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Transistors

Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT) are three-terminal devices used for amplification and switching, utilizing both electrons and holes in their operation. There are two types of BJTs: NPN and PNP, each with distinct configurations and operating principles. The document also covers regions of operation, current gain, biasing methods, and the importance of establishing a quiescent point for stable transistor performance.

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Elly Mboya
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
10 views94 pages

Transistors

Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT) are three-terminal devices used for amplification and switching, utilizing both electrons and holes in their operation. There are two types of BJTs: NPN and PNP, each with distinct configurations and operating principles. The document also covers regions of operation, current gain, biasing methods, and the importance of establishing a quiescent point for stable transistor performance.

Uploaded by

Elly Mboya
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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TRANSISTORS

Bipolar Junction Transistors


(BJT)
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)
• A bipolar (junction) transistor (BJT) is a type of
transistor.
• It is a three-terminal device and mainly used in
amplifying or switching applications.
• Bipolar transistors are named because their
operation involves both electrons and holes.
• Unipolar transistors, such as field-effect
transistors, only one carrier type is involved in
charge flow.
• The three layers of the transistor are known as:
– Collector, C (moderately doped and wider – collects
electrons)
– Base, B (lightly doped and very thin)
– Emitter, E (heavily doped and wider – supplies
electrons)
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT) …
• Can be used for voltage and current
amplification.
• The amplification of a signal is achieved
by passing the signal a region of low
resistance to a region of high resistance.
• TRANSfer-resISTOR.
• The transistor consists of two p-n
junctions, or diodes connected back-to-
back.
Two Types BJT
• NPN transistor:
– 2n - and 1p-type layers of material → npn
transistor
– Thin and lightly doped p-type material is sandwiched
between two thicker n-type materials.
• PNP transistor:
– 2p - and 1n-type layers of material →pnp
transistor
– A thin and lightly doped n-type material is sandwiched
between two thicker p-type materials.
• The three terminals of a transistor are typically
used as the input, output and the common
terminal of both input and output.
A. Operating Principle of BJT (NPN)
IC
Collector
99%
Collector
N

IB
P Base

Base 1%

N
Emitter

Symbol
IE
Emitter Flow of Electrons
Flow of holes
A. Operating Principle of BJT (NPN) …
• Forward bias is applied to emitter – base
junction and reverse bias is applied to
collector – base junction.
• Forward bias in the emitter – base junction
will cause electrons to move toward base.
• This current constitute to emitter current,
I E.
• As electrons flow towards p-type base, they
try to recombine with holes.
• Since the base is lightly doped, only few
electrons recombine with holes in the base.
A. Operating Principle of BJT (NPN) …
• The recombined electrons contributes to
small base current, IB.
• The remaining electrons crosses base and
constitute to collector current, IC.
• IE = IB + IC
B. Operating Principle of BJT (PNP)
• Forward bias is applied to emitter – base
junction and reverse bias is applied to
collector – base junction.
• Forward bias in the emitter – base junction
will cause holes to move toward base.
• This current constitute to emitter current,
I E.
• As holes flow towards n-type base, they try
to recombine with electrons.
• Since the base is lightly doped, only few
holes recombine with electrons in the base.
B. Operating Principle of BJT (PNP) …
• The recombined holes contributes to small
base current, IB.
• The remaining holes crosses base and
constitute to collector current, IC.
• In the circuit, arrows represent the
direction of the electric or conventional
current.
• The flow of electrons is in the opposite
direction of the arrows because
electrons carry negative electric charge.
Regions of operation
• Bipolar transistors have three
distinct regions of operation,
defined mostly by applied bias:
• Active Mode:
• The emitter-base junction is forward
biased and the base-collector
junction is reverse biased.
• This is a region transistor operates as
an amplifier.
Regions of operation cont. …
• Saturation Region:
• Both BE and CB junctions are
forward-biased.
• When BJT is in saturation mode,
facilitates high current conduction from
the emitter to the collector.
• This mode corresponds to a logical
“ON", or a closed switch.
Regions of operation cont. …
• Cutoff region:
• BE and CB are reverse biased.
• No current flow in collector, only
leakage current.
• The transistor acts as an open
switch.
BJT Configurations
• Depending on which of the three terminals
is used as common terminal.
• There are three different configurations:
– common emitter (CE)
– Common base (CB), and
– Common collector (CC)

