CHAPTER 16

Courtesy of Ford Motor Company

Engine Classi cations
and Types
O BJ EC TIV ES
KEY TERM S
bimetal engine L-head
> companion cylinders overhead cam (OHC)
compression ratio oxides of nitrogen
cross- ow head (NOX)
>
cylinder bank single overhead cam
diesel-cycle (SOHC)
> dual overhead cam strati ed charge
(DOHC) two-stroke engine
electrolysis Wankel rotary
> ring order engine
I-head

Introduction Cylinder Arrangement

A service technician needs an understanding of Automobile engines have three, four, five, six, or
the basic designs and configurations of automobile more cylinders. Cylinders are arranged in several ways
engines to be able to intelligently use service infor- including: inline, in a “V” arrangement, or opposed to
mation or communicate with customers or peers. each other (Figure 16.1).
Examples of engine-related terms found in service
information might include reference to a 1.6L OHC INLINE ENGINES
V6 engine or the term “crankcase capacity.” This An inline engine has all of its cylinders aligned
chapter deals with the terms related to engines. in one row. Some inline engines have vertically
After you have read this chapter, you should be able arranged cylinders, and others have cylinders that
to look under the hood of an automobile and iden- are slanted at various angles. The latter case allows
tify the type of engine. cylinders to fit into an engine compartment with a
lower hood line that provides less wind resistance.
Engine Classi cations Inline engines on motorcycles and cars can have 2,
Piston engines all have the same basic parts, as we 3, 4, or 6 cylinders.
learned in the last chapter. However, differences in
design can affect how you go about repairing them.
Learn the following engine classifications as you Older cars had inline eight-cylinder
read this chapter: engines called “straight eights.”
> Cylinder arrangement
> Cooling system: air or liquid
> Valve location: head or block
> Combustion chamber design
> Cam location: head or block V-TYPE ENGINES
> Type of power: gasoline, alternative fuel, and/or A V-type engine looks like a letter V when viewed
electric from the end. Cylinders are cast in two rows, called
> Ignition system: spark or compression the left and right cylinder banks. Left and right
> Number of strokes per cycle: two or four are identified when viewed from the flywheel end

230
 Engine Classi cations and Types 231

V-Type
T Inline

Photo by Tim Gilles

Figure 16.3 A crankpin for a V8 engine is double wide
so it can t two connecting rods.

Opposed
Figure 16.1 Cylinder arrangements.

of the engine. V8 blocks are cast with left and right

cylinder banks at a 90-degree angle to each other. V6
blocks have either 60 degrees or 90 degrees between
Figure 16.4 A compact block design with only 15 degrees
banks. The V6 shown in Figure 16.2 is a 60-degree V. between the cylinder banks.
An intake manifold covers the area between the
heads, known as the valley. A V-type engine is considerably shorter in length.
There are big block and small block V8 engine Therefore, a completely assembled V-type engine usu-
designs. Smaller, lighter blocks are more popular in ally weighs less than an inline engine with the same
passenger cars because of their fuel efficiency. When number of cylinders. On a V-type engine, connecting
an engine has more than four cylinders, a V-type rods from two cylinders on opposite banks will share
engine has an advantage over an inline engine. one connecting rod journal (Figure 16.3). Thus, the
engine block requires fewer main bearing supports.
Mounting V-type engines transversely in small
cars presents a problem for engine designers. V6
engines traditionally have either 60 degrees or 90
degrees between cylinder banks. Without the addi-
tion of accessories, these engines are at least twice as
wide as an inline engine and use much of the space
in the engine compartment. To solve this problem,
Volkswagen designed its narrow angle VR6 in the
early 1990s that had only 15 degrees between banks.
Volkswagen was able to do this by slightly lengthen-
ing the block and spacing the cylinders farther from
each other (Figure 16.4). This allowed a V6 that was
only slightly longer than an inline four cylinder. A
W12 engine was later developed by combining two
15 degree VR6s and slanting the engine at 72 degrees.

