams. The first is accurate to only the tenths
place – somewhere between 5.4 and 5.6 grams. The last is much more precise – between
5.499 and 5.501 grams – but it is still not exact. The final reported digit of any measurement
is uncertain. It is an approximation, just like in the previous section where we estimated
between graduations on an instrument. A measurement contains two kinds of significant
figures, those that are known and one final approximated digit. The more significant figures
a number has, the more precise the measurement is.
Determining the Number of Significant Figures:
This is actually a fairly simple process, as long as the rules for significant figures are
understood. These rules are:
1) All nonzero digits are considered significant
ex: The measurement 546 grams has three sig-figs
2) Zeros between significant figures are considered significant
ex: The measurement 3.502 seconds has four sig-figs
3) Trailing zeros after a decimal are considered significant
ex: The measurement 22.50 pounds has four sig-figs
4) Zeros that serve as placeholders are not significant
ex: The measurements 100 mL and 0.05 ft each have only one sig-fig
There are some numbers, however, that are exact, having an infinite number of significant
figures. These numbers are counting numbers (exactly 12 eggs in one dozen), defined
constants (exactly 2.54 centimeters in one inch), and metric definitions (one kilometer is
exactly 1000 meters).

Calculations Involving Measurements:

Significant figures indicate the degree of precision in any measurement, and when
those measurements are used in calculations, the precision remains with it. This means a set
of data can only be as precise as its least precise value. Let’s take a simple calculation as an
example: density. Density is defined as the amount of mass an object has divided by its
volume. Suppose we have a 5.50 gram wooden block with a volume of 7.3 cubic centimeters.
If we divide the mass by the volume, we get the value 0.753424658 g/cm3. How can the
density be known to a greater precision than either the mass or the volume? Quite simply, it
can’t. The mass is known to three significant figures, and the volume to two significant
figures. Therefore the density can only be known to the same degree as the least precise
measurement used to calculate it, two. The density of the block is 0.75 g/cm3.
While accounting for the propagation of uncertainties is sometimes a complicated task, the
following rules for significant figures generally suffice:
 When multiplying or dividing measurements, the result must be given with the same number of
significant figures as the measurement with the fewest significant figures.
 When adding or subtracting measurements, the result will have the same number of decimal places as
the measurement with the fewest decimal places.
Table 2. 2
From To Distance To illustrate the second rule, suppose four students

McKinney Allen 8.32 miles were sent out to measure distances between cities.
There results are in the table to the left. If we wanted
Plano Dallas 19 miles
to know the distance from Melissa to Allen we would
Melissa McKinney 7.3 miles
simply need to add the distance from Melissa to McKinney
Allen Plano 7.31 miles
and the distance from McKinney to Allen. The sum of 7.3
miles and 8.32 miles is 15.62 miles, but since the least precise measurement is known only to the
nearest tenth of a mile, we can only report the distance as 15.6 miles. Also, the distance from Melissa
to Dallas could be obtained by adding all four measurements together, getting a total of 41.93 miles.
The correct sum, however, would be 42 miles since the distance from Plano to Dallas is only known to
the nearest mile. It is important to remember that rounding to the correct number of significant
figures should only be done after every calculation has been performed to reduce the error introduced
by excessive rounding.

2.3 LE SYSTÈME INTERNATIONAL

In any quantitative measurement, the number is only part of the value. All measurements have
both a quantity and a unit, each as important as the other. If you ask someone how much pizza they
ate last night and they respond “6,” what does that mean? Six pizzas? Slices? Pounds? Kilograms?
Ounces? Cups? Dozen? The numerical value is essentially useless without knowing the unit that is
associated with it. And just as important is to know the general scale of each unit. Is six ounces of
pizza a reasonable amount? Which is larger – six pounds of pizza or six kilograms of pizza?
The problem lies in the fact that there are dozens of systems of measurement used around the
world, and the basis for those measurements have changed throughout history. In ancient India, length
was measured with units such as the dhanus, krosa, and jojana. The ancient Mesopotamian system was
based on the cubit, the distance from the elbow to the middle finger. Unfortunately this was different
for every person. The Greeks and Romans inherited the foot from the Egyptians. The pace, equivalent
to five Roman feet, was used to determine the mile (1000 paces). Queen Elizabeth the First of England
changed the mile to 5280 feet in order to be equivalent to 8 furlongs, each furlong being 40 rods of 5.5
yards each. The meter was once defined as one ten-millionth the distance from the North Pole to the
equator along a meridian. Mass was originally measured by comparing the weight of an object to the
weight of a grain of wheat. Later masses were compared to standard stones with units such as the
mina, sheckel, talent, and eventually the pound. And don’t forget the ounce, carat, long ton, short
ton, hundredweight, gram, and countless others.
When scientific discovery really began to take off and become an endeavor that had little to do
with geopolitical borders, it became obvious that a standardized system of measurement was essential.
In 1875 seventeen nations signed the Convention du Mètre and established the General Conference on
Weights and Measures (CGPM) and the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) to
establish and oversee measurement standards around the world. The United States governmental body
the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has a permanent seat on the CIPM which
continuously updates standards of measurement.
In 1960, the 11th General Conference laid down the standards for a new system of units that
would become the Système International d’Unitès, commonly referred to as SI. The SI established six
base units (the seventh was added in 1971) from which all other measurements could be derived, as
well as prefixes and rules for writing abbreviations. These units pertinent to chemistry are listed in
Table 2.3, as well as the standard on which they are based. All seven base units are based on a
universal physical constant except the kilogram, which is also the only base unit with a prefix.

Table 2. 3
The International Prototype Kilogram. There are also six official copies stored in the same vault and
additional copies around the world.