• The common emitter (CE) is the most


typical configuration:
Common-Emitter (CE)
• Emitter terminal is connected to ground.
• Two voltages is applied between base and
emitter, VBE.
• The output is taken between collector and
emitter, VCE.
• The BE junction is forward biased while the CB
junction is reverse biased.
• Has both Current and Voltage Gain
• The voltages of CB and CE configurations are
related by:
Common-emitter (CE) …

Common Emitter
Common-Base (CB)
• Base terminal is grounded.
• Input voltages is applied between emitter and base, VBE.
• The output is collected between collector and base, VCB.
• The BE junction is forward biased while the CB junction
is reversing biased.
• Has Voltage Gain but NO Current Gain.
Common-Collector configuration
• Input signal is applied between base and
collector
• Output signal is taken out from emitter-
collector circuit.
• This type of configuration is commonly known as
a Voltage Follower or Emitter Follower circuit.
• This configuration is very useful for impedance
matching applications because of the very high
input impedance.
• Conventionally speaking, here IB is the input
current and IE is the output current.
• Has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain
Common-Collector configuration
cont. …
IE

IB

IC
Current Gain
• The ratio of IC/IE is called α, the common-
base current gain.

IC
• i.e. α =
IE
• The ratio of IC/IB is called β, common-
emitter current.
IC
• i.e. β =
IB
Current Gain cont. …
• The two equations can be combined as
follows;
• We know that α= IC/IE by definition.
• It is also evident that IE = IC + IB (By
Kirchoff’s Law).
IC
α=
IC + IB
Dividing by IB throughout;
Current Gain cont. …
IC
IB
=
IC
+1
IB
β
α=
β +1
β = α(β + 1) α β
and also β = , α=
1− α β +1
If β = 100 then α = 100/101 ≈ 0.99, if β = 500 then α = 500/501 ≈ 0.998
Load Lines and DC Biasing of BJT’s
• To make a BJT operational, dc supply voltage must be
applied to the emitter, base and collector.
• The procedure is called biasing.
• DC bias sets the operating point of the BJT.
• Biasing is used by means application of dc voltages to
establish a fixed levels of currents and voltages (i.e.
IB, IC, VCE and VBE).
• The resulting d.c. current and voltages establish an
operating point of the output characteristics.
• Since the operating point is a fixed point on the
characteristics it is also called QUISCENT POINT
abbreviated as Q - POINT.
• For the normal operation of the BJT two conditions
must be satisfied;
– The base-emitter junction must be forward biased.
– The collector-base junction must be reverse biased.
Load Lines and DC Biasing of BJT’s cont. …
• For drawing a dc load line of a transistor,
one need to know only its cut-off and
saturation points.
• It is a straight line joining these two lines.
• For a common-emitter circuit, the dc line
is drawn as in the following figure.
• A is the cut-off point and B is the
saturation point.
• The voltage equation of the collector-
emitter is given below;
Load Lines and DC Biasing of BJT’s cont.