OPPOSED ENGINES
Courtesy of Ford Motor Company

Opposed engines are used by manufacturers like Por-

sche, Volkswagen, and Subaru. They are sometimes
called “pancake” engines and have cylinders that
face each other from opposite sides of the crank-
shaft. Opposed engines are especially suited for
Figure 16.2 A 60-degree V6 engine. smaller underhood areas.
232 Chapter 16

First Second Third Fourth

stroke stroke stroke stroke

720°
360° 360°
180° 180° 180° 180°

First cylinder Power Exhaust Intake Compression

Second cylinder Compression Power Exhaust Intake
Third cylinder Intake Compression Power Exhaust
Fourth cylinder Exhaust Intake Compression Power

Figure 16.5 A four-cylinder engine has one cylinder on a power stroke every 180 degrees of crankshaft rotation.

Firing Order stroke, its companion piston will be at the start of

its intake stroke. To find out which cylinders are
A multiple-cylinder engine can be designed to run companions, take the first half of the firing order
relatively smoothly if the power strokes of all cyl- and place it above the second half. The firing order
inders are spaced at specified intervals. In a four- for the engine shown in Figure 16.5 is 1-5-3-6-2-4.
cylinder engine, one cylinder starts a power stroke To determine the companions, put numbers 1, 5,
after every 180 degrees of crankshaft rotation and 3 above 6, 2, and 4.
(Figure 16.5). This interval between power strokes
is known as the ignition interval.
first revolution, 1 5 3
Within two complete rotations of the crankshaft,
all of the engine’s cylinders will have fired once. The | | |
order in which the cylinders fire is called the firing second revolution, 6 2 4
order. The firing order does not usually follow the
order of cylinder numbering. It is not unusual for For an eight-cylinder engine with a 1-8-4-3-6-
two V6 or V8 engines to have different firing orders. 5-7-2 firing order, put numbers 1, 8, 4, and 3 above
numbers 6, 5, 7, and 2.
COMPANION CYLINDERS
Any engine with an even number of cylinders has first revolution, 1 8 4 3
pairs of cylinders called companion cylinders,
| | | |
or running mates. These pistons go up and down in
pairs. The companions in the inline six-cylinder second revolution, 6 5 7 2
engine shown in Figure 16.6 are 1 and 6, 2 and 5,
and 3 and 4. When one piston is starting its power Remember, the crankshaft turns two revolutions
(720 degrees) to complete one four-stroke cycle. The
first half of the firing order represents one crank-
shaft revolution (360 degrees). The second half of
the firing order represents the second revolution of
the crankshaft (360 degrees).
In the preceding example, when cylinder
number 7 is beginning its intake stroke, cylin-
der number 4 is beginning its power stroke. This
Photo by Tim Gilles

eight-cylinder engine would have one power stroke

every 90 degrees of its 720 degree four-stroke cycle.
Therefore, a V8 should have banks with 90 degrees
between them for even firing; a V6 should have 120
Figure 16.6 This vintage L-head inline six-cylinder degrees or 60 degrees between its banks.
engine shows companion cylinder pairings. The pis-
tons in cylinders 1 and 6, 2 and 5, and 3 and 4 go up 720
5 90 degrees
and down together. 8 (cyl.)
 Engine Classi cations and Types 233

Radiator
cap
Electric
Radiator cooling fan
hose

Thermostat

AIR
FLOW

Radiator
Water
pump

Combustion Water
chamber jacket

Figure 16.7 Cooling system parts and coolant ow.

Engine Cooling engine and radiator to maintain coolant tempera-

ture at a specified level. Figure 16.7 shows parts of
There are two types of cooling systems used in a cooling system.
engines: air cooling or liquid cooling. Air-cooled Freezing and boiling protection is provided by
engines are found on lawnmowers, motorcycles, a coolant mixture, which is approximately 50 per-
and some older automobiles. The engine is cooled cent antifreeze and 50 percent pure water. Coolant
when air is circulated over cooling fins cast into the prevents rust and electrolysis that causes corrosion.
outside of cylinders and cylinder heads. Produc- Many engines are bimetal engines, with an iron
tion of these engines has been curtailed for many cylinder block and aluminum cylinder heads. The
years because air-cooled engines run at higher tem- combination of two dissimilar metals promotes
peratures that cause increased oxides of nitrogen electrolysis, or the creation of an electrical cur-
(NOX) emissions, a major component in photo- rent. Electrolysis causes much faster deterioration of
chemical smog. the metals. Well-maintained coolant is mandatory
A liquid-cooled engine has cavities in the block for long engine life.
and head castings called water jackets. They con-
tain liquid coolant that flows around all cylinders
and valve-seat areas, carrying off heat. Coolant is Valve Location
pumped from the water jackets to the radiator by Another way engines are classified is by where
a coolant pump, sometimes called a water pump. A their valves are located. The two most common
thermostat controls the flow of coolant between the valve arrangements that have been used in internal
234 Chapter 16