While every country in the world has officially adopted the

International System, a few (the United States being one of them) are
reluctant to initiate change due to public resistance. Distances in inches,
feet, and miles will be familiar to you since they are accepted in U.S.
culture, but the scientific community and most of the world rarely use
these units. The same is true for the Fahrenheit temperature scale and
masses in pounds and ounces. To help you get a better understanding of
the International System of Units, Table 2.4 contains some conversions
Unit Abbrev. Quantity Standard between the
Meter m Length (l) The distance traveled by light in the time
interval of 1/299792458 of a second International System
The duration of 9192631770 periods of and units commonly
Second s Time (t) radiation corresponding to the transition
between the two hyperfine levels of the used in the United
ground state of the Cs-133 atom
The mass of the international prototype States:
stored in a vault in Sèvres, France. The
Kilogram kg Mass (m) cylinder is a platinum/iridium alloy stored
beneath three bell jars to limit exposure to
the atmosphere.
The fraction 1/273.16 the temperature at the
Kelvin K Temperature (T) triple point of water. To convert degrees
Celsius to Kelvin, simply add 273.15. Zero
Kelvin is Absolute Zero
The amount of substance in which there are
as many elementary entities (atoms,
Mole mol Amount molecules, ions, particles, etc) as there are in
exactly 12 grams of carbon-12. This number
is the constant called Avogadro’s Number (NA)
and is equal to 6.022x1023
 Table 2. 4

You may have LENGTH

noticed that some of the 1 mile = 1.61 kilometers 1 kilometer = 0.621 miles
units in the table to the 1 yard = 0.914 meters 1 meter = 1.09 yards

right include prefixes such 1 foot = 30.5 centimeters 1 centimeter = 0.394 inches
1 inch = 2.54 centimeters*
as milli-, centi-, and deci-
. These occur because MASS

there are many occasions 1 carat = 200 milligrams* 1 gram = 0.0352 ounces
1 ounce = 28.4 grams 1 kilogram = 2.20 pounds
on which using the
1 pound = 0.454 kilograms
standard base unit in the
SI is impractical due to VOLUME

the magnitude of the 1 Tablespoon = 14.8 milliliters 1 milliliter = 1 cubic centimeter*

1 cup = 237 milliliters 1 liter = 1 cubic decimeter*
measurement. For
1 quart = 0.946 liters 1 liter = 0.264 gallons
example, you wouldn’t
1 gallon = 3.79 liters
want to measure the mass
of an electron in TEMPERATURE
0ºC = 32ºF = 273.15 K*
kilograms (approximately
100ºC = 212ºF = 373.15 K*
0.000 000 000 000 000 000
ºC = (9/5)(ºF - 32)
000 000 000 0091 kg) or K = ºC + 273.15
the distance from the sun
* denotes an exact number
to Jupiter in meters (778
330 000 000 m). The numbers would be either very large or very small and extremely cumbersome.
There are two ways of solving this problem – using scientific notation, or altering the magnitude of the
unit by changing the prefix.
Scientific Notation:
Sometimes called exponential notation, this method of writing numbers makes use of the fact
that our numbering system is a decimal system, meaning groups of ten. If you have the number nine
and add one, we don’t put “10” in the ones place, but rather “1” in the tens place and start over with
“0” in the ones place. The same is true for the tens place – when we reach ten “tens,” we create the
hundreds place and start over with zero again in the tens place. It works the same way on the other
side of the decimal with the tenths and hundredths place. Other numerical systems, such as binary and
hexadecimal (based on 2 and 16, respectively) are more difficult to work with because we are used to
working in tens. Scientific notation simply expresses any value as a number between 1 and 10
multiplied by a factor of ten. For example, 1 000 000 would be expressed as 1 x 10 6 and 0.000 000 01
would be 1 x 107. When expressing a number in scientific notation, the number of significant figures
should be the same as in the original number. To illustrate this, the mass of an electron from above
would be 9.1 x 10-31 kg and the distance to Jupiter would be 7.7833 x 1011 m. The power of ten can be
obtained by counting the number of places the decimal must be Table 2.5 Prefixes
moved to get a number between one and ten, with positive tera- T Trillion 1012

exponents representing values greater than 1 and negative giga- G Billion 109

exponents representing values less than 1. mega- M Million 106

Prefixes: kilo- k Thousand 103

The alternative to scientific notation for measurements hecto- h Hundred 102

is to use a prefix that serves the same purpose as the power of deca- da Ten 101

ten. For example, kilo- means 1000 (103), so 8.3 kilometers is ---

simply 8.3x103 m, or 8300 meters. Additional prefixes are in deci- d Tenth 10-1

Table 2.5. Using these prefixes, we could express the distance centi- c Hundredth 10-2

from the sun to Jupiter in, say, terameters (Tm) or gigameters milli- m Thousandth 10-3

(Gm). Unfortunately we don’t have a prefix small enough to micro-  Millionth 10-6
represent the mass of an electron so we’ll have to stick to nano- n Billionth 10-9
scientific notation for that one. pico- p Trillionth 10-12

2.4 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

It is useful to have a quick and straightforward way to express a measurement with
different units without having to measure again and again. Once a measurement has been
taken, it can be converted to any system using a process called dimensional analysis. Any
unit can be converted to any other unit as long as there exists a known relationship between
the two. Let’s assume we measured the length of a sheet of paper and found it to be 8.5
inches. What is this value in centimeters? We can solve this or any other computational
problem using dimensional analysis.
We know that a relationship exists between the unit we have (inches) and the unit we
want (centimeters) – one inch is equal to exactly 2.54 centimeters. If we create a ratio, the
value is fundamentally equal to one since both 1 in and 2.54 cm are the same quantity.
1 in 2.54 cm
1 1
2.54 cm 1 in
Multiplying the original measurement by one of these ratios will not change the physical
quantity, only the units with which it is being expressed. So how do we know which ratio to
use? Just like in algebraic equations, when a value or unit appears in both the numerator and
the denominator, it can be cancelled out. Since we want to remove the unit “inches”
 Table 2.6: Orders of Magnitude
METERS SECONDS GRAMS
12
10 TERA- Sun to Jupiter 32 millennia The Great Pyramid
Time passed since David became
1011 Earth to Mars
king of Israel
Fully loaded supertanker

1010 Total length of all US roads 1686 to present The Titanic

109 GIGA- 3x distance to the moon 32 years The Space Shuttle

Length of war with Japan 1941-
108 2.5x Circumference of Earth
1945
Blue Whale

107 Diameter of Earth 4 months Elephant

106 MEGA- Dallas to St. Louis 11 days 14 hrs Passenger Car

105 Dallas to Oklahoma border 1.2 days Adult male

Length of typical blockbuster

104 Custer Rd. to Dallas North Tollway
movie
Dog

103 KILO- 5-6 city blocks 17 minutes 1 Liter soft drink

Height of the Statue of Liberty
102 HECTO- and Pedestal
Duration of the "Minute Waltz" Human kidney

