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Algorithmic Graph Theory
and Perfect Graphs
Second Edition
ANNALS OF DISCRETE MATHEMATICS 57

Series Editor: Peter L. HAMMER

Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, U.S.A
Algorithmic Graph Theory
and Perfect Graphs
Second Edition

Martin Charles Golumbic

Caesarea Rothschild Institute
University of Haifa
Haifa, Israel

2OO4

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First edition 1980 (Academic Press, ISBN 0-12-289260-7)

Second edition 2004

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A catalog record is available from the Library of Congress.

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ISBN: 0-444-51530-5

The paper used in this publication meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 (Permanence of
Paper).
Printed in Hungary.
Dedicated to my parents

l,'l~ ~"'f~ 1"I::I ~ / ~ r l

This Page Intentionally Left Blank
 Contents

...
Foreword 2004 Xlll

Foreword xv
Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xix
List of Symbols xx i
Corrections and Errata xxiii

CHAPTER 1 Graph Theoretic Foundations

1. Basic Definitions and Notations 1
2. Intersection Graphs 9
3. Interval Graphs-A Sneak Preview of the
Notions Coming Up 13
4. Summary 17
Exercises 18
Bibliography 20

CHAPTER 2 The Design of Efficient Algorithms

1. The Complexity of Computer Algorithms 22
2. Data Structures 31
3. How to Explore a Graph 37
4. Transitive Tournaments and Topological
Sorting 42
Exercises 45
Bibliography 48

vii
viii Contents

CHAPTER 3 Perfect Graphs

1. The Star of the Show 51
2. The Perfect Graph Theorem 53
3. p-Critical and Partitionable Graphs 58
4. A Polyhedral Characterization
of Perfect Graphs 62
5. A Polyhedral Characterization
of p-Critical Graphs 65
6. The Strong Perfect Graph Conjecture 71
Exercises 75
Bibliography 77

CHAPTER 4 Triangulated Graphs

1. Introduction 81
2. Characterizing Triangulated Graphs 81
3. Recognizing Triangulated Graphs
by Lexicographic Breadth-First Search 84
4. The Complexity of Recognizing
Triangulated Graphs 87
5 . Triangulated Graphs as Intersection Graphs 91
6. Triangulated Graphs Are Perfect 94
7. Fast Algorithms for the COLORING,
CLIQUE, STABLE SET, and
CLIQUE-COVER Problems on
Triangulated Graphs 98
Exercises 100
Bibliography 102

CHAPTER 5 Comparability Graphs

1. r-Chains and Implication Classes 105
2. Uniquely Partially Orderable Graphs 109
3. The Number of Transitive Orientations 113
4. Schemes and G-Decompositions- An Algorithm
for Assigning Transitive Orientations 120
5. The r*-Matroid of a Graph 124
6 . The Complexity of Comparability
Graph Recognition 129
7. Coloring and Other Problems
on Comparability Graphs 132
Contents ix

8. The Dimension of Partial Orders 135

Exercises 139
Bibliography 1 42

CHAPTER 6 Split Graphs

1. An Introduction to Chapters 6 8 : Interval,
Permutation, and Split Graphs 149
2. Characterizing Split Graphs 149
3. Degree Sequences and Split Graphs 152
Exercises 155
Bibliography 156

CHAPTER 7 Permutation Graphs

1. Introduction 157
2. Characterizing Permutation Graphs 158
3. Permutation Labelings 160
4. Applications 162
5. Sorting a Permutation Using
Queues in Parallel 164
Exercises 168
Bibliography 169

CHAPTER 8 Interval Graphs

1. How It All Started 171
2. Some Characterizations of Interval Graphs 172
3. The Complexity of Consecutive 1’s Testing 175
4. Applications of Interval Graphs 181
5. Preference and Indifference 185
6. Circular- Arc Graphs 188
Exercises 193
Bibliography 197

CHAPTER 9 Superperfect Graphs

1. Coloring Weighted Graphs 203
2. Superperfection 206
3. An Infinite Class of Superperfect
Noncomparability Graphs 209
X Contents

4. When Does Superperfect Equal Comparability? 212

5. Composition of Superperfect Graphs 214
6. A Representation Using the Consecutive 1’s
Property 215
Exercises 218
Bibliography 218

CHAPTER 10 Th reshoId Graphs

1. The Threshold Dimension 219
2. Degree Partition of Threshold Graphs 223
3. A Characterization Using Permutations 221
4. An Application to Synchronizing
Parallel Processes 229
Exercises 23 1
Bibliography 234