I-head I-HEAD/OVERHEAD VALVE

The overhead valve (OHV) engine found in today’s
vehicles is known as an I-head or valve-in-head
engine (see History Note Figure 16.1). This design
breathes better than an L-head because it has a more
direct path of air-fuel flow. I-heads produce fewer
exhaust emissions because they can be made with
less surface area in the combustion chamber; more
surface area causes more quenched, unburned fuel.
Higher compression is possible because the
combustion chamber does not need extra vol-
ume to accommodate the valves like in an L-head.
Increased valve lift is possible because, as the intake
valve opens, the piston moves down in the cylinder
away from it. When the exhaust valve opens, the
piston is near bottom dead center (BDC) and fol-
Figure 16.8 When the valves are in the cylinder head,
lows the valve up the cylinder as it closes. Increas-
the engine is known as an I-head engine.
ing valve opening to a certain point is necessary to
allow enough air-fuel mixture into the cylinder to
combustion four-stroke engines are the L-head and develop maximum power. The more air-fuel mix-
I-head (Figure 16.8). The I-head is used in today’s ture that can be packed into the cylinder, the more
automobiles. The L-head design used in some lawn- power will be developed. This is called volumetric
mowers, generators, and other industrial engines efficiency, and it is the reason that turbocharging or
was common in motor vehicles during the first half supercharging is so effective in producing extra power
of the twentieth century. from relatively small engines. In these engines, an
air pump forces more air-fuel mixture into the cyl-
inder (see Chapter 42).
Until the early 1950s, many automobiles
had L-head engines (see Figure 16.8). The Camshaft Location
valve con guration resembles an upside-
The camshaft on I-head engines is located either
down letter L ((History Note Figure 16.1).
These engines are also called atheads in the cylinder head or in the cylinder block. The
or sidevalves. An L-head is less expensive to manu- cam-in-block engine is called a pushrod engine, and
facture, but its main disadvantage is that it produces the cam-in-head design is called an overhead cam
more exhaust emissions than an I-head engine. L-heads (OHC) engine.
are also limited in their compression ratio and valve lift In a pushrod engine, the camshaft has valve lifters
(the height of the valve opening). that move pushrods that operate rocker arms to open
the valves (see Figure 15.5). In late-model vehicles,
L-head
pushrods are found most often on V-type engines.
The overhead cam design, or OHC (see Figure 15.6),
is a more popular type of valve operating arrange-
ment for inline engines. It has the camshaft mounted
on top of the cylinder head, just above the valve.
OHC engines are popular for high-speed operation
because they have fewer parts with less total weight
than pushrod engines. Remember that valves must
open and close repeatedly at very high speeds.
Some OHC engines have a single overhead
cam (SOHC). Each cylinder has two separate cam
lobes to operate its intake and exhaust valves.
A high-performance OHC engine will often
have two camshafts per head. This is called a dual
History Note Figure 16.1 An L-head, or athead, overhead cam (DOHC) engine. One camshaft
engine has the valves in the block. Flatheads are
used in some lawnmowers, generators, and other
operates the intake valves; the other operates the
industrial engines. They were common in vintage exhaust valves.
engines until the 1950s. An OHC engine uses a long chain or belt from the
crankshaft sprocket to drive the camshaft sprocket
 Engine Classi cations and Types 235

Intake Exhaust
port port

Figure 16.10 A cross- ow head.

Multiple Valve
V Heads. High-performance late-
model engines often have three or four valves per
cylinder (Figure 16.11). Some exotic engines even
have five or six valves per cylinder. Using multiple
intake and exhaust valves has become popular
because higher rpm breathing is improved and indi-
vidual valve weight can be reduced.

> More flow volume for a given amount of valve

Photo by Tim Gilles

lift is possible compared to two valve heads.