World Record time in the 100m Lethal dose of caffeine for an

101 DECA- Length of Killer Whale
dash adult
Time for light to travel
100 Length of arm Paperclip
from Earth to the moon
10-1 DECI- Cell phone Blink of an eye One-half carat diamond

10-2 CENTI- Fingernail Camera shutter speed 1.5 teaspoons of air

10-3 MILLI- Grain of sand Duration of camera flash Mosquito

Sampling interval for telephone
10-4 Thickness of hair
audio
A "Hit" of LSD

10-5 Cell diameter Sampling interval for CD audio Small grain of sand

Cycle time for typical AM Lethal dose of botulin

10-6 MICRO- Cellular organelles
radio signal toxin (Botox)
Smallest detectable amount of
10-7 Wavelength of visible light
marijuana per mL of urine
Amount of DNA needed for genetic
10-8 DNA supercoils
fingerprinting
Time for light to travel
10-9 NANO- Width of DNA Human cell
one foot
Amount of dioxin in one
10-10 Radius of atom
hamburger

10-11 Wavelength of gamma rays Mass of 10 bacteria

Time for light to travel 0.3

10-12 PICO- 100x diameter of nucleus 2.5 billion Uranium nuclei
cm
*All measurements are approximations and are meant to provide a general size
comparison
and replace it with “centimeters,” we will choose the second ratio so that inches cancels out.
Then we simply multiply and round the answer to the correct number of significant figures.
2.54 cm
8.5 in   21.59 cm  22 cm
1 in

This method can be used with practically every problem in chemistry. It provides a standard
approach to problem solving and is also easy to double check for accuracy. As long as the
conversion factors are correct and the units cancel out, we can be certain of the outcome.
Dimensional analysis is not limited to one-step conversions, nor is it limited to units within
the same measurement scheme. Here are some additional examples to emphasize the utility
of this method.

Example 1: Express the quantity 3.2 kg in milligrams.

We don’t immediately know the relationship between kg and mg, but we do know that 1 kg is 1000 g
and 1 g is 1000 mg. So we will first convert from kg to g, then from g to mg:
1000 g 1000 mg
3.2 kg    3 200 000 mg  3.2  106 mg
1 kg 1g

Example 2: A ream of paper weighs 5.0 kg and costs $2.50. What is the price of one
gram of paper?
If we listed out the relationships we know, we would find that 1 ream = 5.0 kg, 1 ream = $2.50, and 1
kg = 1000 g. We will convert from grams to kilograms, then from kilograms to reams, then from
reams to dollars:

1 kg 1 ream $2.50
1g     $0.0025
1000 g 1 kg 1 ream

Example 3: How many milliseconds in 25 centuries?

There are 1000 ms in one second, 3600 s in one hour, 24 hours in a day, 365 days in a year, and 100
years per century:
100 yr 365 d 24 h 3600 s 1000 ms
25 cent.       7.884  1013 ms  7.9  1013 ms
1 cent. 1 yr 1d 1h 1s
 Scientific Notation & Significant Digits
1. Convert each of the following to proper scientific notation, retaining the same number
of significant figures. Note the number of significant figures for each measurement.
The first has been done for you as an example.

a) 3427 3.427x103 (4 SF) i) 107.2

b) 0.0056 j) 0.000455

c) 12345 k) 2205.2

d) 172 l) 30.0x10-2

e) 0.000984 m) 0.982x10-3

f) 0.502 n) 0.0473

g) 310.0x102 o) 650502

h) 0.011x104 p) 3.03x10-1

2. Convert each of the following to decimal form, retaining the same number of significant
figures. Note the number of significant figures for each measurement. The first has
been done for you as an example.

a) 1.56x104 15,600 (3 SF) d) 736.9x105

b) 0.56x10-2 e) 0.00259x105

c) 3.69x10-2 f) 13.69x10-2

3. Calculate the following. Give the answer in correct scientific notation with the correct
number of significant figures.

a) 3.95x102 / 1.5x106 =

b) 4.44x107 / 2.25x105 =

c) 1.05x10-26 / 4.2x1056 =

d) (6.022x1023)(3.011x10-56) =

e) (3.5x102)(6.45x101) =

f) (4.50x10-12)(3.67x10-12) =
4. Round each of the following to 3 significant figures.

a) 77.0653 e) 2.895x1021

b) 6300278.2 f) 692

c) 0.00023350 g) 0.51

d) 10.2030 h) 3000

5. Calculate the following. Report each answer with the appropriate number of significant
figures.

a) 97.381 + 4.2502 + 0.99195 =

b) 171.5 + 72.91 – 8.23 =

c) 1.00914 + 0.87104 + 1.2012 =

d) 21.901 – 13.21 – 4.0215 =

e) 4.184 * 100.62 * (25.27 – 24.16) =

f) 8.27 * (4.987 – 4.962) =

g) [(8.925 – 8.904) / 8.925] x 100 =

This is an example of a %-error calculation. The number “100” can be considered to be
an exact number.

h) (9.5 + 4.1 + 2.8 + 3.175) / 4 =

Assume this operation is taking an average; thus the 4 in the denominator is an exact
number.

i) 6.6262x10-34 * 2.998x108 / 2.54x10-9 =

j) (1.00866 – 1.00728) / 6.02205x1023 =

k) (9.04 – 8.23 + 21.954 + 81.0) / 3.1416 =

 Dimensional Analysis #1
Show ALL work, units and proper steps on your own paper.

1. How many seconds are in 815 minutes?

2. How many centimeters are in 5.00 kilometers?
3. How many years are in 528 days?
4. How many dozens of eggs are there in 3,480 eggs?
5. How many miles are in 22,900 yards?
6. How many kilograms are in 9.00 micrograms?
7. How many yards are in 648 inches?
8. How many milliliters are in 6.30 deciliters?
9. How long, in kilometers, is a 12.0-inch ruler?
10. What is the volume, in cubic feet, of a box that measures 30.0 x 40.0 x 20.0 inches?
11. A peck (pk) is four bushels and a bushel is two gallons. Two 8oz cups make up a pint, two
pints make a quart, and a gallon is four quarts. How many ounces in 0.250 pk?
12. The world record for the 800m run is 1.68 minutes. How long is this in nanoseconds?
13. How wide, in micrometers, is the Red Sea if its widest point is 306 km?