VCC = I C R L + VCE
VCC VCE
IC = −
RL RL
Consider the following two particular case:

(i) When IC = 0, VCE = VCC - cut-off point A

(ii) When VCE = 0, IC = VCC/RL - saturation point B


Load Lines and DC Biasing of BJT’s cont. …
IC

Saturation
B

Active
Region
D
IC

Cut-off
A

0
VCE VCC
IC

IB = 12μA

1200μA

1000μA IB = 10μA

800μA IB = 8μA

600μA IB = 6μA

400μA IB = 4μA

200μA IB = 2μA

VCE

Transistor characteristics
IC

ICQ

VCE
VCEQ

Q - point
Active Region
• All operating points (like C, D, E, etc) lying
between cut-off and saturation points
from active region of the transistor.
• In this region E/B junction is forward-
biased and C/B junction is reverse-
biased (condition necessary for the proper
operation of a transistor).
Quiescent Point
• A point on the load line representing the values
of IC and VCE when no input signal is applied
to a transistor.
• It is also known as the dc operating point or
working point.
• The best position for this point is mid-way
between cut-off and saturation points where
VCEQ = 1/2VCC (like point D in figure above)
Quiescent Point …
Different Methods for Transistor
Biasing
• Some of the methods used for providing bias
for a transistor are:-
• Base bias or fixed current bias
• Base bias with emitter feedback
• Base bias with collector feedback
• Base bias with collector and emitter
feedbacks
• Emitter bias with two supplies
• Voltage divider bias
Base bias or fixed current bias
VCC

RB RC

ac output

C1
C2

ac
input
signal
Base-Emitter loop
VCC

IC

RB RC

B
VCE

VBE
IB
E
Base-emitter loop …

VCC = I B R B + VBE

VCC − VBE
IB =
RB Input equation
Collector-emitter loop
VCC = I C R C + VCE
VCC − VCE
IC =
RC
I C = I Bβ
VCE = VCC − I C R C Output Equation
VCC

IC

RB RC

IB

VCE

C1
VBE

Uin

RE
IC

6 Q+P
IB = 6μA

4
IB = 4μA
Q

IB = 2μA
2 Q-P
+P

-P

ΔI B = (6 − 2)μA = 4A

ΔIC = (4 − 2)μA = 2A


ΔIC 2mA
current gain = =
ΔIB 4 A
Emitter Stabilized Bias Circuit
VCC

RB RC

Vout

Uin

C1

RE

RE is used to improve the stability


of the circuit
Consider DC equivalent circuit:
VCC

IC

RB RC

IB

VCE

VBE

RE
Base-emitter loop
VCC = I B R B + VBE + I E R E
IE = IC + IB and I C = βI B
I E = βI B + I B = I B (1 + β )

VCC = I B R B + VBE + (1 + β )I B R E
VCC - VBE
IB =
R B − (1 + β )R E
IC  IC 
VCC = R B + VBE +  I C + R E
β  β
VCC - VBE
IC =
RB  1
− 1 + 
 R
β β
E

Collector-emitter loop
VCC = I C R C + VCE + I E R E

 IC 
VCC = I C R C + VCE +  I C + R E
 β
 IC 
VCC = I C R C + VCE +  I C + R E
 β
VCC = βI B R C + VCE + (I B + βI B )R E

From VCC = I B R B + VBE + I E R E


IC
IB = and I C  I B
β
IC
VCC = R B + VBE + I C R E
β
 RB 
= I C  + R E  + VBE
 β 
VCC − VBE
 IC =
RB
+ RE
β
For VCC  VBE
VCC βVCC
IC = =
RB
+ RE βR E + R B
β
I C = f (β ) and VCE = f (β )
Voltage divider bias
VCC

R1 RC

Vout

C
Uin 2

C1

R2 RE
In the previous circuit

I C = f (β ) and VCE = f (β )
DC equivalent cct is:-
VCC

R1 RC

Input

R2 RE
To analyse the cct; the
Thevenin’s equivalent
cct is used
Consider the input;

R1

VCC R2 RE

Work out RTh and ETh


RTh
IB

VBE IE

ETh RE
VCC
E Th =  R2
R1 + R 2
R 1R 2
R Th = = R 1 //R 2
R1 + R 2

E Th = I B R Th + VBE + I E R E
But I E = (1 + β )I B
IE
IB =
1+ β
 R Th 
E Th = I E  R E +  + VBE
 1+ β 
R Th
For R E 
1+ β
Then E Th = I E R E + VBE
E Th − VBE
also I C  I C  f (β )
RE
Voltage divider bias cont. …
• Under the indicated condition β does not
appear in the equation
• The biasing is popular since it provides
good stability
• Q-point which is defined by IC and VCE will
be stable