CHAPTER 11 Not So Perfect Graphs

1. Sorting a Permutation Using Stacks in
Parallel 235
2. Intersecting Chords of a Circle 231
3. Overlap Graphs 242
4. Fast Algorithms for Maximum Stable Set
and Maximum Clique of These Not So
Perfect Graphs 244
5 . A Graph Theoretic Characterization
of Overlap Graphs 248
Exercises 25 1
Bibliography 253

CHAPTER 12 Perfect Gaussian Elimination

1. Perfect Elimination Matrices 254
2. Symmetric Matrices 256
3. Perfect Elimination Bipartite Graphs 259
4. Chordal Bipartite Graphs 26 1
Exercises 264
Bibliography 266
Contents xi

Appendix
A. A Small Collection of NP-complete
Problems 269
B. An Algorithm for Set Union, Intersection,
Difference, and Symmetric Difference of
Two Subsets 270
C. Topological Sorting: An Example
of Algorithm 2.4 27 1
D. An Illustration of the Decomposition
Algorithm 273
E. The Properties P.E.B., C.B., (P.E.B.)',
(C .B .) ' Illustrated 273
F. The Properties c, r, T, T Illustrated 275

Epilogue 2004 277

Index 307
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
 Foreword 2004:
the Annals edition

The publication of this new edition of Algorithmic Graph Theory and

Perfect Graphs marks twenty three years since its first appearance. My original
motivation for writing the book was to collect and unify the topic to act as a
spring board for researchers, and especially graduate students, to pursue new
directions of investigation. The ensuing years have been an amazingly fruitful
period of research in this area. To my great satisfaction, the number of relevant
journal articles in the literature has grown tenfold. I can hardly express my
admiration to all these authors for creating a success story for algorithmic graph
theory far beyond my own imagination.
The world of perfect graphs has grown to include over 200 special graph
classes. The Venn diagrams that I used to show some of the inclusions between
classes in the First Generation, for example Figure 9.9 (on page 212), have
yielded to Hasse diagrams for the Second Generation, like the one from
Golumbic and Trenk [2004] reprinted in Figure 13.3 at the end of this edition.
Perhaps the most important new development in the theory of perfect graphs
is the recent proof of the Strong Perfect Graph Conjecture by Chudnovsky,
Robertson, Seymour and Thomas, announced in May 2002. News of this was im-
mediately passed on to Claude Berge, who sadly passed away on June 30, 2002.
On the algorithmic side, many of the problems which were open in 1980
have subsequently been settled, and algorithms on new classes of perfect graphs
have been studied. For example, tolerance graphs generalize both interval graphs
and permutation graphs, and coloring tolerance graphs in polynomial time is
important in solving scheduling problems where a measure of flexibility or
tolerance is allowed for sharing or relinquishing resources when total exclusivity
prevents a solution.
At the end of this new edition, I have added a short chapter called

XIII
xiv Foreword

Epilogue 2004 in which I survey a few of my favorite results and research

directions from the Second Generation. Its intension is to whet the appetite.
Six books have appeared recently which cover advanced research in this area.
They have thankfully relieved me from a pressing need to write my own encyclo-
pedia sequel. They are the following, and are a must for any graph theory library.
• A. Brandst/idt, V.B. Le and J.P. Spinrad, "Graph Classes: A Survey", SIAM,
Philadelphia [ 1999], is an extensive and invaluable compendium of the current
status of complexity and mathematical results on hundreds on families of
graphs. It is comprehensive with respect to definitions and theorems, citing
over 1100 references.
• P.C. Fishburn, "Interval Orders and Interval Graphs: A Study of Partially
Ordered Sets", John Wiley & Sons, New York [ 1985], gives a comprehensive
look at the research on this class of ordered sets.
• M.C. Golumbic and A.N. Trenk, "Tolerance Graphs", Cambridge University
Press [2004], is the youngest addition to the perfect graph bookshelf. It
contains the first thorough study of tolerance graphs and tolerance orders, and
includes proofs of the major results which have not appeared before in books.
• N.V.R. Mahadev and U.N. Peled, "Threshold Graphs and Related Topics",
North-Holland [1995], is a thorough and extensive treatment of all research
done in the past years on threshold graphs (chapter 10 of my book), threshold
dimension and orders, and a dozen new concepts which have emerged.
• T.A. McKee and ER. McMorris, "Topics in Intersection Graph Theory",
SIAM, Philadelphia [1999], is a focused monograph on structural properties,
presenting definitions, major theorems with proofs and many applications.
• W.T. Trotter, "Combinatorics and Partially Ordered Sets", Johns Hopkins,
Baltimore [ 1992], is the book to which I referred at the bottom of page 136.
It covers new directions of investigation and goes far beyond just dimension
problems on ordered sets.