> At high engine rpm, the lighter weight of valves
becomes more important.
(b) > With multi-valves combined into a smaller
Figure 16.9 V-type overhead cam engines. (a) Belt- space, the location of the spark plug can be
driven overhead cam V6. (b) Chain-driven overhead closer to the center of the combustion chamber.
cam V8. This minimizes the possibility of engine knock
and allows the use of higher compression ratios,
(Figure 16.9). Belt-driven OHC engines have become which deliver more power.
commonplace in today’s engines. During earlier years,
Lean air-fuel mixtures use less energy. But very
except for luxury or racing automobiles, OHC was
lean air-fuel mixtures are difficult to burn. If they
limited to smaller, inline engines.
are well mixed, this is helpful. At high engine speed,
there is plenty of turbulence, so this is not a prob-
Other Cylinder Head Variations lem. Multi-valve heads tend to allow fuel to fall
A head is called a cross-flow head when the intake out of the mixture at low speeds. Therefore, some
and exhaust manifolds are on opposite sides on an multi-valve heads use control valves that cause only
inline engine (Figure 16.10). A cross-flow head is one intake valve to open at low rpm and another
more efficient in moving intake and exhaust. to open at higher rpm. This maintains velocity and
swirl at low speed, while allowing higher airflow at
HIGH-PERFORMANCE BREATHING high speeds (Figure 16.12).
ARRANGEMENTS Other multi-valve heads use two intake mani-
fold runners per cylinder. They are variably tuned
breathing. The problem is that low-rpm breathing and using a butterfly control valve to control airflow.
high-rpm breathing are both subject to the constraints
of the behavior of pressure. An engine that breathes
well at low speed will not breathe well at high speed, Combustion Chamber Designs
unless engineers have been able to use valve timing There are several combustion chamber designs. The
and intake manifold modifications to compensate. most common include the hemi, the wedge, and
236 Chapter 16

Below 2,500 rpm

Exhaust
valves
Photo credit to Tim Gilles

Above 2,500 rpm

Figure 16.12 At low rpm, velocity and swirl are main-
tained. At high rpm, there is high ow.
Intake
valves
evenly. A hemi chamber also allows the use of big-
Figure 16.11 Four-valve combustion chamber. ger valves. Sometimes hemis have a tendency to
“spark knock” when using lower octane fuels (see
the pent-roof (Figure 16.13). A wedge combustion Chapter 39). Diesel engines have no chamber in the
chamber is shaped like a scalene triangle. A hemi cylinder head itself; the combustion chamber side
combustion chamber is semi-spherical. A pent-roof of the head is virtually flat. Turbulence and squish
combustion chamber is similar to a hemi, but like in the cylinder of a diesel are controlled by the
an equilateral triangle. Other chamber designs can shape of the piston head.
be shaped like a D or a heart. A pent-roof combustion chamber and its piston
There are turbulent and nonturbulent combustion are shaped like a V (see Figure 16.13). This is a com-
chambers. The wedge chamber is mostly used in push- mon design with four-valve-per-cylinder engines The
rod engines, with the camshaft located in the block. It pent-roof and other chambers are designed for more
has a squish/quench area that causes movement efficient combustion and better control of exhaust
(turbulence) of the air-fuel mixture and cooling of the emissions. In a high swirl chamber
chamber, like in the wedge
gases to prevent abnormal combustion. This move- chamber, areas on the head surface are raised to
ment causes more complete burning at lower speeds cause turbulence in the air-fuel mixture.
with less chance of detonation. But turbulent wedge Newer direct-injected gasoline engines use sophis-
chambers tend to separate air from fuel at high speeds. ticated computer controls to cycle high-pressure fuel
A nonturbulent combustion chamber, the injectors on and off during the combustion event,
hemispherical, or hemi design, is more efficient at providing a very controlled stratified charge. The
high speeds. The air-fuel mixture is centered near original stratified charge design was pioneered
the spark plug, so the flame is more likely to spread by Honda in the 1970s. The name comes from the
 Engine Classi cations and Types 237

Spark Spark
plug plug

Spark
plug

Cylinder Cylinder

Cylinder
Wedge Squish/ Hemi
(turbulent) quench area (non-turbulent) Pent-Roof
Figure 16.13 Combustion chamber designs.