Dimensional Analysis #2
Show ALL work, units and proper steps on your own paper.

1. What is the cost of 12 onions if 3 onions weigh 1.50 lbs. and the price of onions is $0.80
per lb.?
2. How many hours will it take to drive to Los Angeles from San Francisco if an average speed
of 52.0 mile/hour is maintained? The distance between the two cities is 405 miles.
3. What is the cost to drive from San Francisco to Los Angeles is the cost of the gasoline is
$2.43/gal and the car has a fuel efficiency of 26.5 mpg? The distance between cities is
405 miles.
4. The price of a ream of paper is $2.50. There are exactly 500 sheets of paper in a ream. If
a sheet of paper weighs 0.0690 grams, what is the price per gram of paper?
5. Sue wants to buy apples. They are on sale for $0.99 per lb. How much will she spend on
3 apples? It takes exactly 8 apples to make one pound.
6. How many oranges are in a crate if the price of a crate of oranges is $4.60 and the price
of oranges is $0.70/lb.? On average there are 3.50 oranges per pound.
7. What is the cost of 15 potatoes if 3 potatoes weigh 3.25 lbs and the price is $0.88 per lb.?
8. How many 50.0 foot cars are in a long freight train traveling at 42.0 mph if it takes the
entire train 60.0 seconds to pass a crossing?
9. The price of a bag of dog bones $6.85. There are exactly 12 bones in each bag. If one
bone weighs 23.0 grams, what is the price per gram?
10. How many peaches are in a crate if the price of a crate of peaches is $5.30 and the price
of peaches is $0.85/lb? On average there are 5.25 peaches per pound.
More Dimensional Analysis Practice Problems
Use dimensional analysis for all of the problems below. Show your work! Report your answer
with the correct number of significant figures.

1. When 1.00g of gasoline burns in a car’s engine, the amount of energy given off is
approximately 1.03x104 calories. Express this quantity in joules. (1 cal = 4.184 J)

2. The pressure reading from a barometer is 742 mmHg. Express this reading in
kilopascals. (760mmHg = 1.013x105 Pa)

3. How many megayears is equivalent to 6.02x1023 nanoseconds (ns)?

4. The average student is in class 330 min/day.

a. How many hours/day (school days only) is the average student in class?

b. How many seconds is the average student in class per week?

5. Approximately how many pounds do you weigh? ________lbs

a. The human body is approximately 60% water by mass. Using that conversion
factor, how many pounds of water are in your body? (This is only a rough
estimate, since it also depends on body fat)
6. French cooks usually weigh ingredients. A French recipe uses 225g of granulated sugar.
How many cups are needed if there are exactly 2 cups of sugar per pound? Round to the
nearest cup.

7. Convert 9.3 g·cm3/s2 to kg·m3/hr2.

8. A car accelerates at 15 mi/hr·s (miles per hour per second). Write that acceleration in
m/s2. (1 mile = 1.609 km)

9. Because your 18 year-old friend never learned dimensional analysis, he started working
at a fast food restaurant wrapping hamburgers. Every 3 hours he wraps 525 burgers. He
works 8 hours per day, 5 days a week. He gets paid every 2 weeks with a salary of
$440.34 (after taxes).
a. Approximately how many hamburgers will he have to wrap to make his first
million dollars?

b. How much time will it take to wrap all those hamburgers? Express the time in
years. Assume he works with the same efficiency every day and takes a two-
week vacation every October.

c. How old will he be when he makes his first million?

10. A child is entered into the hospital after ingesting 12 aspirin tablets. The Merck Index
indicates that renal (kidney) failure can occur if as little as 3 grams in ingested, and may
be fatal in as much as 10 grams is eaten. If each aspirin tablets contains 300mg of
aspirin, how much aspirin (in grams) has the child ingested?

11. A patient in the hospital is given an intravenous fluid that must deliver 1000 cc (cubic
centimeters) of a dextrose solution over 8 hours. The IV fluid tubing delivers 15 drops
per cubic centimeter. What is the drop rate (in drops/min) that must be administered to
the patient?

12. A medical doctor gives the order to administer dopamine at a rate of 3.0μg/kg·min
(micrograms per kilogram per minute). The dopamine is supplied as a mixture of 400.mg
dopamine in a 250.mL solution. The patient weighs 73kg. What is the infusion rate of
dopamine solution into her body in mL/hr?

13. Analysis of an air sample reveals that it contains 3.5x10-6 g/L of carbon monoxide.
Express this concentration in lb/ft3. (1.00lb is 454g; 1in = 2.54cm)

14. A website states that the average body density is 0.001 kg/cm3. Express this value in
pounds per cubic foot.
15. The bathtub in the residential suite of the White House had to be enlarged for William H.
Taft, who weighed 370.lbs. The bathtub is four feet wide, six feet long, and three feet
high.
a. How many gallons of water are needed to fill the WHT Memorial Bathtub to the
rim? (1 gal = 231 in3).

b. That was a silly question. Why would WHT get in a tub completely filled with
water? (I guess HE wouldn’t have to clean it up…) You calculated average body
density in question #14. How many gallons of water are needed to fill the tub so
that when WHT gets in the tub, the water reaches the rim but does not flow over?

16. Albumin is a protein found in blood. If the concentration of this protein is 600. μmol/L,
and its molecular mass is 68,500 g/mol, what is the concentration of this protein in
mg/cm3?

17. Remember it is never too late for the hamburger people to come get you!
Naming and writing formulas for IONIC COMPOUNDS
 Ionic compounds are made of a cation (+) and an anion (-). The cation can be a metal ion or
a polyatomic ion. The anion can be a nonmetal ion or a polyatomic ion.
 They have high melting points, and the smallest unit of an ionic compound is called a
formula unit.

For a neutral compound, the charges of the two ions MUST sum to zero. This allows us to
determine how many of each ion are required to construct one formula unit. Many times the
charge of the ion can be determined based on the element’s position on the periodic table.
+1 +2 Variable +3 ±4 -3 -2 -1 0

To name an ionic compound, follow the rules below:

1. Write the name of the cation
a. If a polyatomic ion, write the polyatomic ion’s name
b. If a metal ion, write the name of the metal
c. If the metal is NOT in group 1, group 2, Al3+, Zn2+, or Ag+, write the Roman
numeral designation for the charge of the ion*
2. Write the name of the anion
a. If a polyatomic ion, write the polyatomic ion’s name
b. If a nonmetal ion, write the name of the nonmetal with the suffix “-ide.”