VCE = VCC − (I C R C + I E R E )
Approximation
From the input side
VCC

R1

B
VB

R2
RE

RIN(Base)
VIN IIN
βdc
VBE

RE

RIN(Base)
VIN
R IN(Base) =
I IN
VIN = VBE + I E R E
For VBE  I E R E
VIN = I E R E

For I E  I C = β dc I B
Then VIN = β dc I B R E I IN = I B
VIN β dc I B R E
Then =
I IN IB
R IN(Base)  β dcR E
VCC

R1

VB

R2//RIN(Base)
VCC  (R 2 //R IN(Base) )
VB =
R 1 + R 2 //R IN(Base)

VCC  (R 2 //β dc R E )
VB =
R 1 + R 2 //β dc R E
VB = VBE + I E R E
VB − VBE
IE  IC =
RE
VCC  (R 2 //β dc R E )
− VBE
R 1 + R 2 //β dc R E
IC =
RE
For R 2  β dc R E

Then R 2 //β dc R E = R 2
VCC R 2
− VBE
R1 + R 2
 IC = approximat e
RE
Small signal amplifier (ac signal)
• The purpose of biasing is to establish a Q-
point about which variations in current and
voltage can occur in response to an ac
signal.
• Here the ac signal is known as a small
signal.
VCC
IC

RC
R1

VB
IB + i B
VCE
VB + Uin

C1

Uin R2 RE

VCE = VCC − (I C R C + I E R E )
IC

12mA 6μA
8mA
ICQ 4μA
4mA
2μA
Load Line

VCE

VCEQ
VB + Uin

VB

I B = 6 A − 2 A
ΔIC = 12mA − 4mA
ΔIC IC
β ac = Recall β dc =
ΔI B IB
8mA
β ac = = 2000
4  10 mA
−3
Small signal amplifier cont. …
• IC increases as VCE decreases
• IC varies above and below Q-point in phase with
IB.
• in order to visualise the operations of transistor
in an amplifier circuit is useful to represent the
device by an equivalent circuit.
• An equivalent cct with various internal transistor
parameters to present the transistor operation.
• Two types of equivalent cct representations
used which are based on an r-parameter and h-
parameters.
r-parameters
• There are five r-parameters
i. βac (ac Beta)

ic IC
β ac = compare β dc =
ib IB
ii. αac (ac Alpha)
ic IC
 ac = compare  dc =
ie IE
r-parameters
iii. rb = ac base resistor
iv. rc = ac collector resistor
v. re = ac emitter resistor
C

rc
rb

re

E
ic =  acib
− ic is controlled by ib

− This is equivalent to ac current controlled current source


Equivalent Source

ic =  acib rc
rb
ic =  acib

re
- rb is very small can be ignored (replaced with a short)
- rc is very large (Mega Ohms) (replaced with an open)

ic =  acib
B

re

ac equivalent circuit BJT using r-parameters


- Recall dynamic resistance (ac resistance) of a forward
biased diode
UT
rd =
ID
UT
re =
IE
- At room temperature U T  26mV

26mV
 re =
IE
Example (CE Amplifier)
VCC

R1 RC C2

C1

RL UO

R2 RE CE

Uin
Given:

VCC = +12V R C = 1kΩ


R 1 = 22kΩ R L = 2.2kΩ
R 2 = 4.7 kΩ β ac = 160
R E = 560Ω β dc = 150
- R1 and R2 provide DC biasing
- C1 and C2 are called coupling capacitors on the input
and output respectively
- CE is called a bypass capacitor because it connects
ac signal from emitter to ground
The cct has a combination of dc and ac operates both of
which must be considered

DC Analysis

- Determine DC equivalent circuit


- Replace all capacitors
- Determine the Q-point (IC, VCE)