Algorithmic Graph Theory and Perfect Graphs has now become the classic
introduction to the field. It continues to convey the message that intersection
graph models are a necessary and important tool for solving real-world problems.
Solutions to the algorithmic problems on these special graph classes are
continually integrated into systems for a large variety of application areas,
from VLSI circuit design to scheduling, from resource allocation to physical
mapping of DNA, from temporal reasoning in artificial intelligence to pavement
deterioration analysis. On the mathematical side, perfect graph classes have
provided rich soil for deep theoretical results. In short, it remains a stepping stone
from which the reader may embark on one of many fascinating research trails.

Martin Charles Golumbic

Haifa, Israel
 Foreword

Research in graph theory and its applications has increased considerably in

recent years. Typically, the elaboration of new theoretical structures has moti-
vated a search for new algorithms compatible with those structures. Rather than
the arduous and systematic study of every new concept definable with a graph,
the main task for the mathematician is to eliminate the often arbitrary and cum-
bersome definitions, keeping only the "deep" mathematical problems.
Of course, the deep problems may well be elusive; indeed, there have been
many definitions (from Dieudonne, among others) of what a deep problem is. In
graph theory, it should relate to a variety of other combinatorial structures and
must therefore be connected with many difficuh practical problems. Among
these will be problems that classical algebra is not able to solve completely or
that the computer scientist would not attack by himself.
This book, by Martin Golumbic, is intended as an introduction to graph theory
through just these practical problems, nearly all of them related to the structure of
permutation graphs, interval graphs, circle graphs, threshold graphs, perfect
graphs, and others.
The reader will not find motivations drawn from number theory, as is usual for
most of the extremal graph problems, or from such refinements of old riddles as
the four-color problem and the Hamiltonian tour. Instead, Golumbic has selected
practical problems that occur in operations research, scheduling, econometrics,
and even genetics or ecology.
The author's point of view has also enjoyed increasing favor in the area of
complexity analysis. Each time a new structure appears, the author inmiediately
devotes some effort to a description of efficient algorithms, if any are known to
exist, and to a determination of whether a proposed algorithm is able to solve the
problem within a reasonable amount of time.

XV
xvi Foreword

Certainly a wealth of literature on graph theory has developed by now. Yet it is

clear that this book brings a new point of view and deserves a special place in the
literature.
CLAUDE BERGE
 Preface

The notion of a "perfect" graph was introduced by Claude Berge at the birth
of the 1960s. Since that time many classes of graphs, interesting in their own
right, have been shown to be perfect. Research, in the meantime, has proceeded
along two lines. The first line of investigation has included the proof of the
perfect graph theorem (Theorem 3.3), attempts at proving the strong perfect
graph conjecture, studies of critically imperfect graphs, and other aspects of
perfect graphs. The second line of approach has been to discover mathematical
and algorithmic properties of special classes of perfect graphs: comparability
graphs, triangulated graphs, and interval graphs, to name just a few. Many of
these graphs arise quite naturally in real-world applications. For example, uses
include optimization of computer storage, analysis of genetic structure, synchro-
nization of parallel processes, and certain scheduling problems.
Recently it appeared to me that the time was ripe to assemble and organize the
many results on perfect graphs that are scattered throughout the literature, some
of which are difficult to locate. A serious attempt has been made to coordinate
the melange of some 200 papers referenced here in a manner that would make the
subject more accessible to those interested in algorithmic and algebraic graph
theory. I have tried to include most of the important results that are currently
known. In addition, a few new results and new proofs of old results appear
throughout the text. In particular, Chapter 9, on superperfect graphs, contains
results due to Alan J. Hoffman, Ellis Johnson, Larry J. Stockmeyer, and myself
that are appearing in print for the first time.
The emphasis of any book naturally reflects the bias of the author. As a mathe-
matician and computer scientist, I am doubly biased. First, I have tried to present
a rigorous and coherent theory. Proofs are constructive and are streamlined as
much as possible. The notation has been chosen to facilitate these matters. Sec-
ond, I have directed much attention to the algorithmic aspects of every problem.