*The system of using Roman numerals is called the Stock System and is the currently accepted
nomenclature system. In the old system, metal ions with multiple possible oxidation numbers were given
different names. For example, the iron(II) ion, Fe2+, is called “ferrous,” while the iron(III) ion, Fe3+, is
called “ferric.” In each case, the smaller oxidation number corresponds to the “-ous” suffix and the
higher oxidation number corresponds to the “-ic” suffix. Please know the following names that are still
commonly used. Note that the mercurous ion is actually a polyatomic ion.

Iron(II) = Fe2+ = ferrous Iron(III) = Fe3+ = ferric

Lead(II) = Pb2+ = plumbous Lead(IV) = Pb4+ = plumbic
Tin(II) = Sn2+ = stannous Tin(IV) = Sn4+ = stannic
Copper(I) = Cu+ = cuprous Copper(II) = Cu2+ = cupric
Mercury(I) = Hg22+ = mercurous Mercury(II) = Hg2+ = mercuric

Examples:
Calcium phosphide = Ca3P2 Lead(IV) sulfate = plumbic sulfate = Pb(SO4)2
Aluminum fluoride = AlF3 Copper(I) oxalate = cuprous oxalate = Cu2C2O4
Naming and writing formulas for COVALENT COMPOUNDS
 Covalent compounds are made of two nonmetals.
 They have low boiling points, and the smallest unit of a covalent compound is called a
molecule.

Prefixes are used to indicate how many of each element exist in a molecule.

PREFIXES

1 = mono- 4 = tetra- 7 = hepta- 10 = deca-

2 = di- 5 = penta- 8 = octa-
3 = tri- 6 = hexa- 9 = nona-

To name a covalent compound, follow the rules below:

1. If there is only one of the first element, write its name
2. If there is more than one of the first element put a prefix to indicate how many, followed
by the name of the element
3. Use a prefix to indicate the number of atoms of the second element, followed by the
name of the element (ending changed to –ide)

Examples:
CO = carbon monoxide N2O5 = dinitrogen pentoxide
P4O10 = tetraphosphorus decaoxide OF2 = oxygen difluoride

Naming and writing formulas for ACIDS

 Binary acids are made of a hydrogen cation and a nonmetal anion.

 Oxyacids are made of a hydrogen cation and a polyatomic anion.

Like ionic compounds, the total charge of the compound is zero. This will determine how many
of each ion is present in the formula.

To name a binary acid, follow the rules below:

1. Use the prefix “hydro”
2. Use the nonmetal’s name with the suffix “-ic acid”
To name an oxyacid, follow the rules below:
1. Do NOT use the prefix “hydro”
2. Write the name of the polyatomic ion
a. If the polyatomic ion ends with “-ate,” change the suffix to “-ic acid”
b. If the polyatomic ion ends with “-ite,” change the suffix to “-ous acid”

Examples:
HBr = hydrobromic acid HNO2 = nitrous acid
HC2H3O2 = acetic acid H2S = hydrosulfuric acid
 Common Polyatomic Ions
+1 charge

ammonium NH4+

-1 charge

hydroxide OH¯ permanganate MnO4¯

nitrate NO3¯ chlorate ClO3¯
nitrite NO2¯ chlorite ClO2¯
acetate C2H3O2¯ perchlorate ClO4¯
bisulfate HSO4¯ hypochlorite ClO¯
bicarbonate HCO3¯ cyanide CN¯
bisulfite HSO3¯ thiocyanate SCN¯

-2 charge

sulfate SO42¯ peroxide O22¯

sulfite SO32¯ chromate CrO42¯
carbonate CO32¯ dichromate Cr2O72¯
oxalate C2O42¯

-3 charge

phosphate PO43¯

phosphite PO33¯
AP Chemistry WORKSHEET: Formulas and Nomenclature

I. Name the following ions. Give both the old (ous/ic) and the Stock names for those
marked with an asterisk

1. S2- 3. O22- *5. Fe3+ 7. Mg2+

2. OH- 4. P3- 6. Zn2+ *8. Sn2+

II. Write formulas for the following ions:

1. mercurous 3. chromium (III) 5. potassium 7. phosphate

2. ammonium 4. cupric 6. oxide 8. carbide

III. Write formulas for the following ionic compounds:

1. iron(II) oxide 5. aluminum sulfide

2. ferrous bromide 6. calcium nitrate

3. lead(II) hydroxide 7. barium peroxide

4. lithium hydride 8. sodium dichromate

IV. Name the following ionic compounds:

1. CuCl 5. Hg(NO3)2

2. KMnO4 6. CoBr3

3. Al2(SO4)3 7. K2O2

4. (NH4)2CO3 8. Ni(CN)2

V. Write formulas for the following molecular compounds and acids:

1. sulfur dioxide 6. tetraphosphorus decoxide

2. nitrogen monoxide 7. hydrocyanic acid

3. boron tribromide 8. dichlorine oxide

4. sulfurous acid 9. hydrogen iodide

5. chlorous acid 10. phosphoric acid

VI. Name the following molecular compounds and acids:

1. S2Cl2 5. HClO2(aq)

2. HI(aq) 6. XeF4

3. H2S 7. HNO3(aq)

4. NO 8. NH3

VII. Write formulas for these substances:

1. vanadium pentachloride 6. acetic acid

2. potassium phosphide 7. cuprous acetate

3. manganese(III) oxide 8. perchloric acid

4. diiodine heptoxide 9. stannous bicarbonate

5. magnesium phosphate 10. methane

VIII. Name the following substances:

1. AsF3 6. FeO

2. Cl2O 7. BaH2

3. NH4ClO4 8. Pt(NO2)4

4. H3PO4(aq) 9. HBr(aq)

5. Bi2S3 10. KHSO4

 Lots of Ionic Naming Practice Problems
Name the following ionic compounds:

1) NaBr __________________________________

2) Sc(OH)3 __________________________________

3) V2(SO4)3 __________________________________

4) NH4F __________________________________

5) CaCO3 __________________________________

6) NiPO4 __________________________________

7) Li2SO3 __________________________________

8) Zn3P2 __________________________________

9) Sr(C2H3O2)2 __________________________________

10) Cu2O __________________________________

11) Ag3PO4 __________________________________

12) YClO3 __________________________________

13) SnS2 __________________________________

14) Ti(CN)4 __________________________________

15) KMnO4 __________________________________

16) Pb3N2 __________________________________

17) CoCO3 __________________________________

18) CdSO3 __________________________________

19) Cu(NO2)2 __________________________________

20) Fe(HCO3)2 __________________________________

Write the formulas for the following ionic compounds:

21) lithium acetate __________________________________

22) iron (II) phosphate __________________________________

23) titanium (II) selenide __________________________________

24) calcium bromide __________________________________

25) gallium chloride __________________________________

26) sodium hydride __________________________________

27) beryllium hydroxide __________________________________

28) zinc carbonate __________________________________

29) manganese (VII) arsenide __________________________________

30) copper (II) chlorate __________________________________

31) cobalt (III) chromate __________________________________

32) ammonium oxide __________________________________

33) potassium hydroxide __________________________________

34) lead (IV) sulfate __________________________________

35) silver cyanide __________________________________

36) vanadium (V) nitride __________________________________

37) strontium acetate __________________________________

38) molybdenum sulfate __________________________________

39) platinum (II) sulfide __________________________________

40) ammonium sulfate __________________________________

 Naming Covalent Compounds Worksheet
Write the formulas for the following covalent compounds:

1) antimony tribromide __________________________________

2) hexaboron silicide __________________________________

3) chlorine dioxide __________________________________

4) hydrogen iodide __________________________________

5) iodine pentafluoride __________________________________

6) dinitrogen trioxide __________________________________

7) ammonia __________________________________

8) phosphorus triiodide __________________________________

Write the names for the following covalent compounds:

9) P4S5__________________________________

10) O2 __________________________________

11) SeF6 __________________________________

12) Si2Br6 __________________________________

13) SCl4 __________________________________

14) CH4 __________________________________

15) B2Si __________________________________

16) NF3 __________________________________

 Naming Acids and Bases
Name the following acids and bases:

1) NaOH _______________________________________

2) H SO _______________________________________
2 3

3) H S _______________________________________
2

4) H PO _______________________________________
3 4

5) NH _______________________________________
3

6) HCN _______________________________________

7) Ca(OH) _______________________________________
2

8) Fe(OH) _______________________________________
3

9) H P_______________________________________
3

Write the formulas of the following acids and bases:

10) hydrofluoric acid _______________________________________

11) hydroselenic acid _______________________________________

12) carbonic acid _______________________________________

13) lithium hydroxide _______________________________________

14) nitrous acid _______________________________________

15) cobalt (II) hydroxide _______________________________________

16) sulfuric acid _______________________________________

17) beryllium hydroxide _______________________________________

18) hydrobromic acid _______________________________________

 Nomenclature - Practice sheet
AlCl3 AlF3
Ca(NO3)2 CuI
SO3 PbCl4
Na3N Pb(ClO3)2
Na2CO3 · H2O Pb(ClO)4
P4S3 NaHSO4
Au2O3 H2CO3
Ca(OH)2 Cl2O
ClO3 Sn3(PO4)4
Al(NO3)3 LiOH
Fe(ClO4)3 Ba(NO2)2
H3PO4 Sn(ClO)2
H2Se Au(C2H3O2)3
NO SnF2
Zn(OH)2 HNO3
KOH Mn2O7
Al(OH)3 SnHPO4
Cu2CO3 HCl
CaO HClO3
(NH4)2SO3 (NH4)2CO3
CuSO4 · 3H2O CaSe
FeO HgCl2
AuC2H3O2 Fe2S3
Ca3N2 H2S
AlPO4 H2SO4
NO3 V2S5
N2O MnBr2
Cl2O7 RbH
HBr HNO2
BrF3 Cr2O3
Lead(II) hydroxide Stannous iodide
Sulfite ion Cuprous chlorite
Bromine pentafluoride Lead(IV) perchlorate
Aluminum sulfate Lead(II) chlorite
Lithium dihydrogen phosphate Silver chloride
Ammonium phosphate Magnesium phosphide
Magnesium nitrite Tin(IV) hydroxide
Cupric hydroxide Chlorine dioxide
Potassium hypochlorite Tin(IV) hydrogen phosphate
Sodium bicarbonate Tin(IV) dihydrogen phosphate
Cadmium(II) selenide Barium hydroxide
Carbon monoxide Stannic nitrite
Iodine monofluoride Aluminum acetate
Nitrogen dioxide Zinc nitrate
Ferric fluoride Nickel(II) carbonate
Potassium iodide Calcium chloride hexahydrate
Acetic acid Manganese(VII) oxide
Mercuric perchlorate Chlorous acid
Ammonium sulfide Hypochlorous acid
Ammonium sulfate Perchloric acid
Ferric nitrate Barium sulfate
Stannic sulfide Barium sulfide
Ammonium nitrite Ferrous sulfide
Calcium carbonate Potassium sulfide
Nitrogen trioxide Hydrosulfuric acid
Hydrogen chloride Potassium sulfite
Dinitrogen tetroxide Chromium(II) acetate
Silver nitrate Cupric nitrate
Iodine heptafluoride Potassium bisulfite
Nitrogen triiodide Sulfurous acid
 BALANCING EQUATIONS PRACTICE
1. Aluminum hydroxide + sodium nitrate  aluminum nitrate + sodium hydroxide