stratification, or layering, of different densities of air- when the piston is at top dead center (TDC) and BDC
fuel mixtures. A very small amount of rich mixture (see Figure 17.4). Gasoline engine compression ratios
is ignited in a small precombustion chamber. A very are usually from 8:1 to 10:1.Whereas the gasoline
lean mixture (not normally ignitable by a spark plug) engine is a spark ignition engine, the diesel engine
is in the main cylinder and is ignited by the advanc- is a compression ignition engine. The compression
ing flame front from the small, rich mixture. ratio in a diesel engine can range from 14:1 to 20:1 or
higher. As the piston moves up in the cylinder dur-
Spark and Compression Ignition ing the compression stroke, it compresses the air in
the cylinder, heating it to approximately 1,000°F. A
Much of the automobile engine information mixture of air and fuel would explode if it were com-
included here applies also to the light-duty diesel
pressed this much, but a diesel engine compresses
engines found in some passenger cars and light only air. Diesel fuel does not burn at room tempera-
trucks. Diesel-cycle and four-cycle gasoline engines
ture. But when it is injected into the cylinder at the
share the same basic principles of operation. The exact moment ignition is desired, it burns easily in
difference is in the way the fuels are ignited.
the hot environment of the compressed air.
Diesel engines are covered in more detail in Diesel ignition timing is controlled by individ-
Chapter 39.
ual high-pressure electronic injectors, mechanical
A gasoline engine is called a spark ignition (SI)
SI injectors operated by a camshaft, or a precision fuel
engine, with an ignition system creating the spark.
distributor that provides fuel to injectors at each
Older engines used a distributor, geared to the cam- cylinder (Figure 16.14). With any type of injector,
shaft to time and distribute the spark to the spark the pressure of the fuel must be very high in order to
plug at exactly the correct instant. Late-model
overcome the high cylinder pressures reached dur-
engines do this with computer-controlled spark ing the compression stroke. Electronic diesel direct
ignition. Most of today’s engines have distributor-
injection is covered in Chapter 40.
less ignition systems (DIS). They have several ignition
coils that are precisely fired by a computer respond- Fuel
ing to a signal from a camshaft or crankshaft sensor. injector
DIESEL ENGINE
The diesel engine was invented by Rudolf Diesel
in 1892 in Germany. Diesel engines, which can be
either two- or four-stroke cycle, are used extensively
in heavy equipment. They were not used in automo-
biles until the 1930s.
The operation and appearance of the diesel
engine is very similar to the gasoline engine. How-
ever, a diesel engine is a compression ignition (C.I.)
engine. It does not use a spark to ignite the fuel like a
gasoline engine. When air is compressed in the cylin-
der and diesel fuel is injected into it, the fuel ignites.
Compression ratio is the comparison between Figure 16.14 A diesel engine has a timed high-pressure
the volume of the cylinder and combustion chamber fuel injector to control the point of ignition.
238 Chapter 16