xvii
xviii Preface

Algorithms are expressed in a manner that will make their adaptation to a partic-
ular progranmiing language relatively easy. The complexity of every algorithm is
analyzed so that some measure of its efficiency can be determined.
These two approaches enhance one another very well. By exploiting the math-
ematical properties satisfied a priori by a structure, one is often able to reduce the
time or space complexity required to solve a problem. Conversely, the al-
gorithmic approach often leads to startling theoretical results. To illustrate this
point, consider the fact that certain NP-complete problems become tractable
when restricted to certain classes of perfect graphs, whereas the algorithm for
recognizing comparability graphs gives rise to a matroid associated with the
graph.
A glance at the table of contents will provide a rough outiine of the topics to be
discussed. The first two chapters are introductory in the sense that they provide
the foundations, respectively, of the graph theoretic notions and the algorithmic
design and analysis techniques that will be used in the remaining chapters. The
reader may wish to read these two chapters quickly and refer to them as needed.
The chapters are structured in such a way that the book will be suitable as a
textbook in a course on algorithmic combinatorics, graph theory, or perfect
graphs. In addition, the book will be very useful for applied mathematicians and
computer scientists at the research level. Many applications of the theoretical and
computational aspects of the subject are described throughout the text. At the end
of each chapter there are numerous exercises to test the reader's understanding
and to introduce further results. An extensive bibliography follows each chapter,
and, when possible, the Mathematical Reviews number is included for further
reference.
The topics covered in this book have been chosen to fill a vacuum in the
literature, and their interrelation and importance will become evident as early as
Section 1.3. Since the intersection of this volume with the traditional material
covered by most graph theory books has been designed to be small, it is highly
recommended that the serious student augment his studies with one of these
excellent textbooks. A one-year course with two concurrent texts is suggested.

MARTIN CHARLES GOLUMBIC

 Acknowledgments

I would like to express my gratitude to the many friends and colleagues who
have assisted me in this project. Special thanks are due to Claude Berge for the
kind words that introduce this volume. I am happy to acknowledge the help
received from Mark Buckingham, particularly in Chapters 3 and 11. He is the
coauthor of Sections 3.3-3.5. The suggestions and critical comments of my
"trio" of students, Clyde Kruskal, Larry Rudolph, and Elia Weixelbaum, led to
numerous improvements in the exposition. Over the past three years I have been
fortunate to receive support from the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sci-
ences, the National Science Foundation, the Weizmann Institute of Science, and
rUniversite de Paris VI.
I would also like to express my appreciation to Alan J. Hoffman for many
interesting discussions and for his help with the material in Chapter 9. My thanks
go to Uri Peled, Fred S. Roberts, Allan Gottlieb, W. T. Trotter, Peter L. Ham-
mer, and Laszlo Lovasz for their comments, as well as to Lisa Sabbia Walsh,
Daniel Gruen, and Joseph Miller for their assistance. I am also indebted to my
teacher, Samuel Eilenberg, for the guidance, insight, and kindness shown me
during my days at Columbia University.
But the greatest and most crucial help has come from my wife Lynn. Although
not a mathematician, she managed to unconfound much of this mathematician's
gibberish. She also "axed" some of my worst (best) jokes, much to my dismay.
More importantly, she has been the rock on which I have always relied for en-
couragement and inspiration, during our travels and at home, in the course of the
research and writing of this book. As it is written in Proverbs:
.r\2wybv lon-nmm ,n;3Dnn nnno n-'D
.r]}'7T^v n^bv nxi > n wv m:n mnn

XIX
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
 List of Symbols

^age Symbol Meaning

Vx For all X.
3>' There exists a y.
xeX jc is a member of X.
AQX y4 is a subset of X.
BCX 5 is a proper subset of X
\x\ The cardinality of a set X
AHB The intersection of /< and A
AUB The uMion of A and A
2 A+B The union of disjoint sets y4 and A
2 0 The e/w/7/>' ^e/.
2 ^iX) The power set of X
4 The Cartesian product of sets V and FT.
19
vx w
SIT Sets S and T overlap; SHTi 0 , S^T, and 7^5.
3 G = {V,E) The gra/?/i G with vertex set K and edge set E.
8 G = {XuX2.E) The bipartite graph G with vertex set X1+X2
where each X, is stable.
5 (Vs^S) The subgraph spanned by a subset S of edges.
6 GA={A,EA) The subgraph induced by a subset ^ of vertices.
3 Adj(v) The adjacency set of vertex v.
6 AdJXv) The adjacency set restricted to A; Adj/4(v) = Adj(v)nA.
3 Ar(v) The neighborhood of vertex F; N(v) - {v}+Adj(v).
7 ^(v) The out-degree of vertex v.
7 ^(v) The in-degree of vertex v.
7 ^(v) The degree of vertex v in an undirected graph.
4 ET' The reversal of a set E of edges.
4 E The symmetric closure of a set E of edges.
4 ib The undirected edge [ab]^{ba].
7 il^il In an undirected graph G = (V,E) we define ||£|| = i |£|.
4 G The complement of an undirected graph G.
4 G^G' Graphs G and G' are isomorphic.
6 co(C?) The c//^we number of <j.
6 k{G) The c/i^ue cover number of G.