Skeletal Equation ___Al(OH)3 + 3 NaNO3  Al(NO3)3 + 3 NaOH___________

Mole Ratio _____1 + 3  1 + 3________________________________________

2. Iron metal + copper (II) sulfate  iron (II) sulfate + copper metal

Skeletal Equation __________________________________________________

Mole Ratio ________________________________________________________

3. Zinc metal + oxygen gas  zinc oxide

Skeletal Equation __________________________________________________

Mole Ratio ________________________________________________________

4. Sodium bicarbonate  sodium carbonate + carbon dioxide + water

Skeletal Equation __________________________________________________

Mole Ratio ________________________________________________________

5. Carbon tetrahydride + oxygen gas  carbon dioxide + water

Skeletal Equation __________________________________________________

Mole Ratio ________________________________________________________

6. Hydrogen + Nitrogen  nitrogen trihydride

Skeletal Equation __________________________________________________

Mole Ratio ________________________________________________________

7. Mercury (II) chloride + sodium metal  sodium chloride + mercury

Skeletal Equation __________________________________________________

Mole Ratio ________________________________________________________

8. Ammonium bicarbonate  nitrogen trihydride + water + carbon dioxide

Skeletal Equation __________________________________________________

Mole Ratio ________________________________________________________

9. Zinc sulfate + ammonium sulfide  ammonium sulfate + zinc sulfide

Skeletal Equation __________________________________________________

Mole Ratio ________________________________________________________

10. Lead (II) nitrate  lead (II) oxide + nitrogen dioxide + oxygen gas

Skeletal Equation __________________________________________________

Mole Ratio ________________________________________________________

11. Mercury (I) oxide + oxygen  mercury (II) oxide

Skeletal Equation __________________________________________________

Mole Ratio ________________________________________________________

12. Aluminum oxide + carbon + chlorine  carbon monoxide + aluminum chloride

Skeletal Equation __________________________________________________

Mole Ratio ________________________________________________________

13. Tetracarbon decahydride + oxygen  carbon dioxide + dihydrogen monoxide

Skeletal Equation __________________________________________________

Mole Ratio ________________________________________________________

14. Barium carbonate + carbon + water  carbon monoxide + barium hydroxide

Skeletal Equation __________________________________________________

Mole Ratio ________________________________________________________

15. Aluminum metal + water  aluminum hydroxide + hydrogen gas

Skeletal Equation __________________________________________________

Mole Ratio ________________________________________________________

16. Zinc + chromium (III) chloride  chromium (II) chloride + zinc chloride

Skeletal Equation __________________________________________________

Mole Ratio ________________________________________________________

17. Potassium phosphate + magnesium sulfate  magnesium phosphate + potassium sulfate

Skeletal Equation __________________________________________________

Mole Ratio ________________________________________________________

18. Tungsten metal + tin (IV) nitrate  tungsten (II) nitrate + tin

Skeletal Equation __________________________________________________

Mole Ratio ________________________________________________________

19. Lead (II) nitrite + potassium sulfide  lead (II) sulfide + potassium nitrite

Skeletal Equation __________________________________________________

Mole Ratio ________________________________________________________

20. Nitrogen trihydride + oxygen gas  nitrogen gas + dihydrogen monoxide

Skeletal Equation __________________________________________________

Mole Ratio ________________________________________________________

 Balancing Equations #1

Balance the following chemical equations.

1. ___ Fe + ___ H2S04 --> ___ Fe2(SO4)3 + ___ H2

2. ___ C2H6 + ___ O2 --> ___ H2 O + ___ CO2

3. ___ KOH + ___ H3PO4 --> ___ K3PO4 + ___ H2 O

4. ___ SnO2 + ___ H2 --> ___ Sn + ___ H2 O

5. ___ NH3 + ___ O2 --> ___ NO + ___ H2 O

6. ___ KNO3 + ___ H2CO3 --> ___ K2CO3 + ___ HNO3

7. ___ B2Br6 + ___ HNO3 --> ___ B(NO3)3 + ___ HBr

8. ___ BF3 + ___ Li2SO3 --> ___ B2(SO3)3 + ___ LiF

9. ___ (NH4)3PO4 + ___ Pb(NO3)4 --> ___ Pb3(PO4)4 + ___ NH4NO3

10. ___ SeCl6 + ___ O2 --> ___ SeO2 + ___ Cl2

 Balancing Equations #2
Balance the following chemical equations.

1. ___ SiCl4(l) + ___ H2O(l) --> ___ SiO2(s) + ___ HCl(aq)

2. ___ As + ___ NaOH --> ___ Na3AsO3 + ___ H2

3. ___ Au2S3 + ___ H2 --> ___ Au + ___ H2 S

4. ___ V2O5 + ___ HCl --> ___ VOCl3 + ___ H2 O

5. ___ Hg(OH)2 + ___ H3PO4 --> ___ Hg3(PO4)2 + ___ H2 O

6. ___ SiO2 + ___ HF --> ___ SiF4 + ___ H2 O

7. ___ Zn + ___ HCl --> ___ ZnCl2 + ___ H2

8. ___ HClO4 + ___ P4O10 --> ___ H3PO4 + ___ Cl2O7

9. ___ N2(g) + ___ O2(g) + ___ H2 O --> ___ HNO3

10. ___ NH4NO3 --> ___ N2 + ___ O2 + ___ H2 O

 MOLAR MASS CONVERSION PRACTICE
1. Determine the molar mass of each of the following compounds:

a) nitric acid e) Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid, C6H8O6)

b) ammonium nitrate f) Sulfuric acid

c) zinc oxide g) Silver nitrate

d) cobalt (II) chloride h) Saccharin (C7H5NO3S)

2. Calculate the mass of the following:

a) 2.22 mol He d) 3.21x1022 molecules oxygen gas

b) 0.453 mol Ni e) 3.4 mol silver iodide

c) 15.0 mol Ca(OH)2

3. Calculate the number of moles in each of the following:

a) 3.25 g Li2O d) 3.25x1020 molecules nitrogen gas

b) 0.345 g saccharin e) 245 g (NH4)2S

c) 5.62 g H2O
 MOLARITY
(Work problems on notebook paper. Be NEAT and ORGANIZED. Show all your work and box
your final answer. All answers should contain 3 S.F.)

1. What is the molarity of a solution that contains 0.800 moles sugar dissolved in 4.00 L of
solution?

2. What mass of calcium chloride must be weighed out in order to prepare 3.00 L of a 0.500 M
solution?

3. What volume of 1.50 M lithium nitrate would contain 0.600 g of that substance?

4. What is the molarity of a solution prepared by dissolving 6.85 g of NaCl in 0.500 L of

solution?

5. How many grams of KNO3 are in 2.00 L of a 0.400 M KNO3 solution?

6. An experiment required that 1.00 g of cupric sulfate be used. Since the compound was
available only in a 2.00 M solution, what volume of that solution must be used in order to
supply the necessary 1.00 g?