VCC R 2
− VBE
R1 + R 2
IC =
RE
VCC

R1 RC

R2 RE

DC equivalent Circuit
12V  4.7kΩ
− 0.7V
IC = 22kΩ + 4.7kΩ
560Ω
I C  2.52mA
VCE = VCC − (I C R C + I E R E )
= VCC − IC R C − (I B + IC )R E
 IC 
= VCC − IC R C −  + IC R E
 β dc 
 2.52mA 
= 12V − 2.52mA  1kΩ −  + 2.52mA   560Ω
 150 
= 8.06V
If I E  IC
VCE = VCC − I C (R C + R E )

= 12V − 2.52mA  (1kΩ + 560Ω )


VCE = 8.068V
ac analysis
• For ac all capacitors are short
• VCC is grounded
• All dc source are replaced by a small
ground
• Coupling and bypass capacitors are
replaced by effective shorts
ac equivalent circuit

RC RL
R1 R2

Uin
ic
c

= βacib irc irL


ib B

Ub

re
RL UO
R1 R2 RC
E
Uin
ie

Zout
Zin Zin(Base)
Input Impedance

Ub
Z in( Base) =
ib
where U b = ie re

ie
ib 
 ac
ie re
 Z in( Base) =
ie  ac

Z in( Base) =  ac re
Zin = R1//R 2 //Zin(Base)

Zin = R 1//R 2 //β ac re

Output Impedance

Zout = R L //R C

Voltage Gain

UO
Au =
U in
U in = U b = ie re  ic re

U O = −(RL // RC )  ic

− (RL // RC )  ic − (RL // RC )
Au = =
ic re re
26mV 26mV
Recall re =  = 10.32Ω
IE 2.52mA
− (2.2kΩ.2kΩ/ )
Au =
10.32Ω

2.2kΩ  1kΩ
A u = − 2.2kΩ + 1kΩ = −66.63
10.32Ω

- Negative sign indicates that the output is out of


phase by 180ْ with the input voltage
The hybrid equivalent model
• r-parameters are not provided by
manufacturers

• Transistors parameters are given in


hybrid parameters hence the need to
study h-parameters
ii io

Two port
Ui Network Uo

-The following set of equations can be used to describe


the two-port network
U i = h11ii + h12U o .............................(1)
io = h21ii + h22U o ..............................(2)

U i   ii  h11 h12 
  =   
 io  U o  h21 h22 

- The parameters relating the four (U i , U o , ii , io ) are called


h-parameters or hybrid because it’s the mixture of
variables (i.e. voltage and currents)
From eqn(1) if Uo = 0, i.e. the output is shorted

U i = h11ii U O =0

Ui
 h11 = (Ohms) ..........................(3)
ii U O =0

-h11 is called the short cct input impedance parameter


-Also from eqn(2);
iO = h21ii U O =0

iO
 h21 = (unit less ) ..........................(4)
ii U O =0
- h21 is called the short cct forward transistor ratio
or forward current gain
- Lets open the input circuit i.e. ii = 0
- From equation (1);
U i = h12U o ii = 0

Ui
 h12 = (unit less ) ..........................(5)
UO ii =0

- h12 is called open-circuit reverse transfer voltage


ratio parameter
- From eqn(2);

io = h22U o ii = 0
io 1
 h22 =   ..........................(6)
UO i =0 
i


- h22 is the output conductance parameter


We can use the hybrid (h-parameters) to draw the 2-port
network

Input side: ii
h11[Ω]

Ui
h12UO
[unit less]
Output side:

io

h22UO

1/h22 UO

h21ii
Complete cct:

ii h11
io

h22UO

Ui h12UO h21ii 1/h22 UO


The hybrid equivalent cont. …
• h11 = input resistance (hi)
• h12 = reverse transfer voltage (hr)
• h21 = forward transfer current ratio (hf)
• h22 = output conductance (ho)

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