XXI
XXII List of Symbols

6 ctiG) The stability number of G.

7 xiG) The chromatic number of G.
113 tiG) The number of transitive orientations of G.
126 r(G) The rank of the r*-matroid of G.
220 e{G) The threshold dimension of G.
203 x(G;w) The interval chromatic number of a weighted graph {G\w).
206 toiG;w) The maximum weighted clique number of {G\w).
9 Kn The complete graph on n vertices.
9 Cn The chordless cycle on n vertices.
9 Pn The chordless path graph on n vertices.
9 J^m,n The complete bipartite graph on m + « vertices partitioned
into an m-stable set and an fi-stable set.
9 K\,n The star graph on n + 1 vertices.
9 ItlKn m disjoint copies of Kn.
47 G1XG2 The Cartesian product of graphs G\ and Gi.
77 G'H The normal product of graphs G and H.
109 Ho[Hu. ., /fn] The composition of graphs.
95 ^ The class of undirected graphs satisfying the property
that every odd cycle of length greater than or equal
to 5 has at least two chords.
105 r The forcing relation on edges.
106 r* The reflexive, transitive closure of T.
106 ^AG) The collection of implication classes of G.
106 ^iG) The collection of color classes of G.
135 ^(P) The collection of linear extensions of a partial order P.
135 dim(P) The dimension of a partial order P.
157 Glir] The permutation graph of n.
235 H[7r] The stack sorting graph of w.
157 n' The inverse of the permutation w.
158 TTP The reversal of the permutation ir.
228 LU The shuffle product.
236 je The class of stack sorting graphs.
23 Oifim)) Computational complexity on the order off{m).
26 P The class of deterministic polynomial-time problems.
27 NP The class of nondeterministic polynomial-time problems.
27 n,<n2 Problem IIi is polynomially transformable to problem IIz.
32 A The null or undefined symbol in an algorithm.
176 T^r The Pg-trees T and T are equivalent.
177 lU/) The collection of all permutations TT of A' such that the members
of each subset hJ occur consecutively in n where JQ ^X).
53 G oh The graph G multiplied by the vector h.
62 R" The M-dimensional vector space over the real numbers.
62 P(A) The polyhedron of matrix A.
62 Pii^) The integral polyhedron of matrix A.
59 1 The vector of all ones.
62 0 The vector of all zeros.
60 J The matrix of all ones.
60 I The identity matrix.
256 G(M) The graph of matrix M.
256 BiM) The bipartite graph of matrix M.
 Corrections and Errata to:
Algorithmic Graph Theory
and Perfect Graphs,
the original 1980 edition

We apologize to Prof. George Lueker for misspelling his family name

throughout the text. Hence all occurrences "Leuker" should be "Lueker".

Page 18: The graph in Figure 1.17 is a circular-arc graph.

Page 48: Exercise 21 is false.

Page 49: Garey and Johnson [1978]: add "MR80g:68056"

Page 78: Bland, et al. [1979]: add "MR80g:05034"

Chvatal, et al. [1979]: add "MR8lb:05044"
de Werra [1978]: add "MR81a:05052"
Greenwell [1978]: add "MR80d:05044"

Page 79: Olaru [1977]: add "MR58#5411"

Page 80: Parthasarathy and Ravindra [1979]: add "MR80m:05045"

Pretzel [1979]: add "MR80d:06003"
Tucker [1979]: add "MR81c:05041"
Wagon [1978]: add "MR80i:05078"

Page 85: Figure 4.3: The edge (b,e) is missing.

XXIII
xxiv Corrections and Errata

Page 102: Exercise 24: The claim in the first sentence is false. For example,
it can use as many as 7 colors on the graph Gi, in Figure 4.1.
A different technique can be used to obtain a linear time coloring
algorithm for triangulated graphs, which is due to Martin Farber.
Line 21: change ''Adj{wT to ''Adj{uT
Gavril [1978]: add "MR81g:05094"

Page 104: Wagon [1978]: add "MR80i:05078"

Page 138: The second footnote can be updated since M. Yannakakis has now
proved that the complexity of determining if a poset has dimension
3 is NP-complete.