7. To what volume must 35.0mL of 6.0M HCl be diluted to obtain a 1.5M solution?

8. What volume of 15.0M HNO3 can be diluted to make 750.0mL of 3.0M nitric acid?

9. What volume of 2.50M HCl is needed to react completely with 20.0g of NaOH in a reaction
that produces sodium chloride and water?

10. What mass of lead(II) chloride will be produced from the reaction of 60.0mL of 0.100M
Pb(NO3)2 with 50.0mL of 0.210M KCl? (Hint: determine the limiting reactant)
Stoichiometry Practice A
Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper. Be neat, show your work, and
report your answers with the appropriate number of significant figures.

1. Na2SiO3 + 8 HF  H2SiF6 + 2 NaF + 3 H2O

a) How many moles of HF are needed to react with 0.300mol of Na2SiO3?

b) How many grams of NaF form when 0.500mol of HF react with excess Na2SiO3?
c) How many grams of Na2SiO3 can react with 0.800g of HF?

2. C6H12O6  2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2

a) How many moles of CO2 are produced when 0.400mol of C6H12O6 react in this fashion?
b) How many grams of C6H12O6 are needed to form 7.50g of C2H5OH?
c) How many grams of CO2 form when 7.50g of C2H5OH are produced?

3. Fe2O3 + 3 CO  2 Fe + 3CO2

a) Calculate the number of grams of CO that can react with 0.150kg of Fe2O3.
b) Calculate the number of grams of Fe and the number of grams of CO2 formed when
0.150kg of Fe2O3 react.

4. 2 NaOH + CO2  Na2CO3 + H2O

a) Which reagent is the limiting reactant when 1.85mol NaOH and 1.00mol CO2 are
allowed to react?
b) How many moles of Na2CO3 can be produced?

5. C6H6 + Br2  C6H5Br + HBr

a) What is the theoretical yield of C6H5Br when 30.0g of benzene reacts with 65.0g of
bromine?
b) If the actual yield of bromobenzene was 53.7g, what is the percent yield?
Stoichiometry Practice B
Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper. Be neat, show your work, and
report your answers with the appropriate number of significant figures.

1. Calcium hydroxide, used to neutralize acid spills, reacts with hydrochloric acid according
to the following equation: Ca(OH)2 + 2 HCl  ClCl2 + 2 H2O

a. If you have spilled 6.5mol of HCl and put 3.8mol of Ca(OH)2 on it, which
substance is the limiting reactant?
b. How many moles of the excess reactant remain?

2. Aluminum oxidizes according to the following equation: 4 Al + 3O2  2 Al2O3

a. Powdered aluminum (0.048mol) is placed into a container with 0.030mol O2.

What is the limiting reactant?
b. How many moles of the excess reactant remain?

3. Heating zinc sulfide in the presence of O2 yields the following: ZnS + O2  ZnO + SO2

a. If 1.72mol of ZnS is heated in the presence of 3.24mol of O2, which is the

limiting reactant? (Note, equation is not balanced)
b. How many moles of the excess reactant remain?

4. Chlorine can replace bromine in a single replacement reaction. The following is an

example: 2 KBr + Cl2  2 KCl + Br2

a. When 0.655g of Cl2 and 3.205g of KBr are mixed in solution, which is the
limiting reactant?
b. How many grams of each product are formed?
c. How many grams of excess reactant remain?

5. A process by which zirconium metal can be produced from the mineral zirconium (IV)
orthosilicate starts by reacting it with chlorine gas: ZrSiO4 + 2Cl2  ZrCl4 + SiO2 + O2

a. What mass of ZrCl4 can be produced if 852g of ZrSiO4 and 955.g of Cl2 are
available?
b. How many grams of excess reactant remain?

6. Aspirin is synthesized by the reaction of salicylic acid with acetic anhydride according to
the equation: 2 C7H6O3 + C4H6O3  2 C9H8O4 + H2O

a. When 20.0g of C7H6O3 and 20.0g of C4H6O3 react, which is the limiting reactant?
b. What mass of aspirin is formed?
c. How many grams of excess reactant remain?
Assigning Oxidation Numbers
The oxidation number is a bookkeeping device of the numbers of electrons gained or
lost in an atom when it combines with other atoms to form a compound. The possible
oxidation numbers of an atom can be derived from its ground state electron
configuration. The actual oxidation number of an atom depends on the other atoms in
the compound.
Rules for Assigning Oxidation Numbers
1. Any free (unattached) element with no charge has the oxidation number of zero. Diatomic gases such
as O2 and H2 are also in this category.
0 0 0 0
Ag Cu Cl2 Na
2. All compounds have a net oxidation state of zero. The oxidation number of all of the atoms add up to
zero.
+1 -1
NaCl
+1 -1 =0
3. Any ion has the oxidation state that is the charge of that ion. The ions of elements in Group I (Alkali
metals), II (alkaline earth metals), and VII (halogens) and some other element have only one likely
oxidation state.
+2 -1 +1
Ca F K
4. Polyatomic ions have an oxidation state for the whole ion which is the charge on that ion. The sum of
the oxidation numbers of all the atoms that make up the ion equal the charge on the polyatomic ion.
2-
+6 -2

( SO4 )
+6 -8 = -2

5. Oxygen in compound has an oxidation state of minus two, except for oxygen as peroxide, which is
minus one.
sodium oxide sodium peroxide
+1 -2 +1 -1

Na2O Na2O2
+2 -2 =0 +1 -1 = 0
6. Hydrogen in compound has an oxidation state of plus one, except for hydrogen as hydride, which is
minus one.
Hydrogen sulfide Calcium hydride
+1 -2 +2 -1

H2S Ca H2
+2 -2 =0 +2 -2 = 0
Let’s Assign Oxidation Numbers!
Ex. Potassium perchlorate KClO
4
+1
Potassium in a Group I ion K
-2
Oxygen in a compound is -2 O
You must determine the oxidation state of Cl.
The sum of oxidation numbers in a compound equal zero, therefore
+1 x -2

KClO4
+1 + 1(x) - 8 =0
+1 +7 -2
The oxidation state of Cl is +7. K Cl O
4

Assign the oxidation numbers for each individual element within the following compounds:

- 6. N2O5
1. MnO4

2-
7. P4O8
2. Cr2O7

3-
8. PO3
3. S2O3

-
4. NO 9. H2PO4

-
5. NO3
10. LiH