A diesel engine can run at idle with a very lean As the rotor turns, the end of one of its lobes
air-fuel mixture and can be about one-third more moves past the intake port, drawing in fuel and
efficient on fuel, although it produces less power air. Turning further, the mixture is compressed as
than a gasoline engine. In gasoline engines, chang- it nears the spark plug. The spark plug ignites the
ing the amount of air entering the engine controls air-fuel mixture, and the rotor continues revolv-
speed and power. In diesel engines, the amount of ing until the exhaust port is uncovered. When the
air remains the same, and changing the fuel mixture exhaust has escaped, the rotor will be in position
controls speed and power. The mixture can be as rich above the intake port to begin the cycle again.
as 20:1 under load and as lean as about 80:1 at idle. Unlike reciprocating engines, rotary engines do
Diesel engine downsides include its high par- not have pistons that have to start and stop moving
ticulate emissions (soot) and the high temperature hundreds of times per second at high rpm. They also
of combustion, which produces high NOX exhaust have no poppet valves that must open and close.
emissions. Diesels are also difficult to start in cold This allows rotary engines to run very smoothly at
weather, and they require more frequent oil changes higher rpm.
than gasoline engines. Rotary engines require complicated emission
Diesel exhaust emission control is covered in control systems, so they are not as fuel efficient as
Chapter 43. they might otherwise be. Rotaries have seen limited
use in Mazdas. But if readily available alternative
Alternate Engines clean-burning fuels like hydrogen become a reality,
rotary engines could become a popular power plant
Most automotive and truck engines use internal in automobiles.
combustion four-stroke piston engines. Over the
years, several other engine types have been devel-
oped, but only the Mazda Wankel rotary engine is
also found in today’s vehicles. American Motors Corporation (AMC)
produced the Pacer hatchback from
THE WANKEL ROTARY ENGINE 1975–1980. It was originally designed
for use with a Wankel rotary engine.
The Wankel rotary engine was invented by The engines were to come from General
Felix Wankel in 1954. It operates on the four-stroke Motors, however GM cancelled their rotary project in
cycle, although there are actually no strokes. Auto- 1974, leaving AMC without an engine. The Pacer was
motive rotary engines have two rotors that rotate redesigned to t AMC’s inline six cylinder engine.
inside of a chamber that looks like a modified fig-
ure eight (Figure 16.15). The rotor has three sides
that act as pistons. While one of the chambers is TWO-STROKE CYCLE ENGINES
experiencing intake, the others will be doing other two-stroke engine can be made smaller and
parts of the cycle. Thus, one revolution of the lighter than a four-stroke engine of comparable size.
crankshaft produces the equivalent of three power Two-stroke engines, which have been used for years
strokes. in motorcycles, outboard motors (Figure 16.16),
and outdoor power equipment like chainsaws and
leaf blowers, use a mixture of oil and gasoline for
lubrication of the crankshaft, connecting rod, and
piston. Some experimental designs for automobiles
have crankcases lubricated with pumped oil.
Two-stroke engines have a power stroke during
each revolution of the crankshaft. The cylinder has
intake and exhaust ports, which are openings in the
(a) (b) side of the cylinder (Figure 16.17). There is also
an intake by-pass passageway, or transfer port, that
allows the air-fuel mixture to move from the crank-
case to the combustion chamber. The two-stroke cycle
begins with the piston at TDC on the power stroke.
As the piston moves toward BDC, it will cover both
the exhaust and intake ports. When it approaches
the bottom of the power stroke, the exhaust port
(c) (d) is uncovered to release exhaust gases. Shortly after
this, the intake by-pass port is uncovered, and the
Figure 16.15 Rotary engine cycle. air-fuel mixture is pushed into the cylinder from the
 Engine Classi cations and Types 239

to put fuel into the combustion chamber. Air is

pushed into the cylinder using a supercharger (see
Chapter 42). The crankcase is pressure lubricated in
the same way as four-stroke engines. Some older die-
Two-stroke sel truck engine designs also used a two-stroke cycle,
engine but these engines had high exhaust emissions.
NOTE: The breathing capacity of a two-stroke
engine is dependent on the volume of its crankcase.
An old motorcycle racing trick is to drop the piston
and the cylinder in order to increase pressure in
the crankcase. The engine will still have the same
displacement because shortening the connecting rod
does not change the stroke. A shorter rod creates
more connecting rod angle, improving torque output.

NEW VEHICLE DEVELOPMENT

Many types of vehicles have been invented. But
Outdrive whether they come to production depends on many
things. The availability and distribution of fuel, the
cost of the vehicle, customer satisfaction, drivability
and performance, and fuel economy are some of the
considerations.
Alternative fuel vehicles are used extensively
in fleet operations such as utility companies. Spe-
cialized training in these technologies is available.
Photo by Tim Gilles

Alternative fuels are discussed in Chapter 39.

HYBRID AND ELECTRIC VEHICLES

Figure 16.16 Cutaway of a two stroke inline six-cylinder A hybrid vehicle is one that uses two or more
outboard engine. types of power. The most common type is a
hybrid electric vehicle (HEV), which has an
crankcase. This action also helps push out exhaust. internal combustion engine (ICE) and one or
As the piston moves up on its compression stroke, more electric motors (Figure 16.18). There are
the intake port is uncovered and a fresh charge of air other types of hybrids, including hydraulic and
and fuel is pushed into the crankcase. flywheel energy storage.
Two-stroke engines have traditionally used Section 13 covers Advanced Transportation
a mixture of oil and fuel. The oily fuel lubricates Technologies. You can learn more about hybrid,
the lower end (crankshaft and bearings) as it flows electric, and fuel cell vehicles in those chapters.
through the crankcase on its way to the cylinder.
New direct-injection two-strokes use fuel injectors

IC
engine

Exhaust
Intak
Intake Intake
port
portt by-pass
port
Battery
Bat
pack
Crankcase

Starter
generator
Figure 16.18 Most hybrid automobiles are powered
with an internal combustion engine or a battery-
Figure 16.17 A two-stroke cycle engine. powered electric motor, or both at the same time.