Page 145: Pretzel [1979]: add "MR80d:06003"

Page 146: Gysin [1977]: add "MR58#5393"

Page 147: Rabinovitch [1978b]: add "MR58#5424"

Page 156: Burkard and Hammer [1977]: change to the following:

[1980] A note on Hamiltonian split graphs, J. Combin. Theory B 28,
245-248. MR81e:05095.
A necessary condition for the existence of a Hamiltonian cycle in
split graphs is proved.
Erdos and Gallai [I960]: change "272" to "274"
Foldes and Hammer [1978]: add "MR80c:05111"
Hammer, Ibaraki, and Simeone [1978]: change to the following:
[1978] Degree sequences of threshold graphs, Proc. 9th Southeastern
Conf. on Combinatorics, Graph Theory and Computing, Con-
gressus Numeratium 21, Utilitas Math., Winnipeg, Man., 329-355.
MR80j:05088.

Page 163: There should be edges between 3-4 and 6-7 (corrected in this
edition).

Page 179: Figure 8.7: The second tree on the right should have its rightmost
leaf "F" rather than "E". The leaves should read from left to right as
follows: B C E A D F

Page 190: line 6: change "will appear in Tucker [1979]" to: "appears in Tucker
[1980]"
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***
JUST SIXTEEN.
"We will have luncheon here close to the fire," she said,
"and be as cosey as possible."—Page 28.
 JUST SIXTEEN.
BY

SUSAN COOLIDGE,
AUTHOR OF "THE NEW YEAR'S BARGAIN," "WHAT KATY DID," "WHAT KATY DID AT SCHOOL," "WHAT KATY

DID NEXT," "CLOVER," "A GUERNSEY LILY," ETC.

QUI LEGIT REGIT

BOSTON:

ROBERTS BROTHERS.

1890.
 Copyright, 1889,
By Roberts Brothers.

University Press:
John Wilson and Son, Cambridge, U.S.A.
 CONTENTS.

PAGE

A Little Knight of Labor (Two Illustrations) 7

Snowy Peter 63
The Do Something Society 80
Who ate the Queen's Luncheon? (Illustration) 92
The Shipwrecked Cologne-Bottle 110
Under a Syringa-Bush 126
Two Girls—Two Parties 137
The Pink Sweetmeat 154
Etelka's Choice (Illustration) 177
The Fir Cones 204
A Balsam Pillow 217
Colonel Wheeler 229
Ninety-three and Ninety-four 238
The Sorrows of Felicia 258
Imprisoned 271
A Child of the Sea Folk 282
JUST SIXTEEN.
 A LITTLE KNIGHT OF LABOR.
HE first real snow-storm of the winter had come to
Sandyport by the Sea.
It had been a late and merciful autumn. Till well into
November the leaves still clung to their boughs,
honeysuckles made shady coverts on trellises, and put forth now
and then an orange and milk-white blossom full of frosty sweetness;
the grass was still green where the snow allowed it to be seen. Thick
and fast fell the wind-blown flakes on the lightly frozen ground. The
patter and beat of the flying storm was a joyous sound to children
who owned sleds and had been waiting the chance to use them.
Many a boy's face looked out as the dusk fell, to make sure that the
storm continued; and many a bright voice cried, "Hurrah! It's coming
down harder than ever! To-morrow it will be splendid!" Stable-men
were shaking out fur robes and arranging cutters. Already the fitful
sound of sleigh-bells could be heard; and all the world—the world of
Sandyport that is—was preparing to give the in-coming winter a gay
welcome.
But in one house in an old-fashioned but still respectable street no
one seemed inclined to join in the general merry-making. Only two
lights broke its darkness: one shone from the kitchen at the back,
where, beside a kerosene lamp, Bethia Kendrick, the old-time
servitor of the Talcott family, was gloomily darning stockings, and
otherwise making ready for departure on the morrow. The other and
fainter glow came from the front room, where without any lamp
Georgie Talcott sat alone beside her fire.
It was a little fire, and built of rather queer materials. There were
bits of lath and box-covers, fence-pickets split in two, shavings,
pasteboard clippings, and on top of all, half of an old chopping-bowl.
The light material burned out fast, and had to be continually
replenished from the basket which stood on one side the grate.
Georgie, in fact, was burning up the odds and ends of her old life
before leaving it behind forever. She was to quit the house on the
morrow; and there was something significant to her, and very
sorrowful, in this disposal of its shreds and fragments; they meant
so little to other people, and so very much to her. The old chopping-
bowl, for instance,—her thoughts went back from it to the first time
she had ever been permitted to join in the making of the Christmas
pies. She saw her mother, still a young woman then, and pretty with
the faded elegance which had been her characteristic, weighing the
sugar and plums, and slicing the citron, while her own daring little
hands plied the chopper in that very bowl. What joy there was in
those vigorous dabs and cross-way cuts! how she had liked to do it!
And now, the pretty mother, faded and gray, lay under the frozen
turf, on which the snow-flakes were thickly falling. There could be no
more Christmases for Georgie in the old house; it was sold, and to-
morrow would close its doors behind her forever.
She shivered as these thoughts passed through her mind, and
rising moved restlessly toward the window. It was storming faster
than ever. The sight seemed to make the idea of the morrow harder
to bear; a big tear formed in each eye, blurring the white world
outside into a dim grayness. Presently one ran down her nose and
fell on her hand. She looked at it with dismay, wiped it hastily off,
and went back to the fire.
"I won't cry, whatever happens, I'm resolved on that," she said
half aloud, as she put the other half of the chopping-bowl on the
waning blaze. The deep-soaked richness of long-perished meats was
in the old wood still. It flared broadly up the chimney. Georgie again
sat down by the fire and resumed her thinking.
"What am I going to do?" she asked herself for the hundredth
time. "When my visit to Cousin Vi is over, I must decide on
something; but what? A week is such a short time in which to settle
such an important thing."
It is hard to be confronted at twenty with the problem of one's
own support. Georgie hitherto had been as happy and care-free as
other girls. Her mother, as the widow of a naval officer, was entitled
to a small pension. This, with a very little more in addition, had paid
for Georgie's schooling, and kept the old house going in a sufficiently
comfortable though very modest fashion. But Mrs. Talcott was not by
nature an exemplary manager. It was hard not to overrun here and
there, especially after Georgie grew up, and "took her place in
society," as the poor lady phrased it,—the place which was rightfully
hers as her father's daughter and the descendant of a long line of
Talcotts and Chaunceys and Wainwrights. She coveted pretty things
for her girl, as all mothers do, and it was too much for her strength
always to deny herself.
So Georgie had "just this" and "just that," and being a fresh
attractive creature, and a favorite, made her little go as far as the
other girls' much, and now and again the tiny capital was
encroached upon. And then, and then,—this is a world of sorry
chances, as the weak and helpless find to their cost,—came the bad
year, when the Ranscuttle Mills passed their dividend and the stock
went down to almost nothing; and then Mrs. Talcott's long illness,
and then her death. Sickness and death are luxuries which the poor
will do well to go without. Georgie went over the calculations afresh
as she sat by the fire, and the result came out just the same, and
not a penny better. When she had paid for her mother's funeral, and
all the last bills, she would have exactly a hundred and seventy-five
dollars a year to live upon,—that and no more!
The furniture,—could she get something for that? She glanced
round the room, and shook her head. The articles were neither
handsome enough nor quaint enough to command a good price. She
looked affectionately at the hair-cloth sofa on which her mother had
so often lain, at the well-worn secretary. How could she part with
these? How could she sell her great-grandfather's picture, or who, in
fact, except herself, would care for the rather ill-painted portrait of a
rigid old worthy of the last century, in a wig and ruffled shirt, with a
view of Sandyport harbor by way of a background? Her father's
silhouette hung beneath it, with his sword and a little mezzotint of
his ship. These were treasures to her, but what were they to any one
else?
"No," she decided. "Bethia shall take the old kitchen things and
her own bedroom furniture, and have the use of them; but the rest
must go into Miss Sally's attic for the present. They wouldn't fetch
anything; and if they would, I don't think I could bear to sell them.
And now that is settled, I must think again, what am I to do? I must
do something."
She turned over all manner of schemes in her mind, but all
seemed fruitless. Sew? The town was full of sempstresses. Georgie
knew of half a dozen who could not get work enough to keep them
busy half the time. Teach? She could not; her education in no one
respect had been thorough enough. Embroider for the Women's
Exchanges and Decorative Art Societies? Perhaps; but it seemed to
her that was the very thing to which all destitute people with
pretensions to gentility fled as a matter of course, and that the
market for tidies and "splashers" and pine-pillows was decidedly
overstocked.
"It's no use thinking about it to-night," was the sensible decision
to which she at last arrived. "I am too tired. I'll get a sound night's
sleep if I can, and put off my worries till I am safely at Miss Sally's."
The sound night's sleep stood Georgie in good stead, for the
morrow taxed all her powers of endurance, both physical and moral.
Bethia, unhappy at losing the home of years, was tearful and
fractious to a degree. Sending off the furniture through the deep
snow proved a slow and troublesome matter. The doors necessarily
stood open a great deal, the rooms grew very cold, everything was
comfortless and dispiriting. And underlying all, put aside but never
unfelt, was a deep sense of pain at the knowledge that this was the
last day,—the very, very last of the home she had always known,
and might know no more.
When the final sledge-load creaked away over the hard frozen
crust, Georgie experienced a sense of relief.
"The sooner 'tis over, the sooner to sleep,"
she sang below her breath. Everything was in order. She had
generalled all ably; nothing was omitted or forgotten. With steady
care she raked out the fire in the kitchen stove, which the new
owner of the house had taken off her hands, and saw to the
fastenings of the windows. Then she tied on her bonnet and black
veil, gave the weeping Bethia a good-by kiss on the door-step,
closed and locked the door, and waded wearily through the half-
broken paths to the boarding-house of Miss Sally Scannell, where
Cousin Vi, otherwise Miss Violet Talcott, had lived for years.
No very enthusiastic reception awaited her. Cousin Vi's invitation
had been given from a sense of duty. She "owed it to the child," she
told herself, as she cleared out a bureau-drawer, and made a place
for Georgie's trunk in the small third-story room which for sixteen
years had represented to her all the home she had known. Of course
such a visit must be a brief one.
"So you're come!" was her greeting as Georgie appeared. "I
thought you'd be here sooner; but I suppose you've had a good deal
to do. I should have offered to help if the day had not been so cold.
Come in and take your things off."
Georgie glanced about her as she smoothed her hair. The room
bore the unmistakable marks of spinsterhood and decayed gentility.
It was crammed with little belongings, some valuable, some
perfectly valueless. Two or three pieces of spindle-legged and claw-
footed mahogany made an odd contrast to the common painted
bedroom set. Miniatures by Malbone and lovely pale-lined mezzotints
and line engravings hung on the walls amid a maze of photographs
and Japanese fans and Christmas cards and chromos; an
indescribable confusion of duds encumbered every shelf and table;
and in the midst sat Miss Vi's tall, meager, dissatisfied self, with thin
hair laboriously trained after the prevailing fashion, and a dress
whose antique material seemed oddly unsuited to its modern cut
and loopings. Somehow the pitifulness of the scene struck Georgie
afresh.
"Shall I ever be like this?" she reflected.
"Now tell me what has happened since the funeral," said her
cousin. "I had neuralgia all last week and week before, or I should
have got down oftener. Who has called? Have the Hanburys been to
see you?"
"Ellen came last week, but I was out," replied Georgie.
"What a pity! And how did it happen that you were out? You ought
not to have been seen in the street so soon, I think. It's not
customary."
"How could I help it?" responded Georgie, sadly. "I had all the
move to arrange for. Mr. Custer wanted the house for Saturday.
There was no one to go for me."
"I suppose you couldn't; but it's a pity. It's never well to outrage
conventionalities. Have Mrs. St. John and Mrs. Constant Carrington
called?"
"Mrs. Carrington hasn't, but she wrote me a little note. And dear
Mrs. St. John came twice, and brought flowers, and was ever so
kind. She always has been so very nice to me, you know."
"Naturally! The St. Johns were nobodies till Mr. St. John made all
that money in railroads. She is glad enough to be on good terms
with the old families, of course."
"I don't think it's that," said Georgie, rather wearily. "I think she's
nice because she's naturally so kind-hearted, and she likes me."
 The tea-bell put an end to the discussion. Miss Sally's welcome
was a good deal warmer than Cousin Vi's had been.
"You poor dear child," she exclaimed, "you look quite tired out!
Here, take this seat by the fire, Georgie, and I'll pour your tea out
first of all. She needs it, don't she?" to Cousin Vi.
"Miss Talcott is rather tired, I dare say," said that lady, icily. Cousin
Vi had lived for sixteen years in daily intercourse with Miss Sally, one
of the sunniest and most friendly of women, and had never once
relaxed into cordiality in all that time. Her code of manners included
no approximation toward familiarity between a Talcott and a letter of
lodgings.
Georgie took a different view. "Thank you so much, dear Miss
Sally," she said. "How good you are! I am tired."
"I wish you wouldn't call Miss Sally 'dear,'" her cousin remarked
after they had gone upstairs. "That sort of thing is most
disagreeable to me. You have to be on your guard continually in a
house like this, or you get mixed up with all sorts of people."
Georgie let it pass. She was too tired to argue.
"Now, let us talk about your plans," Miss Talcott said next
morning. "Have you made any yet?"
"N—o; only that I must find some work to do at once."
"Don't speak like that to any one but me," her cousin said sharply.
"There are lady-like occupations, of course, in which you can—can—
mingle; but they need not be mentioned, or made known to people
in general."
"What do you mean?"
"I don't know, I'm sure. I've never had occasion to look into the
matter, but I suppose a girl situated as you are could find something,
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